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Table of Contents
1 Measurement 01
3 Light 31
4 Matter 46
5 Changes Around Us 59
6 Micro Organisms 71
7 Plant Kingdom 85
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VI
UNIT
Physics is the study of nature and natural Students are asked to measure the
phenomena. Physics is considered as the base length and breadth of their science book
of all science subjects. Physics is based on using a ruler (scale) and compare their
experimental observations. e principles measurement with those of their friends.
and observations allow us to develop a deeper
understanding of nature. Scienti c theories
are valid, only if they are con rmed through
various experiments.
eories in physics use many physical
quantities that have to be measured.
Measurement is the base of all
scientific studies and experimentations.
It plays a vital role in our daily life.
Measurement is the process of finding
an unknown physical quantity by using a
standard quantity.
We need three things for a perfect
In this activity, let the length of the book be
measurement. ey are (i) an instrument,
15 cm, the length is the physical quantity, ruler is
(ii) a standard quantity and (iii) an acceptable
the ‘instrument’, 15 is the ‘magnitude’ and ‘cm’ is
unit.
the unit. is process is called “Measurement”.
1 Measurement
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Here, all the students will not get the same ey are known as Base Units or Fundamental
value. us, one can infer that there may be Units (Table 1.1)
an error while taking the measurement. is
lesson helps us to get a better understanding of
measurements.
Table: 1.1 Base Quantities and Units
Science 2
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De nition
Temperature is a measure of the average
Identify, which of these objects are hot or
kinetic energy of the particles in a system.
cold? (Fig 1.1)
(a) (b)
e SI unit of Temperature is kelvin.
‘ ermometers’ are used to measure temperature
directly.
Usually, thermometers are calibrated with
some standard scales. Celsius, Fahrenheit,
Kelvin are the most commonly used scales to
measure Temperature.
You can see that some objects are cold, Types ofLower Upper No. of
and some are hot. You also know that, some Scale Fixed Fixed divisions in
objects are hotter than others while some of Point Point thermometer
them are colder than others. (LFP) (UFP)
Celsius 0° C 100° C 100
How do you decide, which is hotter
and which is colder? So, you need a reliable Fahrenheit 32° F 212° F 180
quantity to decide the degree of hotness Kelvin 273 K 373 K 100
or coldness of an object. That quantity is
‘temperature’.
Temperature is a physical quantity that
expresses the degree of hotness or coldness Measure the room temperature inside
the class room and outside the class room
of a substance. Heat given to a substance will
by using a thermometer and tabulate it with
increase its temperature. Heat removed from
di erent time intervals for a week. Do you
a substance will lower its temperature. nd any di erences in these values? Discuss
your observations.
3 Measurement
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100 degree-intervals
180 degree-intervals
Science 4
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300
Ammete r
0
5 Measurement
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De nition
e measure of the power of the emitted
light, by a light source in a particular direction,
per unit solid angle is called as Luminous
Intensity. θ
e SI unit of luminous intensity is
candela and is denoted as ‘cd’.
Fig 1.7 - Plane Angle
1 rad r
r=s
Info bits
It is the angle formed
Luminous Flux or luminous power is the
by three or more planes
measure of the perceived power of light. Its
intersecting at a common
SI unit is ‘lumen’.
point.
One lumen is de ned as the luminous ux
It can also be de ned as
of the light produced by the light source that
‘angle formed at the vertex of
emits one candela of luminous intensity over
the cone’
a solid angle of one steradian.
e SI unit of solid angle is ‘steradian’ and is
denoted as ‘sr’.
Science 6
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surface 1m2
1. Analog clocks; 2. Digital clocks
1 steradian
radius 1 m
2. Atomic Clock:
ese clocks
are making use of
periodic vibrations
occurring within the
atom. (Fig 1.14)
ese clocks
have an accuracy of
one second in every
Fig 1.12 - Digital Clock 1013 seconds.
Atomic clocks
are used in Global
Fig 1.14 - Atomic Clock
Students must make a model of a digital
Positioning System (GPS),
clock using match sticks on a cardboard, with
Global Navigation Satellite
date and time.
System (GLONASS)
and International time
distribution services.
