Introduction To Process Dynamics And Control

Objectives:

 To give an overview of process dynamics and control

 To learn about process control systems
 To know the objective of Process Control
 To learn the Design Aspects of Process Control
 To learn the General Requirements of a Control System

I. WHAT IS A CONTROL SYSTEM?

Industrial processes are central to the chemical engineering discipline. Generally, processes are
controlled in order to do things such as maximize safety, minimize cost, or limit effects on the environment.

Control engineering is an engineering science that is used in many engineering disciplines—for

example, chemical, electrical, and mechanical engineering—and it is applied to a wide range of physical
systems from electrical circuits to guided missiles to robots.

Process dynamics determine how a process responds during transient conditions, such as plant start-
ups and shutdowns, grade changes, and unusual disturbances. Transient operation occurs during important
situations such as start-ups and shutdowns, unusual process disturbances, and planned transitions from one
product grade to another.

Process control enables the process to be maintained at the desired operating conditions, safely and
efficiently, while satisfying environmental and product quality requirements.

It is a mixture between the statistics and engineering discipline that deals with the mechanism,
architectures, and algorithms for controlling a process. Some examples of controlled processes are:

1. Monitoring the temperature of a water stream by controlling the amount of steam added
to the shell of a heat exchanger.
2. Operating a jacketed reactor isothermally by controlling the mixture of cold water and
steam that flows through the jacket of a jacketed reactor.
3. Maintaining a set ratio of reactants to be added to a reactor by controlling their flow rates.
4. Controlling the height of fluid in a tank to ensure that it does not overflow.

The traditional role of process control in industrial operations was to contribute to safety, minimized
environmental impact, and optimize processes by maintaining process variable near the desired values.

Generally, anything that requires continuous monitoring of an operation involves the role of a process
engineer. The task of engineers is to design, construct, and operate a physical system to behave in a desired
manner, and an essential element of this activity is sustained maintenance of the system at the desired
conditions—which is process control engineering.

II. OBJECTIVE OF PROCESS CONTROL

The primary objective of process control is to maintain a process at the desired operating conditions,
safely and efficiently, while satisfying environmental and product quality requirements.

A control system is required to perform either one or both task:

1. Maintain the process at the operational conditions and set points

 Many processes should work at steady state conditions or in a state in which it satisfies all the benefits
for a company such as budget, yield, safety, and other quality objectives. In many real-life situations, a
process may not always remain static under these conditions and therefore can cause substantial losses to
the process.

One of the ways a process can wander away from these conditions is by the system becoming unstable,
meaning process variables oscillate from its physical boundaries over a limited time span. An example of
this would be a water tank in a heating and cooling process without any drainage and is being constantly
filled with water. The water level in the tank will continue to rise and eventually overflow. This uncontrolled
system can be controlled simply by adding control valves and level sensors in the tank that can tell the
engineer or technician the level of water in the tank.

Another way a process can stray away from steady state conditions can be due to various changes in
the environmental conditions, such as composition of a feed, temperature conditions, or flow rate.

2. Transition the process from one operational condition to another

In real-life situations, engineers may change the process operational conditions for a variety of
different reasons, such as customer specifications or environment specifications. Although, transitioning a
process from one operational condition to another can be detrimental to a process, it also can be beneficial
depending on the company and consumer demands.

Examples of why a process may be moved from one operational set point to another:

1. Economics
2. Product specifications
3. Operational constraints
4. Environmental regulations
5. Consumer/Customer specifications
6. Environmental regulations
7. Safety precautions

III. DESIGN ASPECTS OF PROCESS CONTROL

1. Understand the process.

Before attempting to control a process it is necessary to understand how the process works and what it
does.

2. Identify the operating parameters.

Once the process is well understood, operating parameters such as temperatures, pressures, flow rates,
and other variables specific to the process must be identified for its control.

3. Identify the hazardous conditions.

In order to maintain a safe and hazard-free facility, variables that may cause safety concerns must be
identified and may require additional control.

4. Identify the measurable.

It is important to identify the measurables that correspond with the operating parameters in order to
control the process.

Measurables for process systems include:

Temperature Viscosity
 Pressure Conductivity

Flow rate Turbidity

pH Redox/potential

Humidity Electrical behavior

Level Flammability

Concentration

5. Identify the points of measurement.

Once the measurables are identified, it is important locate where they will be measured so that the
system can be accurately controlled.

6. Select measurement methods.

Selecting the proper type of measurement device specific to the process will ensure that the most
accurate, stable, and cost-effective method is chosen. There are several different signal types that can
detect different things.

SIGNAL TYPES

Electric Radiowaves

Pneumatic Infrared (IR)

Light Nuclear

7. Select control method.

In order to control the operating parameters, the proper control method is vital to control the process
effectively. On/off is one control method and the other is continuous control. Continuous control
involves Proportional (P), Integral (I), and Derivative (D) methods or some combination of those
three.

8. Select control system.

Choosing between a local or distributed control system that fits well with the process effects both the
cost and efficacy of the overall control.

9. Set control limits.

Understanding the operating parameters allows the ability to define the limits of the measurable
parameters in the control system.

10. Define control logic.

Choosing between feed-forward, feed-backward, cascade, ratio, or other control logic is a necessary
decision based on the specific design and safety parameters of the system.

11. Create a redundancy system.

Even the best control system will have failure points; therefore it is important to design a redundancy
system to avoid catastrophic failures by having back-up controls in place.

12. Define a fail-safe.

 Fail-safes allow a system to return to a safe state after a breakdown of the control. This fail-safe allows
the process to avoid hazardous conditions that may otherwise occur.

