Geotechnical Engineering

Soil Composition (G¿¿ s +e) ρw

ρ sat = ¿
1+ e
Where ρw = 1000 kg/m3
Relative Density, Dr
e max−e
Dr =
emax −e min
Where Dr = relative density, usually given as
percentage
e = in situ void ratio of the soil
emax = void ratio of soil in loosest state
emin = void ratio of the soil in densest state

Void Ratio, e
γ max
G s−
- ratio of volume of void to volume of solids γw
Vv e min =
n γ max
e= ; e= −1
Vs 1−n γs
Porosity, n
- ratio of the volume of voids to the total γ min
volume G s−
γw
Vs e e max =
n= ; n= γ min
V 1+e −1
Degree of Saturation, S γs
- ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
voids Atterberg Limits
Vw w Gs Flow Index
S= ; S=
VV e w1−¿ w
Moisture Content, w If = 2
¿
N
- also referred as water content and is defined
as the ratio of the weight of water to the
weight of solids in a given volume of soil
( )
log ⁡ 2
N1
Where:
Ww If = flow index
w= w1 = moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to
Ws N1 blows
Unit Weight, w1 = moisture content of soil corresponding to N2 blows

W (1+ w)G s γ w (G s+ Se) γ w Liquid Limit, L.L.

γ= = = 1. Percussion Cup Method
V 1+ e 1+e
- Dry Unit Weight (S = 0)
Ws γ Gs γ w
γ d= = =
V 1+ w 1+e
- Saturated Unit Weight (S = 1.0)
γ sat =¿ ¿¿
- Zero Air Void
Gs γ w
γ zav=
1+w Gs
- Submerged/Effective/Buoyant Unit Weight 2. Fall Cup Method
'
γ =¿ ¿ ¿
Density
(1+ w) Gs ρw
ρ=
1+ e
G s ρw
ρd =
1+ e
Geotechnical Engineering
¿−w
CI =
¿−PL
Toughness Index
PI
I t=
If

Plasticity Index, P.I.

PI =¿−PL
Where:
PI = Plasticity Index LL = Liquid Limit
PL = Plastic Limit

Shrinkage Limit, S.L.

- Shrinkage limit is defined as the moisture
content, in percent, at which the volume of
the soil mass ceases to change

M 1−M 2 V −V f
SL= ( M2 ) (
( 100 )− i
M2 )
( ρw )(100)
Where:
M1 = mass of the wet soil pat in the dish at the
beginning of the test (g)
M2 = mass of the dry soil pat (g)
Vi = initial volume of the wet soil pat (that is,
inside volume of the dish, cm3)
Vf = volume of the oven-dried soil pat (cm3)
ρ = density of water (g/cm3)

Shrinkage Ratio
M2
SR=
V 2 ρw
Where:
M2 = mass of the dry soil pat (g)
Vf = volume of the oven-dried soil pat (cm3)
ρw = density of water (g/cm3)

Specific Gravity
1
Gs =
1 SL
−
SR 100
Liquidity Index
- The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in
the natural state can be defined by a ratio
called the liquidity index, which is given by:
w−PL
LI =
¿−PL
When
LI < 0 Brittle Soil
LI < 1.0 Plastic
LI > 1.0 Liquid

Consistency Index
Geotechnical Engineering
Soil Classification
Particle Size Distribution Curve
1. Effective Size (D10):
This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer.
The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and
drainage through soil.

2. Uniformly Coefficient (Cu):

Geotechnical Engineering
D60
C u=
D10
3. Coefficient of Gradation or Curvature (Cc)

D302
C c=
D60 ∗D10
4. Sorting Coefficient (S0)

D 75
S0 =
√ D 25
Geotechnical Engineering
Particle Size Classifications

Soil Classification: Textural

Classification
- This classification method is based
on the particle sized limits as
described under USDA system
 Sand Size: 2.0 to 0.05 mm in
diameter
 Silt Size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in
diameter
 Clay Size: 0.002 mm in diameter
- Textural Classification Chart:
Example: Given 30% sand, 40% silt and
30% clay, classify the soil
Ans: soil is classified as CLAY

