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LECTURE
Recall the Residue Theorem: Let γ be a simple closed loop, traversed counter-
clockwise. Let f be a function that is analytic on γ and meromorphic inside γ.
Then Z X
f (z) dz = 2πi Resc (f ).
γ c inside γ
This writeup shows how the Residue Theorem can be applied to integrals that arise
with no reference to complex analysis.
1. Computing Residues
Proposition 1.1. Let f have a simple pole at c. Then
Resc (f ) = lim (z − c)f (z).
z→c
2. Rational Functions
Let f (x) = p(x)/q(x) be a rational function of the real variable x, where q(x) 6= 0
for all x ∈ R. Further assume that
deg(f ) ≤ −2,
meaning that deg(q) ≥ deg(p) + 2. Then
Z ∞ X
f (x) dx = 2πi Resc (f ).
x=−∞ Im(c)>0
So to evaluate the integral I we need only compute the sum of the residues.
The denominator z 4 + 1 of f (z) shows that f has simple poles at the fourth roots
of −1. These values are
ζ8 , ζ83 , ζ85 , ζ87 , where ζ8 = e2πi/8 .
Of the four roots, only ζ8 and ζ83 lie in the upper half plane. Compute, using
L’Hospital’s Rule that
(z − ζ8 )z 2 z 2 + (z − ζ8 )2z z2 1 1 ζ87
lim = lim = lim = lim = = ,
z→ζ8 z4 + 1 z→ζ8 4z 3 z→ζ8 4z 3 z→ζ8 4z 4ζ8 4
MATH 311: COMPLEX ANALYSIS — CONTOUR INTEGRALS LECTURE 3
and similarly
(z − ζ83 )z 2 1 ζ85
lim3 = 3 = .
z→ζ8 z4 + 1 4ζ8 4
So the sum of the residues is
√
X ζ85 + ζ87 − 2i −i
Resc (f ) = = = √ .
4 4 2 2
Im(c)>0
The integrand bounded above by 1 (and now matter how large r gets, the integrand
always equals 1 for θ = 0 and θ = π), but as r grows, the integrand tends to 0
4 MATH 311: COMPLEX ANALYSIS — CONTOUR INTEGRALS LECTURE
uniformly on any any compact subset of (0, π), and so the integral goes to 0 as r
goes to ∞.
The remaining two pieces of the integral are, by a change of variable,
Z −ε ix Z r ix Z ε −ix Z r ix
e e e e
dx + dx = d(−x) + dx
x=−r x x=ε x x=r −x x=ε x
Z r ix
e − e−ix
= dx
x=ε x
Z r
sin x
= 2i dx.
x=ε x
Now let ε → 0+ and let r → ∞. Our calculation has shown that 2iI − πi = 0, i.e.,
π
I= .
2
and so
4π 2π
I= = √ .
(r1 − r2 ) a2 − 1
But also,
z −s z −s
Z
dz = 2πi Res−1
γ z+1 z+1
= 2πi(−1)−s
= 2πi exp(−s ln | − 1| − isπ)
= 2πie−πis .
In sum,
2i sin(πs)e−πis I = 2πie−πis ,
so that
π
I= .
sin πs
A similar calculation, using the same contour, shows that
Z ∞
ln x
2+1
dx = 0.
x=0 x
Therefore,
(2πi)k Bk
π cot πz
Res0 = for even k ≥ 2.
zk k!
Summarizing so far, the integral is
n
!
(2πi)k Bk (2πi)k Bk
Z
π cot πz X 1 n→∞
dz = 2πi +2 −→ 2πi + 2ζ(k) .
γ zk k! m=1
mk k!
But also, the integral tends to 0 as n gets large. To see this, estimate the
integrand π cot πz/z k on γ, by returning to the formula
2πi
π cot πz = πi + .
e2πiz − 1
If z = ±(n + 1/2) + iy then
On the other hand, if z = x ± in and n is large then |e2πiz | = e±2πn is either very
large or very close to 0, and in either case
(2πi)k Bk
2ζ(k) = − for even k ≥ 2.
k!
That is,
π2 π4 π6
ζ(2) = , ζ(4) = , ζ(6) = ,
6 90 945
and so on.
8 MATH 311: COMPLEX ANALYSIS — CONTOUR INTEGRALS LECTURE
8. An Extraction Integral
Let x be a positive real number, and let σ also be a positive real number. We
show that Z σ+i∞ s (
1 x 1 if x > 1,
ds = σ > 0.
2πi σ−i∞ s 0 if 0 < x < 1,
The idea of the proof is that if x > 1 then the vertical line of integration slides to
the left, picking up a residue at zero, until the integral vanishes, and if 0 < x < 1
then similarly the line slides to the right, not picking up a residue. We make this
precise.
Let f (s) = xs /s, a meromorphic function on C whose only pole is a simple pole
at s = 0 with residue 1. Let ε > 0 be given.
Assume first that x > 1. Let a and b be large positive real numbers. Consider
the rectangle that proceeds counterclockwise from σ − ib to σ + ib to −a + ib to
−a − ib and back to σ − ib. The integral of f (z) about this rectangle is 2πi, and
the integral up the right side of the rectangle goes to the integral in the previous
display as b goes to ∞. Integrating down the left side of the rectangle, we have
f (z) = O(x−a /a), and that side has length is O(b). So if x−a b/a < ε then the
integral down the left side of the rectangle is small. On the top and bottom of the
rectangle, we have f (z) = O(1/b), and those sides have length O(a). So if a/b < ε
then the integrals along the top and bottom of the rectangle are small. Choose a
large enough that 1/ε < εxa , here using the condition that x > 1, and then choose
any b such that 1/ε < b/a < εxa . These choices give the conditions x−a b/a < ε and
a/b < ε, and the contour integral integral is close to the integral in the previous
display.
The argument for 0 < x < 1 is similar, but with the rectangle going far to the
right rather than far to the left, and this time picking up no residue.