13. Set lead/lag criteria.

Depending on the control logic used in the process, there may be lag times associated with the
measurement of the operating parameters. Setting lead/lag times compensates for this effect and allow
for accurate control.

14. Investigate effects of changes before/after.

By investigating changes made by implementing the control system, unforeseen problems can be
identified and corrected before they create hazardous conditions in the facility.

15. Integrate and test with other systems.

The proper integration of a new control system with existing process systems avoids conflicts between
multiple systems.

References:
Seborg et al. (2004). Process Dynamics and Control. Wiley.
Woolf, P. (2009). Chemical Process Dynamics and Controls. Independent Publisher.

Design Aspects of a Control System

Objectives:

 To classify the variables in a chemical process

 To learn and define the elements of the design of a control system
 To know the control aspects of a complete chemical plant

I. CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIABLES IN A CHEMICAL PROCESS

1. Input Variable – This variable shows the effect of the surroundings on the process. It normally refers to
those factors that influence the process. An example of this would be the flow rate of the steam through a
heat exchanger that would change the amount of energy put into the process. There are effects of the
surrounding that are controllable and some that are not. These are broken down into two types of inputs.

a. Manipulated inputs: variable in the surroundings can be control by an operator or the control
system in place.

b. Disturbances: inputs that can not be controlled by an operator or control system. There exist both
measurable and immeasurable disturbances.

2. Output variable- Also known as the control variable These are the variables that are process outputs
that effect the surroundings. An example of this would be the amount of CO2 gas that comes out of a
combustion reaction. These variables may or may not be measured. As we consider a controls problem.

We are able to look at two major control structures.

1. Single input-Single Output (SISO)- for one control(output) variable there exist one manipulate (input)
variable that is used to affect the process
2. Multiple input-multiple output (MIMO)- There are several control (output) variable that are affected
by several manipulated (input) variables used in a given process.

• Cascade: A control system with 2 or more controllers, a "Master" and "Slave" loop. The output of the
"Master" controller is the setpoint for the "Slave" controller.

• Dead Time: The amount of time it takes for a process to start changing after a disturbance in the system.

• Derivative Control: The "D" part of a PID controller. With derivative action the controller output is
proportional to the rate of change of the process variable or error.*

• Error: In process controls, error is defined as: Error = setpoint - process variable.

• Integral Control: The "I" part of a PID controller. With integral action the controller output is
proportional to the amount and duration of the error signal.

• PID Controller: PID controllers are designed to eliminate the need for continuous operator attention.
They are used to automatically adjust system variables to hold a process variable at a setpoint. Error is
defined above as the difference between setpoint and process variable.

•Proportional Control: The "P" part of a PID controller. With proportional action the controller output is
proportional to the amount of the error signal.

• Setpoint: The setpoint is where you would like a controlled process variable to be.

II. ELEMENTS OF THE DESIGN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

The objectives of process control are generally either to maintain a process at a desired, constant operating
condition (temperature, pressure, composition, etc.) in the face of disturbances or, less typically in
conventional process applications, to force it to follow a desired trajectory with time. All process control
configurations, whether manual, automatic, or computer-based, have three essential elements:

 a measurement (often several);

 a control strategy (embedded in a controller);
 a final element for implementing the control action (a valve, heater or other variable input).

A. Measurements
A wide range of on-line measuring devices (sensors) exists in the process industries, the most common
being those for flow rate, pressure, liquid level, temperature, pH, and other selective measures of chemical
composition. There is a continuing development in this area.

B. Controllers
Classical PID (proportional-integral-derivative) controllers still dominate feedback strategy in
industrial applications. It is responsible for the performance of the control system. It is a device or an
algorithm that works to maintain the value of the controlled variable at set point.

C. Final Element
The control action signal calculated by the controller is sent to the final control element, a device which
implements the change of a suitable input to the system. This variable input is typically a flow rate (of fuel,
air, coolant, reactant, etc.). Hence, an automatic control valve, either electrically or pneumatically operated,
is usually appropriate.
 Typical problems which lead to the poor performance of control systems include:
inadequate/inaccurate measurements; long time delays in either the process or the measurements; varying
or nonlinear nature of the system; the interaction of several quasi-independent control loops.

The major development over the past two decades has been the replacement of analogue controllers
by digitally calculated control signals, even for conventional PID controllers. In addition, there has been
considerable effort to develop more sophisticated model-based predictive controllers. In a conventional
controller, the controller parameters are often adjusted ("tuned") on-line, although prior knowledge of the
system to be controlled will provide some guidance in their choice. Model-based control, on the other hand,
makes use of a model of the process (either fundamentally-based or empirical) to decide on the appropriate
control strategy to be implemented to achieve the desired objective. In principle, these can lead to improved
performance, but, in practice, their performance may be strongly dependent on the accuracy of the model
used.

III. THE CONTROL ASPECTS OF A COMPLETE CHEMICAL PLANT

1. Feedback Control
- is a control mechanism that uses information from measurements to manipulate a variable to
achieve the desired result.
- also called anticipative control, is a control mechanism that predicts the effects of measured
disturbances and takes corrective action to achieve the desired result.
- It is employed in a wide variety of situations in everyday life, from simple home thermostats that
maintain a specified temperature, to complex devices that maintain the position of communication
satellites.
- It also occurs in natural situations, such as the regulation of blood-sugar levels in the body.
- It was even used more than 2,000 years ago by the Greeks, who manufactured such systems as the
float valve which regulated water level. Today, this same idea is used to control water levels in
boilers and reservoirs.
- In feedback control, the variable being controlled is measured and compared with a target value.
This difference between the actual and desired value is called the error.
- Feedback control manipulates an input to the system to minimize this error.
- Figure 1 shows an overview of a basic feedback control loop. The error in the system would be the
Output - Desired Output.
- Feedback control reacts to the system and works to minimize this error. The desired output is
generally entered into the system through a user interface. The output of the system is measured
(by a flow meter, thermometer or similar instrument) and the difference is calculated. This
difference is used to control the system inputs to reduce the error in the system.