Soil Classification: AASHTO Classification System

- This classification system is based on the following criteria
1. Grain Size
 Gravel: fraction passing 75-mm (3-in) and retained on the No. 10 (2-mm)
U.S. sieve
 Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the
No. 200 (0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
 Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a
plasticity index of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions
have a plasticity index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are
excluded from the portion of the soil sample from which classification is made.
- Group Index (GI): To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material,
one must also incorporate a number called the group index (GI) with the groups and
subgroups of the soil. The group index is given by the equation

GI =( F200 −35 ) [ 0.2+ 0.005 ( ¿−40 ) ] + 0.01(F 200 −15)(PI −10)

Geotechnical Engineering
Where:
F200 = percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve
LL = Liquid Limit
PI = Plasticity Index
- When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use
the partial group index for PI, or
GI =0.01( F 200−15)( PI −10)

Soil Classification: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following information
must be known:
1. Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on the
No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening) and
retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm
opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve
Note:
- Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve
- Coarse fraction = percent retained on No. 200 sieve
- Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
- Sand fraction = (percent retained on No. 200 sieve) - (percent retained on No. 4 sieve)

Soil Compaction W
γ=
The moisture content at which the
Vm
Where
maximum dry unit weight is attained is
W = weight of compacted soil in the mold
generally referred to as the optimum
moisture content. 1
Vm = Volume of the mold = 944cm 3 or ft3
30
The laboratory test generally used to obtain - For each test, the moisture content of
the maximum dry unit weight of the compacted soil is determined in the
compaction and the optimum moisture laboratory. With the known moisture
content is called the Proctor Compaction content, the dry unit weight can be
Test (Standard Proctor Test) calculated as
γ
Standard Proctor Test γ d=
w (%)
- For each test, the moist unit weight of 1+
compaction can be calculated as
100
Geotechnical Engineering
Gs γw G s γw - Dry unit weight of compaction made in
γ d= = the field γ d
1+ e Gs w
1+ W3
S γ d=
Where V
w (%) = percentage of moisture content
Gs = specific gravity of soil solid
Vibroflotation
γ w = unit weight of water
- Sustainability number for rating backfill
e = void ratio
3

√
- the maximum dry unit weight at a given S N =1.7 ¿
moisture content with zero air voids can 2 1
(D¿¿ 50) + ¿
be obtained by substituting S = 1 21
(D¿¿ 20) + ¿
Gs γ w γw ¿¿
γ zav= = - Backfill rating system:
1+w Gs 1
w+
Gs
Where
γ zav = zero air void unit weight

Specifications for Field Compaction

- Relative Compaction, R
γ d (field )
R ( % )= ×100
γ d (max−lab)
- Relative Density, Dr
Dr =¿
Therefore:
Ro
R=
1−D r (1−R¿ ¿ o)¿
γ d (min)
Where Ro =
γ d (max )

Sand Cone Method

- W1 = combined weight of the jar, the
cone, and the sand filling the jar (before
use)
- W2 = weight of the moist soil excavated
from the hole
- W3 = the dry weight of the soil can be
obtained as
W2
W 3=
w (%)
1+
100
- W4 = combined weight of the jar, the
cone, and the remaining sand in the jar
(after use)
W 5 =W 1−W 4
- W5 = weight of sand to fill the hole and
cone
- Wc = weight of sand to fill the cone only
- Volume of excavated hole
W 5 −W c
V=
γ d (sand)
Geotechnical Engineering
Permeability v = discharge velocity, which is the
Bernoulli’s Equation quantity of water flowing in unit time
through a unit gross cross-sectional area
of soil at right angles to the direction of
flow
k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise
known as the coefficient of permeability)

Where - Seepage velocity vs

h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
v s=v ( 1+e e )= vn
Where
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = discharge velocity
γ w =¿ unit weight of water n = porosity
e = void ratio
- If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the
flow of water through a porous soil Hydraulic Conductivity, k
medium, the term containing the - Hydraulic conductivity is generally
velocity head can be neglected expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI
because the seepage velocity is small, units and in ft/min or ft/day in
and the total head at any point can be English units.
adequately represented by γw
k= Ḱ
η
Where
γ w = unit weight of water
η = dynamic viscosity of water
Ḱ = absolute permeability

