NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Unlike other body cells, neurons don't undergo mitosis (cell splitting). Instead,

neural stem cells can generate new specialized neurons by differentiating into
neuroblasts that, upon migration to a specific area, can turn into a neuron.

2. Neurons are amitotic, which means that, after a certain stage, they do not divide
further. you would not find synaptic vesicles in dendrites, which are the receiving
end of the neuron. synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters, used for sending
messages to a target cell, which is the function of axon exclusively.

DENDRITE: a branched extension of a nerve cell neuron that receives electrical signals from
other neurons and conducts those signals to the cell body

AXON: an extension of a nerve cell, similar in shape to a thread, that transmits impulses
outward from the cell body

3. Increased Conduction Velocity as a Result of Myelination. ... By acting as an

electrical insulator, myelin greatly speeds up action potential conduction (Figure
3.14). For example, whereas unmyelinated axon conduction velocities range from
about 0.5 to 10 m/s, myelinated axons can conduct at velocities up to 150 m/s.

4. The PNS consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal
cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs,
essentially serving as a relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the
body.

5. Sensory neurons carry electrical signals (impulses) from receptors or sense organs

to the CNS. Sensory neurons are also called afferent neurons. The cell body
of sensory neurons is outside the CNS in ganglia.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,

small intestine, and large intestine. The accessory digestive structures include the
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.

2. Digestion involves the mixing of food, its movement through the digestive tract,

and the chemical breakdown of the large molecules of food into smaller
molecules. Digestion begins in the mouth, when we chew and swallow, and is
completed in the small intestine.

3. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed. Chemical

digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can
be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes
with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that begins the breakdown of
carbohydrates.
 4. The small intestine absorbs most of the nutrients in your food, and your circulatory
system passes them on to other parts of your body to store or use. Special cells help
absorbed nutrients cross the intestinal lining into your bloodstream.

5. The highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes proteins from food to

lose their characteristic folded structure (or denature).

R E S P I RA T O R Y S Y S T E M
1. During inspiration, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, causing
the rib cage to expand and move outward, and expanding the thoracic cavity and
lung volume.
2. During inspiration, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
contract, causing the rib cage to expand and move outward, and expanding
the thoracic cavity and lung volume. This creates a lower pressure within
the lung than that of the atmosphere, causing air to be drawn into the lungs.

3. During inhalation, the diaphragm is contracted which increases the volume

of the lung cavity. During exhalation, the diaphragm is relaxed which decreases the
volume of the lung cavity.
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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. As the heart beats, it pumps blood through a system of blood vessels, called the
circulatory system. The vessels are elastic, muscular tubes that carry blood to
every part of the body.

2. The largest artery is the aorta, the main high-pressure pipeline connected to the
heart's left ventricle. 

3. The pulmonary artery channels oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle into the

lungs, where oxygen enters the bloodstream. The pulmonary veins bring oxygen-
rich blood to the left atrium. The aorta channels oxygen-rich blood to the body
from the left ventricle.
4. Capillaries, the smallest and most numerous of the blood vessels, form the
connection between the vessels that carry blood away from the heart (arteries) and
the vessels that return blood to the heart (veins).
5. The pulmonary artery channels oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle into
the lungs, where oxygen enters the bloodstream. The pulmonary
veins bring oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium. The aorta channels oxygen-rich
blood to the body from the left ventricle.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. Hemopoiesis ( hematopoiesis) is the process that produces the formed elements of

the blood. Hemopoiesis takes place in the red bone marrow found in the epiphyses
of long bones (for example, the humerus and femur), flat bones (ribs and
cranial bones), vertebrae, and the pelvis.
2. Mature bone cells, enclosed in tiny chambers called Lacunae. Osteocytes form
rings (lamellae) around a Haversian canal which houses blood vessels.
3. These spaces are called lacunae, and they house bone-producing cells, called
osteocytes, which are united through a network of canals, called canaliculi. The
canaliculi supply nutrients via blood vessels, remove cellular wastes, and provide a
means of communication between osteocytes.
4.
5. Most of the bones of the skeleton are formed in this manner. These bones
are called endochondral bones. In this process, the future bones are first formed
as hyaline cartilage models.

Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm, usually occurring in the

ampulla of the fallopian tube. The result of this union is the production of a zygote cell,
or fertilized egg, initiating prenatal development. Scientists discovered the dynamics of
human fertilization in the nineteenth century.
Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction. It is the
most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in
some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramoecium. In binary fission
DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.

As a fertilized human egg divides, it first becomes a solid ball of cells, the morula.
Next, about five days after fertilization, it becomes a hollow ball, the blastocyst.
The cells of the outer layer of the blastocyst eventually form part of the placenta.
Inside the ball is a small clump of cells, the inner cell mass, that will form all the
tissues in the body. When isolated from blastocysts created by in vitro fertilization
(IVF) and grown in culture, these are the cells known as embryonic stem cells (ES
cells).

Ossification is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts. Intramembranous ossification

is the process of bone development from fibrous membranes. Endochondral ossification is
the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. Long bones lengthen as
chondrocytes divide and secrete hyaline cartilage.