1.1 Negative Feedback

- By definition, negative feedback is when a change (increase/decrease) in some variable
results in an opposite change (decrease/increase) in a second variable.
- This is demonstrated in Figure 3 where a loop represents a variation toward a plus that
triggers a correction toward the minus, and vice versa.
 - Negative feedback leads to a tight control situation whereby the corrective action taken by
the controller forces the controlled variable toward the set point, thus leading the system
to oscillate around equilibrium.

1.2 Positive Feedback

- As opposed to negative feedback, positive feedback is when a change (increase/decrease)
in some variable results in a subsequently similar change (increase/decrease) in a second
variable.
- In some cases, positive feedback leads to an undesirable behavior whereby the system
diverges away from equilibrium.
- This can cause the system to either run away toward infinity, risking an expansion or even
an explosion, or run away toward zero, which leads to a total blocking of activities (Figure
5).

Example:

 CSTR with Feedback Control

- Several types of feedback control can be used to manipulate the conditions in a CSTR:
positive feedback, negative feedback, or a combination of both. Below illustrates each of
these possible situations. As depicted below, each CSTR is equipped with two electrodes
that measure the voltage of the solution contained inside the reactor. A computer adjusts
the flow rates of the pump(s) in response to any changes in the voltage.
(a) All of the reagents are pumped into the reactor by the same pump. The flow rate through the pump s a
djusted constantly by a negative feedback mechanism; when level of the iodide solution is low, the
computer detects the insufficiency and increases the flow rate of all the reactants.

(b) The iodide solution is pumped into the reactor by one pump, while the other two reactants are pumpe
d in at a constant Elow rate. The Elow rate of the iodine solution is controlled by a negative feedback me
chanism; when the computer detects an insufficient amount of iodine in the CSTR, it signals the pump.
The Elow rate of iodine into the CSTR is therefore increased.

(c) Two pumps are used to feed the reactor: one pump for the iodine solution and one for the ClO2 and
H+ solutions. The flow of the iodine solution is controlled by a negative feedback mechanism; if the com
puter detects an iodine deEiciency, it signals Pump 2 to increase the Elow rate of the iodide solution. The
Elow rate of the ClO2 and H+ solutions is controlled by a positive feedback mechanism; if the computer
detects an iodide defficiency, it will signal Pump 1 to decrease the Elow rates of ClO2 and H+,
thereby increasing the concentration of iodide.

2. Feedforward Control
- Feed-forward control is a useful tool in the field of chemical engineering when there is a known
set of deviations occurring upstream of the system.
- This would allow engineers to account for that particular deviation within the controller and reduce
the effects of the deviation on the system.
- An example would be a car's cruise-control system. If it has feedback control, when there is a slope
and therefore a speed reduction, the feedback controller would compensate by applying additional
throttle to the engine. If it uses a feed-forward controller instead, the controller would calculate the
slope beforehand and throttle the engine before any speed reduction occurs. In this sense, the
controller predicts the incoming deviation and compensates for it.
- The objective of feed-forward control is to measure disturbances and compensate for them before
the controlled variable deviates from the setpoint.
- Feed-forward control basically involves a control equation which has certain corrective terms
which account for predicted disturbances entering the system.
- The equation is only effective for gains in a steady state process. Dynamic compensation should
be used in the control equation if there are any dynamic deviations with the process response to the
control action.
- This dynamic compensation ability will be discussed further in the next section.

Example:

 Feed-forward control is used in many chemical engineering applications. These include heat
exchangers, CSTRs, distillation columns and many other applications. A typical furnace,
shown below, is heating up an input fluid using fuel gas.

One possible disturbance is the flow rate of the incoming fluid. For example: If the fluid input rate was
increased by 10%, then the required heat duty should also be increased by approximately 10%. This feed-
forward control strategy immediately changes the fuel gas flow rate and therefore the heat duty. The
performance of feed-forward controls is limited by model uncertainty, and in practice feed-forward control
is combined with feedback control in order to ensure better control of the system. Feed-forward control will
compensate for fluid input disturbances while feedback control will compensate for other disturbances—
such as the fuel gas flow rate or the temperature of the furnace—and model uncertainty.

3. Ratio Control
• The objective of a ratio control scheme is to keep the ratio of two variables at a specified value.
• Thus, the ratio (R) of two variable (A and B);
 • Is controlled rather than controlling the individual variables.
• Typical ratio control schemes include:
• Maintaining the reflux ratio for a distillation column.
• Maintaining the stoichiometric ratio of reactants to a reactor.
• Maintaining air/fuel to a furnace.

Ratio Control: Method I

• The flow rate of the two streams is measured and their ratio
calculated using a 'divider' (just a piece of extra
electronics).

• The output of the divider is sent to the ratio controller

(which is actually a standard PI controller).

• The controller compares the actual ratio with that of the

desired ratio and computes any necessary change in the
manipulated variable

Ratio Control:
Method II
• one stream is under standard feedback control.

• The flow of the second stream is measured and sent to a

'multiplier' (again just a piece of extra electronics) which
multiplies the signal by the desired ratio yielding the setpoint
for the feedback control law.