Transmissibility of Soil Stratum

T = Ḱ b
u Where
h= +Z T = transmissibility of soil stratum
γw
- The loss of head between two points, A
b = thickness of aquifer
and B, can be given by Ḱ = absolute permeability
The head loss, ∆ h, can be expressed in a Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic
nondimensional form as: Conductivity
∆h A. Constant-Head Test
i=
L
Where
i = hydraulic gradient
L = distance between points A and B—
that is, the length of flow over which the
loss of head occurred
Darcy’s Law
v=ki
Where
Geotechnical Engineering
- This is used to determine the
coefficient of permeability of fine-
grained soil
aL h1
k=
At ( )
ln
h2
; q=KiA

- Temperature Correction
RT =2.42−0.475 lnT
Where
k = hydraulic conductivity
A = area of cross-section of the soil
specimen
a = cross-sectional area of the stand pipe
t = duration of water collection
q = flow rate
L = length of soil specimen
- This is used to determine the h1 = initial head difference when t=0
coefficient of permeability of coarse- h2 = final head difference when t=t
grained soil h1−h 2
i = hydraulic gradient =
QL L
k= ; q=KiA
Aht T = temperature in °C at which
- Temperature Correction measurement was made
RT =2.42−0.475 ln T *baseline temperature is 20°C
Where Corrected K 20℃ =R T K
k = hydraulic conductivity
A = area of cross-section of the soil Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in
specimen Stratified Soil
t = duration of water collection A. Horizontal Flow
Q = volume of water collected
q = flow rate
L = length of soil specimen
i = hydraulic gradient = h/L
T = temperature in °C at which
measurement was made
*baseline temperature is 20°C
Corrected K 20℃ =R T K
B. Falling-Head Test

1
k H (eq )= K H + K H H 2 + K H H 3 +…+ K H H n)
H( H 11 2 3 n

B. Vertical Flow
Geotechnical Engineering
B. Well in an unconfined aquifer
underlain by an impermeable
stratum
r1

k=
q ln
( )
r2
2 πt( h12−h22 )
Transmissibility of an aquifer in a Pumping
Test
r1

T=
q ln ( )
r2
2 π (z 2−z 1)
Where
H T = transmissibility
k V (eq )=
H1 H H H r1 = farthest distance from center of the
( )( )( ) ( )
kV
+ 2 + 3 + …+ n
kV
1
kV
2 3
kV n
test well
r2 = nearest distance from center of the
test well
Permeability Test in the Field by z1 = draw down from the farthest
Pumping Wells observation well
A. Well in an unconfined permeable z2 = draw down from the nearest
observation well
layer underlain by an impermeable
q = flow rate

Empirical Relations for Hydraulic

Conductivity
A. Hazen Formula
K=C D 102
B. Casagrande Formula
K=1.4 e 2 K 0.85
C. Kozeny-Carman
e3
K=C1
1+e
D. Samarasinghe et. Al.
stratum en
r1 K=C3
1+e

k=
q ln
( ) r2
π ( h12−h22 )

t
Geotechnical Engineering
Effective Stresses in Soil At C,
Effective Stress/Intergranular Stress
Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward
σ ' =σ−u
σ ' =0 for quick condition
Total Stress, σ
σ T =γ 1 h1 +γ 2 h 2+ γ 3 h3 +…+ γ n h n
Pore Water Pressure/Neutral Stress, u
σ w =γ w hw
Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward

Seepage

Seepage
Effective Stress at point C
Stresses in Saturated Soil with No
Seepage

Note: h/H2 is the

hydraulic gradient, i
caused by the flow
Geotechnical Engineering
Geotechnical Engineering
Seepage
Flow Nets
 A flow line is a line along which a water particle
will travel from upstream to the downstream side
in the permeable soil medium.
 An equipotential line is a line along which the
potential head at all points is equal.
A. Isotropic Soil, k x =k z =k