1. Quartz Clock:
ese clocks are activated by ‘electronic e rst atomic clock was developed
oscillations’, which are controlled by a ‘quartz in 1949 at the US National Bureau of
crystal’. (Fig 1.13) Standards. But, it was less accurate than the
e frequency of a quartz clock.
vibrating crystal is very e rst accurate atomic clock (based
precise. So, the quartz on Caesium - 133) was built by Lauis Essan
clock is more accurate and Jack Penny in 1955, at the National
than the mechanical Physics Laboratory in the United Kingdom.
Quartz
clock.
ese clocks have an
accuracy of one second
Fig 1.13 - Quartz Clock
in every 109 seconds.
Science 8
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32
PAKISTAN
(IST):
32
82 30’
CHINA
e location of
68 7’ BANGLADE SH
20
20
16 16
8 N
LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
9 Measurement
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Science 10
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4. Amount of substance is
1. Which one the following system of units is a) directly proportional to the number of
the British System of unit? atoms
a) CGS b) MKS b) inversely proportional to the number of
atoms
c) FPS d) SI
c) directly proportional to the square of
2. Electric current belongs to ______ number of atoms
quantities d) inversely proportional to the square of
a) base number of atoms
b) supplementary 5. Luminous intensity is the intensity of
c) derived
a) Laser light
d) professional
b) UV light
3. SI unit of temperature is c) visible light
a) celsius b) fahrenheit d) IR light
c) kelvin d) ampere
11 Measurement
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10. Which of the following statements about 5. Amount of substance gives the number of
approximation is wrong? particles present in the substance.
a) Approximation gives accurate value. 6. Intensity of light from a candle is
b) Approximation simpli es the calculation. approximately equal to one ‘candela’.
c) Approximation is very useful when little
7. Angle formed at the top of a cone is an
information is available.
example of ‘Plane Angle’.
d) Approximation gives the nearest value
only. 8. Quartz clocks are used in GPS Devices.
9. Candela is used to express electric eld
intensity.
1. e solid angle is measured in _______. 10. e number 4.582 can be rounded o as
2. _______ recognized the need of ‘Standard 4.58 .
Units’ for physical quantities.
Science 12
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Science 14
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Mind Map
Measurement
Accuracy in
Si units Clocks
Measurements
Steps
• Open the Browser and type URL link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
• Click and select the “History of time keeping devices”
• Options will be given. Select any content (Eg) Digital clock
• It gives clear understanding of the “History of time keeping devices”
15 Measurement
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UNIT
Observe the following actions in day to e group of students who pull the rope
day life: with a greater force will de nitely win. e
Opening up a pen, opening a door, kicking winners are applying a greater amount of force.
a football, striking a carrom coin, making of Hence, the rope moves in the direction of the
chapattis etc., all these actions need a force. greater force.
Science 16
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N
= 10000 m2 = 104 N m-2
Science 18
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Take a glass tube that is open at both Take a plastic bottle. Punch three holes
ends. Fix a rubber balloon at the lower end on its side in the same direction, but at
of the tube. Put some water into the tube di erent heights. Now pour some water into
and observe the balloon. Now, pour some
it and let it ow through the holes. Observe
more water into the balloon and again
the ow of water.
observe the balloon.
Inference: The balloon starts bulging Inference: e water comes out from all the
outwards. The bulge increases with an holes with a di erent force and falls on the
increase in the height of the water column. table at points that are at variable distances
Reason: The pressure exerted by a liquid at from the bottle. Water from the lowest hole
the bottom of a container depends on the comes out with the greatest force and falls
height of the liquid column in it. at a point that is at the maximum distance
from the bottle. Water from the topmost
You have already studied that the hole comes out with the least force and falls
atmospheric pressure is measured in terms at the point that is at the minimum distance
of the height of the mercury column in a from the bottle.
barometer. Reason: is activity con rms that the
b) Liquids exert the same pressure in all pressure in a liquid varies with the depth of
directions at a given depth: the point of observation in it.
c) Liquid pressure varies with the depth: Spouting Nozzle
can
Low pressure
Pressure jet
of water
increases
with
Take a plastic bottle. Punch three holes depth
high pressure
on its sides at the same height from its base. jet
Science 20
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Take a rubber ball. Fill it with water. Fill two identical syringes with water.
en, make tiny holes on it with a pin Connect them with a plastic tube. Press
at di erent points on its surface. Press gently on one end of a piston. What do you
anywhere on the ball. What do you observe? observe?