4. Cascade Control
- widely used within the process industries
• Conventional cascade schemes have two distinct features:
1. There are two nested feedback control loops. There is a secondary control loop located inside
a primary control loop.
2. The primary loop controller is used to calculate the setpoint for the inner (secondary) control
loop.
• Cascade control is used to improve the response of a single feedback strategy.
• The idea is similar to that of feedforward control: to take corrective action in response to DV's (which
are not necessarily measured) before the CV deviates from setpoint.
• The secondary control loop is located so that it recognises the upset condition sooner than the primary
loop

Example:

• Cascade Control of a CSTR

- Figure (2) shows a conventional feedback control scheme on a CSTR.
- Here temperature is being controlled using coolant flowrate to a cooling jacket.
- Figure(3) shows a cascade control scheme on the same CSTR.
 - The idea of the cascade strategy is to improve the control of temperature specifically with regard
to changes in coolant temperature.
- Thus the inner loop controller takes control action to mitigate the effect of coolant temperature
disturbances on the temperature of the reaction mixture.

- The normal block diagram representation of a cascade control loop is shown below

Review of Laplace Transforms

Objectives:

 To give a review about laplace transforms

 To familiarize the transforms of elementary functions
 To know the inverse of laplace transforms
 To be able to solve linear differential equations by laplace transforms

Laplace Transforms
The Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which can significantly reduce the effort required to
solve and analyze linear differential equation models. A major benefit is that this transformation converts
ordinary differential equations to algebraic equations, which can simplify the mathematical manipulations
required to obtain a solution or perform an analysis.
First, we define the Laplace transform and show how it can be used to derive the Laplace transforms
of simple functions. Then we show that linear ODEs can be solved using Laplace transforms, along with a
technique called partial fraction expansion.

Transforms of Elementary Functions

Below are some functions f(t) and their Laplace transforms F(s).
The Laplace Transform of Representative Functions
The Laplace transform of a function f(t) is defined as

where F(s) is the symbol for the Laplace transform, s is a

complex independent variable, f(t) is some function of time to be transformed, and ℒ is an operator, defined
by the integral. The function f(t) must satisfy mild conditions that include being piecewise continuous for
0 < t < ∞ (Churchill, 1971); this requirement almost always holds for functions that are useful in process
modeling and control. When the integration is performed, the transform becomes a function of the Laplace
transform variable s. The Laplace transform can be derived easily for most simple functions, as shown
below.

Constant Function. For f(t) = a (a constant),

Step Function. The unit step function, defined as

is an important input that is used frequently in process dynamics and control. The Laplace transform of the
unit step function is the same as that obtained for the constant above when a = 1:

If the step magnitude is a, the Laplace transform is a/s. The step function incorporates the idea of initial
time, zero time, or time zero for the function, which refers to the time at which S(t) changes from 0 to 1. To
avoid any ambiguity concerning the value of the step function at t = 0 (it is discontinuous), we will consider
S(t = 0) to be the value of the function approached from the positive side, t = o+.

Derivatives. The transform of a first derivative of f is important because such derivatives appear in dynamic
models:

Integrating by parts,

where F(s) is the Laplace transform of f(t). Generally, the point at which we start keeping time for a solution
is arbitrary. Model solutions are most easily obtained assuming that time starts (i.e., t = 0) at the moment
the process model is first perturbed. For example, if the process initially is assumed to be at steady state
and an input undergoes a unit step change, zero time is taken to be the moment at which the input changes
in magnitude. In many process modeling applications, functions are defined so that they are zero at initial
time-that is, f(O) = 0. In these cases, the equation simplifies to ℒ (df/dt) = sF(s).
The Laplace transform for higher-order derivatives can be found using the equation. To derive ℒ [f"(t)],
we define a new variable(ϕ= df/dt) such that

Substituting:

where f'(O) denotes the value of df/dt at t = 0. The Laplace transform for derivatives higher than second
order can be found by the same procedure. An nthorder derivative, when transformed, yields a series of (n
+ 1) terms:

where fi(O) is the ith derivative evaluated at t = 0.

Exponential Functions. The Laplace transform of an exponential function is important because

exponential functions appear in the solution to all linear differential equations. For a negative exponential,
e-bt, with b > 0,

The Laplace transform for b < 0 is unbounded if s < b; therefore, the real part of s must be restricted to be
larger than -b for the integral to be finite.

Trigonometric Functions. In modeling processes and in studying control systems, there are many other
important time functions, such as the trigonometric functions, cos wt and sin wt, where w is the frequency
in radians per unit time. The Laplace transform of cos wt
or sin wt can be calculated using integration by parts. An alternative method is to use the Euler identity and
to apply the Laplace transform of a function f(t).

Because the Laplace transform of a sum of two functions is the sum of the Laplace transforms,

Using the transform of exponential function gives,

Note that the use of imaginary variables above was merely a device to avoid integration by parts; imaginary
numbers do not appear in the final result. To find ℒ (sin wt), we can use a similar approach.

Inverse of Laplace Transforms

The inverse Laplace transform (ℒ -1) operates on the function F(s) and converts it to f(t). Notice that
F(s) contains no information about f(t) for t < 0. Hence, f(t) = ℒ -1{F(s)} is not defined for t< 0 (Schiff,
1999). For example:

We’ve always felt that the key to doing inverse transforms is to look at the denominator and try to
identify what you’ve got based on that. If there is only one entry in the table that has that particular
denominator, the next step is to make sure the numerator is correctly set up for the inverse transform
process. If it isn’t, correct it (this is always easy to do) and then take the inverse transform.

If there is more than one entry in the table that has a particular denominator, then the numerators of
each will be different, so go up to the numerator and see which one you’ve got. If you need to correct the
numerator to get it into the correct form and then take the inverse transform.