Note:
- The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at
right angles.
H 7
- The flow elements formed are approximate = =1
squares Nd 7
If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal
to Nf, the total rate of flow through all the channels
per unit length can be given by:
H Nf Therefore, the uplift pressure at a:
q=k Pa=( pressure head at a)×(γ w )
Nd
Where ¿ [ ( 7+2 )−1 ] γ w =8 γ w
q = flow rate
k = coefficient of permeability Seepage through an Earth Dam on an
Nf = number of flow channels Impervious Base
Nd = number of potential drops
q=k ( tan α ) ( Lsin α )=kL tan α sin α
B. Anisotropic Soil, kx≠kz
d d2 H2
q=√ k x k z
H Nf
Nd
Uplift pressure under Hydrostatic
L=
cos α
−
√ −
cos 2 α sin2 α

Structures
[Refer to figure 8.14] There are seven equipotential
drops (Nd) in the flow net, and the difference in the
water levels between the upstream and downstream
sides is H=7 m.

Loss of head of each potential:

Geotechnical Engineering
Pavlovsky’s Solution for Seepage τ xy : (+) upwards (-) downwards
through an Earth Dam
Where
σn = normal stress τn = shear stress
The radius of the Mohr’s circle is equal to:
Or use the distance formula

The Pole Method of Finding Stresses

Stresses in Soil Mass

Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane

(a) A soil element with normal and shear stresses along a Plane
acting on it;
(b) Free body diagram of EFB as shown in (a)
Steps (Pole Method)
1. Plot points R and M
2. Draw line MP parallel to AB
3. Draw line PQ parallel to EF
- In this case, point P is the pole (origin of
planes)

Stresses Caused by a Point Load

Where
P = point load (kN)
∆σz = vertical normal stress (kPa)
Geotechnical Engineering
Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical
Vertical Stress Caused by a
Rectangular Loaded Area
The increase in the stress, at point A caused by the
entire loaded area can now be determined by the
preceding equation
∆ σ z =q I 3 (Equation 10.31)
The variation of I3 with m and n is shown in Table 10.10
and Figure 10.24

Line Load
B L
m= n=
z z
Example:
To determine the stress at a point below A’ at depth
z, the loaded area can be divided by four rectangles.

The increase in the stress at depth z below A’ due to

rectangular area can now be calculated using
equation 10.31. Total stress caused by the entire
load area can be given by:

∆ σ z =q [I 3 (1) + I 3 (2) + I 3 (3) + I 3 (4 ) ]

Where I 3 ( 1) + I 3 ( 2) + I 3 ( 3) + I 3 ( 4 ) are values of I 3 for
rectangles 1,2,3, and 4 respectively

In most cases the vertical stress increase below the

center of a rectangular area (Figure 10.26) is
important. This stress increase can be given by the
relationship
∆ σ z =q I 4

The variation of I 4 with m1 and n1 is given in Table

10.11
L z B
m 1= n1= b=
B b 2

Vertical Stress Caused by a Horizontal

Line Load
Geotechnical Engineering
Influence Chart for Vertical Pressure Where
M = number of elements
IV = influence value = 0.005
Q = pressure on the loaded area

Vertical Stress Below the Center of a

Uniformly Loaded Circular Area

Westergaard’s Solution for Vertical

Stress Due to a Point Load
The procedure for obtaining vertical pressure at any
The vertical stress increase at a point A
point below a loaded area is as follows:
Where:
Therefore

1. Determine the depth z below the uniformly

loaded area at which the stress increase is
required.
1
2. Plot the plan of the loaded area with a scale
of z equal to the unit length of the chart
´
( AB)
∆ σz=
P
( )I
z 5
{
∆ σ z =q 1− 3 /2
[ ( R/ z )2+1 ] }
3. Place the plan (plotted in step 2) on the
influence chart in such a way that the point
below which the stress is to be determined is
μs = Poisson’s ratio of the solid between the rigid
located at the center of the chart reinforcements
4. Count the number of elements (M) of the r =√ x 2 + y 2
chart enclosed by the plan of the loaded area
The increase in the pressure at the point under
consideration is given by:
∆ σ z =( IV )q M