Inference: ere are identical streams of Inference: If one piston is pressed
water owing in all directions from the downward, then the other piston will move
holes. up slightly, depending on the pressure given
Reason: is is due to the phenomenon that on the rst piston.
the pressure, which is applied on the liquid, Reason: is activity con rms that the
is equally transmitted in all direction. pressure exerted on a liquid at rest is
is concept was rst given by the French transmitted equally to other portions of the
scientist Blasie Pascal. liquid.
Pascal’s law:
e pressure applied at any point of
a liquid at rest, in a closed system, will be • Why are rain drops spherical in nature?
distributed equally through all regions of the • A liquid owing out of a very small
liquid. opening of a tube or tap comes out
in the form of ne drops and not as a
Application of Pascal’s law: continuous stream. Why?
Some of the following examples highlight • Trees are greenish. ey are greenish
their working according to Pascal’s law. at the tip too. How does the water rise
• In an automobile service station, the upward in a tree or plant against the
vehicles are lifted upward using the force of gravity?
hydraulic lift, which works as per Pascal’s All the above questions have an answer, i.e.,
law. “due to surface tension”.
• The automobile brake system works Surface tension is the property of a liquid.
according to Pascal’s law. e molecules of a liquid experience a force,
• The hydraulic press is used to make the which contracts the extent of their surface area
compressed bundles of cotton or cloth so as much as possible, so as to have the minimum
as to occupy less space. value. us, the amount of force acting per
unit length, on the surface of a liquid is called • Water strider insect slides on the water surface
surface tension. It has the unit N m–1 . easily due to the surface tension of water.
• During a heavy storm, sailors pour soap
powder or oil into the sea near their ship to
decrease the surface tension of sea water. is
Take a
process reduces the impact of the violent water
paper clip. Take
current against the all of ship.
a beaker of
water. Take a
tissue paper and
spread it on the
surface of the
water. Gently,
place the paper
clip on the tissue paper. Observe what
happens to the paper pin a er some time. Figure 2.3 Water strider
Inference: A er a few moments the tissue
paper will submerge and the paper clip will
make a small depression on the surface of the
water. It will instantly begin to oat on the
surface, even though it is denser than water.
Reason: is is due to the water molecules Take a small quantity of di erent kinds of
on the surface, which tend to contract liquid like coconut oil, honey, water and ghee
themselves like the molecules of an elastic etc., in a cup. Place one drop of each liquid on
membrane. A force exists on them, which a separate glass plate. Next, gently raise one end
tends to minimize the surface area of water. of the glass plate, one by one, so as to allow the
e paper clip is balanced by the molecules liquid to slide down the smooth surface of the
on the water surface that is now behaving plate. Observe the speed of each liquid.
like a stretched elastic membrane. So, it does Inference: Each liquid moves with a di erent
not submerge. speed. Water ows faster than other liquids.
Coconut oil ows with a moderate speed. Ghee
Application of surface ows very slowly.
Reason: Between the layers of each liquid, in
motion, there is a frictional force parallel to the
• Water molecules rise up due to surface tension. layers of the liquid. is frictional force opposes
Xylem tissues are very narrow vessels present the motion of the liquid layers while they are in
in plants. Water molecules are absorbed by the motion.
roots and these vessels help the water to rise
upward due to “capillarity action” (you will
De nition:
study this topic in the forth-coming classes),
When a liquid is owing, there is a
which is caused by the surface tension of water.
frictional force between the successive layers
• For a given volume, the surface area of a sphere of the liquid. is force which acts in order to
is the minimum. is is the reason for the oppose the relative motion of the layer is known
liquid drops to acquire a spherical shape. as viscous force. Such a property of a liquid is
called viscosity.