From the denominator of the first term it looks like the first term is just a constant. The correct
numerator for this term is a “1” so we’ll just factor the 6 out before taking the inverse transform. The second
term appears to be an exponential with a=8 and the numerator is exactly what it needs to be. The third term
also appears to be an exponential, only this time a=3 and we’ll need to factor the 4 out before taking the
inverse transforms.
So, with a little more detail than we’ll usually put into these,

Solution of Differential Equations by Laplace Transform Techniques

The procedure used to solve a differential equation is quite simple. First Laplace transform both sides
of the differential equation, substituting values for the initial conditions in the derivative transforms.
Rearrange the resulting algebraic equation, and solve for the transform of the dependent (output) variable.
Finally, find the inverse of the transformed output variable. The solution method is illustrated by means of
several examples.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the differential equation,
using Laplace transforms.

SOLUTION
First take the Laplace transform of both sides:

Using the principle of superposition, each term can be transformed individually:

Substitute the individual terms:

Rearrange and factor out Y(s):

Take the inverse Laplace transform of both sides:

First, divide the numerator and denominator by 5 to put all factors in the s + b form corresponding to the
table entries:

Because entry 11 in the table, (s + b3)/[(s + b1)(s + b2)], matches it, with b1 = 0.8, b2 = 0, and b3 = 0.4, the
solution can be written immediately:
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the ordinary differential equation

with initial conditions y(O) = y'(O) = y"(O) = 0.

SOLUTION
Take Laplace transforms, term by term, using Table:

Rearranging and factoring Y(s), we obtain

References:
Seborg et al. (2004). Process Dynamics and Control. Wiley.

INTRODUCTION TO MODELLING
Modelling inherently involves a compromise between model accuracy and complexity on one hand,
and the cost and effort required to develop the model and verify it on the other hand. The required
compromise should consider a number of factors, including the modeling objectives, the expected benefits
from use of the model, and the background of the intended users of the model.
Process modeling is both an art and a science. Creativity is required to make simplifying
assumptions that result in an appropriate model. The model should incorporate all of the important dynamic
behavior while being no more complex than is necessary. Fortunately, modeling is also a science, and
predictions of process behavior from alternative models can be compared, both qualitatively and
quantitatively.
FUNDAMENTAL MODELLING PROCEDURE
Modelling is a task that requires creativity and problem-solving skill which should follow the
fundamental modelling procedure.

It is worth noting that the steps could be divided into two categories: steps 1 to 3 (model
development) and steps 4 to 6 (model solution or simulation), because several solution methods could be
applied to a particular model. All steps are grouped together here as an integrated modelling procedure,
because this represents the vernacular use of the term modelling and stresses the need for the model and
solution technique to be selected in conjunction to satisfy the stated goal successfully.

DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS

In mathematical modelling, we translate those beliefs into the language of mathematics. This has many
advantages:
1. Mathematics is a very precise language. This helps us to formulate ideas and identify
underlying assumptions.
2. Mathematics is a concise language, with well-defined rules for manipulations.
3. All the results that mathematicians have proved over hundreds of years are at our disposal.
4. Computers can be used to perform numerical calculations.
Objectives of Mathematical Modelling
1. Developing scientific understanding - through quantitative expression of current knowledge of
a system (as well as displaying what we know, this may also show up what we do not know);
2. Test the effect of changes in a system;
3. Aid decision making, including
(i) Tactical decisions by managers;
(ii) Strategic decisions by planners.

MODELLING EXAMPLE
Isothermal CSTR
The dynamic response of a continuous-flow, stirred-tank chemical reactor (CSTR) will be
determined in this example and compared with the stirred-tank mixer in.
Goal: Determine the dynamic response of a CSTR to a step in the inlet concentration. Also, the reactant
concentration should never go above 0.85mole/m3. If an alarm sounds when the concentration reaches
0.83mole/m3, would a person have enough time to respond? What would a correct response be?
Information: The process is the same as shown in Figure, and therefore, the system is the liquid in the
tank. The important variable is the reactant concentration in the reactor.
Assumptions: The same as for the stirred-tank mixer.
Data: The flow, volume, and inlet concentrations (before and after the step) are the same as for the stirred-
tank mixer.
1. F= 0.085 m3/min; V=2.1 m3; (CA0)init = 0.925 mole/m3; ACAo=0.925 mole/m3.
2. The chemical reaction is first-order, rA = -kCA with k = 0.040 min.
3. The heat of reaction is negligible, and no heat is transferred to the surroundings.
Formulation: Based on the model of the stirred-tank mixer, the overall material balance again yields F0 =
Fi = F. To determine the concentration of reactant, a component material balance is required, which is
different from that of the mixing tank because there is a (negative) generation of component A as a result
of the chemical reaction.
Results analysis: First, the result from equation (3.23) is calculated and plot ted. As shown in Figure 3.5a, the reactant
concentration increases as an exponential function to its final value without overshoot or oscillation. In this case, the
concentration exceeds its maximum limit; therefore, a corrective action will be evaluated. The concentration reaches the
alarm limit in 19.6 minutes after the step (29.6 minutes in the figure) and exceeds the maximum limit after 22.5 minutes.
The sensitivity of this result can be evaluated from the analytical solution; in particular, the dependence of the time constant
on variables and parameters is given in equation (3.21). The time difference between the alarm and the dangerous condition
is too short for a person to respond reliably, because other important events may be occurring simultaneously.

MODELLING OF CONTROL PURPOSES

Every process requires a great deal of planning in order to successfully accomplish the goals laid out by its designers
and operators. In order to accomplish these goals, however, personnel that are not familiar with the design must fully
understand the process and the functions of the control systems. Control systems consist of equipment (measuring devices,
valves, etc.) and human intervention (plant operators and designers). Control systems are used to satisfy three basic needs
of every process:
 1. Reduce the influence of external disturbances
2. Promote the stability of the process
3. Enhance the performance of the process
There are seven major categories of control objectives:
1. Safety
2. Environmental Protection
3. Equipment Protection
4. Smooth Operation and Production Rate
5. Product Quality
6. Profit
7. Monitoring and Diagnosis
All seven categories of control objectives must be achieved simultaneously; failure to do so leads to unprofitable
or, worse, dangerous plant operation.

Step-by-step Method for Describing Controls and their Purpose

1. Describe the Process
The major steps of the process, as well as inputs and outputs of the process, should be stated.
2. Identify Process Objectives and Constraints
The process objectives include the type, quantity, and quality of the product that is to be produced from the
process. The economic objectives, such as the desired levels of raw material usage, costs of energy, costs of
reactants, and price of products, should also be identified.
The process constraints include three different categories: Operational constraints refer to the limits of the
equipment used in the process; Safety constraints describe the limits when the people or the equipment may be in
danger and; Environmental constraints limit how the process can affect the immediate surroundings.
3. Identify Significant Disturbances
Disturbances are defined as inputs or external conditions from the surrounding environment that have
certain properties that cannot be controlled by the plant personnel.
4. Determine Type and Location of Sensors
Sensors must be chosen to accurately, reliably, and promptly measure system parameters. Such parameters
include temperature, flow rate, composition, and pressure. Placement of sensors is important both in the usefulness
of measurements as well as the cost of the system.
5. Determine the Location of Control Valves
Valves must be placed in a location to control variables that impact the control objectives.
6. Perform a Degree of Freedom Analysis
The degrees of freedom in a system are equal to the number of manipulated streams minus the number of
control objectives and control restraints. A degree of freedom analysis is used to determine if a system is being
under- or over-specified by the process objectives.
7. Energy Management
In any system with exothermic or endothermic reactions, distillation columns, or heat exchangers, energy
management becomes a factor that must be accounted for.
8. Control Process Production Rate and Other Operating Parameters
The production rate can be controlled by a variety of manipulated variables. One manipulated variable may
be the feed rate. Other manipulated variables may also include reactor conditions, such as temperature and pressure.
It is important to choose the most suitable manipulated variable to control production rate.
9. Handle Disturbances and Process Constraints
The effects of disturbances should be minimized as much as possible, in order to maintain the system at
desired conditions and meet all process objectives and constraints.
10. Monitor Component Balances
Every component within a process, whether it is inert or not, should be accounted for at every step of the
system in order to prevent accumulation. This step is more crucial in processes that involve recycle streams.
11. Control Individual Unit Operations
Most systems used today in industry employ the use of multiple unit operations. Each of these unit
operations, however, needs to be fully controllable in the sense that it has a control system that can adjust
manipulated variables in order to maintain other parameters.
12. Optimize the Process
In most cases, there will be certain aspects of a process that will not be dictated to a designer and can be
changed to make the overall process more economical for the company. These are referred to as "unaccounted for"
degrees of freedom and can be implemented as new control valves or adjustable controller set points.
LINEARIZATION
Models that involved linear equations can be easily solved where in it is a natural result of the conservation balances
and constitutive relationships for the specific physical systems. However, the conservation and constitutive equations are
nonlinear for most systems, and general methods for developing analytical solutions for nonlinear models are not available.
An alternative is numerical simulation which can provide accurate solutions for specific numerical values but usually offers
much less understanding. Fortunately, methods exist for obtaining approximate linearized solutions to nonlinear systems,
and experience over decades has demonstrated that linearized methods of control systems analysis provide very useful
results for many (but not all) realistic processes.
To define the concept of linearity, the concept of an operator, which transforms an input variable into an output
variable, should be understand.

By using this equation, we can test any term in a model whether it is linear. For example:

A linearized model can be developed by approximating each nonlinear term with its linear approximation. A
nonlinear term can be approximated by a Taylor series expansion to the nth order about a point if derivatives up to nth order
exist at the point.

The term R is the remainder and depends on the order of the series. A few examples of nonlinear terms that
commonly occur in process models, along with their linear approximations about xs, are the following:

The accuracy of the linearization can be estimated by comparing the magnitude of the remainder, R', to the linear
term. For a linear Taylor series approximation in one variable,
Comparison of a nonlinear function y = (1.5x2 + 3) with its linear approximation about xs = 1

From the figure and equation above, it can be seen that the accuracy of the linear approximation is relatively better
when (1) the second-order derivative has a small magnitude (there is little curvature) and (2) the region about the base point
is small. The successful application of linearization to process control systems is typically justified by the small region of
operation of a process when under control. Although the uncontrolled system might operate over a large region because of
disturbances in input variables, the controlled process variables should operate over a much smaller range, where the linear
approximation often is adequate. Note that the accuracy of the linearization would in general depend on the normal operating
point xs.
Linearization can be performed via special software. One well-known software system for analytical calculations
is MapleTM. Whether the models are linearized by hand or using software, we should always thoroughly understand the
effects of design and operating variables on the gains, time constant and dead time.
One quick check on the accuracy of the linearized model is to compare the final values, as time goes to infinity, of
the nonlinear and linearized models. If they differ by too much, with this value specific to the problem, then the linearized
model would be deemed to be of insufficient accuracy. If the final values are close enough, the dynamic responses could
still differ and would have to be evaluated.

Example:
The solution to the single-tank CSTR problem in previous example in mathematical modelling is now presented for a
second-order chemical reaction.

Goal: Determine the transient response of the tank concentration in response

to a step in the inlet concentration for the nonlinear and linearized models.
Information: The process equipment and flow are the same as shown. The
important variable is the reactant concentration in the reactor.
Assumptions: The same as in previous example.
Data: The same as in Example 3.2 except the chemical reaction rate is second-order, with rA = kC\ and k =
0.5[(mole/m3) min]-1.
1. F=0.085m3/min; V=2.1m3; (CAo)imt = 0.925 mole/m3; ACA0 = 0.925 mole/m3; (CA)init =0.236 mole/m3.
2. The reactor is isothermal.
Formulation: The formulation of the equations and analysis of degrees of freedom are the same as in previous example
except that the rate term involves the reactant concentration to the second power.
REFERENCES
Marlin (1995), Process Control, McGraw-Hill
Seborg et al. (2004), Process Dynamics and Control, Wiley
Woolf, Peter, Chemical Process Dynamics and Controls, Independent Publisher, 2009

HIGHER ORDER OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS

SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

Introduction

- The order of a differential equation is the highest degree of derivative present in that equation

- A system whose input-output equation is a second order differential equation.

- The simple step of adding an additional energy storage element allows much greater variation in the types
of responses we will encounter

- Systems can now exhibit oscillations in time in their natural response

Standard form of second order system is give as follow:

Where:

 ωn Is the natural frequency

 is the damping ratio
 If 0< <1, system is named as Damped System
 If < =1, system is named as Critically Damped System
 If < >1, system is named as Over Damped System
Damping Ratio
The damping ratio is a dimensionless quantity characterizing the rate at which an oscillation in the system's
response decays due to effects such as viscous friction or electrical resistance
Natural Frequency
The natural frequency ωn is the frequency (in rad/s) that the system will oscillate at when there is no
damping,
Physical Systems Modeled as Second Order

We set up the coordinate system so that at x = 0 the spring is relaxed, which means that it is exerting no
force. This is called the equilibrium position.

Figure 2. A spring attached to a wall and a cart.

In addition to the spring, suppose that there is another force acting on the cart – an external force, maybe
wind blowing on a sail attached to it, maybe gravity, or some other force. Then

m𝑥̈ =𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑟 + 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡

The spring force is characterized by the fact that it depends only on position. In fact:

if x > 0, 𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑟 (x) < 0

if x = 0, 𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑟 (x) = 0

if x < 0, 𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑟 (x) > 0.

The simplest way to model this behavior (and one which is valid in general for small x, by the tangent
line approximation) is

𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑟 (x) = −kx, where k > 0

This is called Hooke’s Law and k is called the spring constant.

Replacing 𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑟 by −kx we get

m𝑥̈ + kx = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 .

Any real mechanical system also has friction. Friction takes many forms. It is characterized by the fact
that it depends on the motion of the mass. We will suppose that it depends only on the velocity of the mass
and not on its position. Often the damping is controlled by a device called a dashpot. This is a cylinder
filled with oil, that a piston moves through. Door dampers and car shock absorbers often actually work this
way. We write 𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ (𝑥̇ ) for the force exerted by the dashpot. It opposes the velocity:

if 𝑥̇ > 0, 𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ (𝑥̇ ) < 0

if 𝑥̇ = 0, 𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ (𝑥̇ ) = 0

if 𝑥̇ < 0, 𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ (𝑥̇ ) > 0

The simplest way to model this behavior (and one which is valid in general. for small x, by the tangent
line approximation) is:

𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑠ℎ (𝑥̇ ) = −b𝑥̇ , where b > 0.

This is therefore called linear damping and b is called the damping constant.
 Putting this together we get the differential equation for the displacement x of the mass from equilibrium is

m𝑥̈ + b𝑥̇ + kx = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 .

Responses of Second Order System

In this section, we will obtain the response of a typical second-order system to a step input. The dynamic
behavior of the second-order system can be described in terms of two parameters ζ (damping ratio) and ωn
(natural frequency).

 Damping ratio - characterizes the frequency response of a second-order ordinary differential equation. It
is particularly important in the study of control theory. It is also important in the harmonic oscillator.
 Natural frequency - the frequency at which a system tends to oscillate in the absence of any driving or
damping force. The motion pattern of a system oscillating at its natural frequency is called the normal
mode (if all parts of the system move sinusoidal with that same frequency).

We shall now solve for the response of the system shown in Figure 1, to a unit-step input. We shall
consider three different cases: the underdamped (0 < ζ < 1), critically damped (ζ = 1), and overdamped (ζ > 1).

Figure 1. Unit step response curves of the system

A family of unit-step response curves c(t) with various values of z is shown, where the abscissa is the
dimensionless variable ωnt

1. Underdamped Case (0 < ζ < 1)

In this case, the closed-loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the left-half’s plane. The C(s)
/ R(s) can be written as:

Both poles are complex-valued with negative real parts; therefore, the system is stable but
oscillates while approaching the steady-state value. Specifically, the natural response oscillates with the
damped natural frequency,

For a unit-step input, C(s) can be written as,

By the partial fraction expansion and the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation, the
response can be given by,
 If the damping ratio is equal to zero, the response becomes undamped and oscillations continue
indefinitely. The response c(t) for the zero damping case may be obtained by substituting ζ=0 in the above
equation, yielding,

Figure 2. Step response for underdamped case

2. Critically damped Case (ζ = 1)

If the two poles C(s) / R(s) are equal, meaning both poles are real and have the same magnitude,
the system is said to be a critically damped one. For a unit-step input, R(s) = 1/s and C(s) can be written
as

By applying partial fraction expansion and the inverse Laplace transform, the response can be
given by,

Figure 3. Step response for critically damped case

3. Overdamped Case (ζ > 1)

In this case, the two poles of C(s) / R(s) are negative real and unequal; therefore, the system is
stable and does not oscillate. For a unit-step input, R(s) = 1/s and C(s) can be written as
 By applying partial fraction expansion and the inverse Laplace transform, the response can be
given by,

Thus, the response c(t) includes two decaying exponential terms.

Figure 4. Step response for overdamped case

Figure 5. Comparison of Second Order Responses

Definition of Transient-Response Specification

Frequently, the performance characteristics of a control system are specified in terms of the transient response to
a unit-step input, since it is easy to generate and is sufficiently drastic.

The transient response of a system to a unit-step input depends on the initial conditions. For convenience in
comparing transient responses of various systems, it is a common practice to use the standard initial condition
that the system is at rest initially with the output and all time derivatives thereof zero. Then the response
characteristics of many systems can be easily compared.

The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillations before reaching steady
state. In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control system to a unit-step input, it is common to
specify the following:

1. Delay time, td
2. Rise time , tr

3. Peak time, tp

4. Maximum overshoot, Mp

5. Settling time, ts

Figure 6: Step response specification

These specifications are defined in what follows and are shown graphically in Figure 6.

1. Delay time, td: The delay time is the time required for the response to reach halfthe final value the very
first time.
2. Rise time, tr: The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%, 5% to 95%, or
0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped second order systems, the 0% 100% rise time is normally
used. For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is commonly used.
3. Peak time, tp: The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first peak of the overshoot.
4. Maximum overshoot, Mp: The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the response curve
measured from unity. If the final steady-state value of the response differs from unity, then it is common
to use the maximum percent overshoot. The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly indicates
the relative stability of the system.
5. Settling time, ts:The settling time is the time required for the response curve to reach and stay within a
range about the final value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 2% or 5%).
The settling time is related to the largest time constant of the control system. Which percentage error
criterion to use may be determined from the objectives of the system design in question.

Second Order System and Transient- Response Specifications…

In the following, we shall obtain the rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, and settling time of the second-
order system These values will be obtained in terms of ζ and ωn.The system is assumed to be underdamped.

1. Rise time , tr

where angle β is defined in figure 7. Clearly, for a small value of tr, ωd must be large.
 Figure 7

2. Peak time, tp
Since the peak time corresponds to the first peak overshoot,

The peak time tp corresponds to one-half cycle of the frequency of damped oscillation.

3. Maximum overshoot , Mp
Assuming that the final value of the output is unity

If the final value c(∞) of the output is not unity, then we need to use the following equation:

4. Settling time, ts
For convenience in comparing the responses of systems, we commonly define the settling time, ts to be

Higher Order Systems

In this section we shall present a transient-response analysis of higher-order systems in general terms. It
will be seen that the response of a higher-order system is the sum of the responses of first-order and second-order
systems.

Consider the system shown in Figure4 .The closed-loop transfer function is

The closed loop T.F. of any linear invariant system can be expressed as:
 Figure 8: Control System

The factorized form is given as:

The response of the system for a step input can be:

Real distinct roots:

Where ri resembles the residue of the ith pole at s=-pi.

Notes:

For a stable system, the relative magnitudes of the residues determine the relative
importance of the corresponding poles.
If there is a closed loop zero close to a closed loop pole, then the residue of this pole is
small.
A pair of closely located poles and zeros will effectively cancel each other.
If a pole is located very far from origin, the residue of this pole may be small and its
response will last for a short time.
Pole having very small residues contribute little to the transient response and
correspondingly may be neglected
After neglecting, the higher order system may be approximated by a lower order one.

Real poles and pairs of complex conjugate poles: C (s) may be given as:
 This means that the factored form of the poles of higher order systems consists of first and 2nd order terms.
As a result, the response of the higher order system is composed of a number of terms involving the responses of
first order and 2nd order systems. The response is given as:

which means that for a stable higher order with nonrepeated simple or complex roots, the response is the sum of
a number of exponential curves (for real distinct roots) and damped sinusoidal curves (for unrepeated complex
poles).

r a stable higher order system, the exponential terms and the damped or sinusoidal curves will approach
zero as t and the steady state output y ss a y ( )

As the real part of the poles moves farther from the origin or |real part| increase then the response of that
pole decay rapidly to zero and correspondingly the setting time of that pole decrease. That is,

The type of transient response is determined by the closed loop poles, while the zeros of the close loop
T.F. do affect the magnitudes and signs of the residues of the expanded terms.

The poles of the input R (s) yield the steady state in the solution while the poles of the closed loop T.F.
yield the transient response terms of the solution as they enter exponential transient response terms and/or
damped sinusoidal transient response terms.

Dominant closed loop poles:

The relative dominance of closed loop poles is determined by:
1) The ratio of the real parts of closed loop poles

2) The relative magnitudes of the poles residues which depend on both the closed loop poles and zeros.
If the real part of the closest pole to the “jw” axis is (5 - 10) times less than the real part of the closest pole to
this pole and there are no zeros nearly, then former pole is called dominant closed loop pole since this pole will
dominant the transient response and will decay slowly.
The dominant closest loop poles are the most important among all closed loop poles.

System Identification of Second Order and Higher Order System

In the control system, the system identification process is applied to system by assume the input is step
response
And the question now, How I can determine the transfer function of the system form measured output data?

The step response is given in the following figure 5, and to determine the transfer function we follow the
following step

1) Determine the settling time and the Overshoot of system

2) Determine the natural frequency and the damping ratio

3) The standard form of second order system is given by

From the over shoot determine ߞ

And from the settling time, determine