Science 22
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Effects of friction:
Viscosity force is measured by the unit called
poise in CGS and kg m–1 s–1 or N s m–2 in SI. Friction can produce the following e ects:
a) Friction opposes motion.
b) Friction causes wear and tear of the surfaces
in contact.
c) Friction produces heat.
with the rough surface. Rolling pencils o er Inference: e marble covers a lesser
the least amount of friction. So, it is easy to distance over the cotton cloth in comparison
displace the book in comparison with sliding with the distance it covers over the glass plate.
it on the table. Reason: A rough surface like the cotton
is method is o en used in moving cloth, o ers more frictional force. So, the
heavy wood from one place to another. marble moves slowly and covers a minimum
distance. e smooth surface of glass, o ers
Factors affecting friction lesser friction. So, the glass marble travels a
greater distance over it.
a) Nature of a surface:
e above activity reveals the ‘e ect of
the force of friction’, which increases as the
roughness of the surface increases.
Arrange some notebooks one over It is easy to walk or ride a vehicle on
the other to form a platform, on a table. a road, but it is di cult to do the same on
Keep a wide scale, as a slide, such that one sand due to its greater friction (roughness).
of its ends rests on the pile of books. Take
di erent kinds of materials like cotton cloth, b) Weight of the body:
plastic paper, newspaper, writing pad etc. It is easy to pedal your cycle without any
Place some glass marbles in a bowl placed load on its carrier. With a load placed on its
on the table. carrier, it is di cult to move it because the
First, keep a rectangular piece of paper weight on the carrier increases the friction
near the end of the scale, which is in contact between the surface of the tyre and the road.
with the table. Now, release a glass marble
c) Area of contact:
from the top end of the scale such that it
rolls down the scale. Allow the marble to For a given weight, the friction is directly
roll over the piece of paper and nally, come related to the area of contact between the two
to rest. surfaces. If the area of contact is greater, then,
Measure the distance travelled by the the friction will be greater too.
marble over the paper, using the meter scale. A road roller has a broad base, so it o ers
Replace the ‘rolling surface’ by placing the more friction on the road. But, a cycle has the
plastic sheet, wooden plank, cotton cloth, etc. least friction, since the area of contact of the
In each trial measure the distance travelled tyre with the surface of the road is less.
by the glass marble. Tabulate the distance
Advantages of
covered by the marble over each surface.
friction
Rolling Distance covered Friction is a necessity
S. surface by the glass marble in most of our day to day
No. placed on a er sliding down activities. It is desirable in most
the table (in centimetre) situations of our daily life.
1 Paper • We can hold any object in our hand due
2 Glass to friction.
3 Cotton cloth • We can walk on the road because of
4 Wood friction. The footwear and the ground
help us to walk without slipping.
Science 24
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• Writing easily with a pen on paper is due e lubricants ll up the gaps in the
to friction. irregular surfaces between the bodies in
• Automobiles can move safely due to contact. is provides a smooth layer thus
friction between the tyres and the road. preventing a direct contact between their
Brakes can be applied due to frictional rough surfaces.
resistance on brake shoes.
• We are able to light a matchstick, sew c) Using ball bearing:
clothes, tie a knot or fix a nail in the wall Since, the rolling friction is smaller than
because of friction. sliding friction, sliding is replaced by rolling
ough it is giving a negative e ect, in most with the usage of ball bearings. You can see
of our day to day life friction helps us to make lead shots in the bearing of a cycle hub.
our life easy. So, it is called as “necessary evil”.
Disadvantages of friction
Force
• Friction wears out the surfaces rubbing Force is de ned as ‘a push’ or ‘a pull’ acting
with each other, like screws and gears in on a body, which tends to change i) its state
machines or soles of shoes. of rest or of motion or ii) its shape. e SI
• To overcome the friction an excess amount unit of force is newton.
of effort has to be given to operate a Force acts only when two or more objects
machine. This leads to wastage of energy. interact with one other.
• Friction produces heat, which causes A force can start a motion, stop a motion,
physical damage to the machines. change the direction of motion, and can
change the shape or size of a body.
friction Pressure
e e ect of force can be measured using
a) Area of contact:
the physical quantity called pressure. It can
Friction can be increased by increasing be de ned as the amount of force or thrust
the area of the surfaces in contact. Have you acting perpendicularly on one square meter
seen the sole of a shoe, which has grooves? It area of a surface. Unit of pressure is pascal
is done to provide the shoes a better grip with (Pa) or Nm–2
the oor, so that you can walk safely. Treaded Fluids (liquids, gases and air) also exert
tyres (tyres with slots and projections) are used pressure.
to increase the friction. All objects on the surface of the Earth
Brake shoes in a cycle have to be adjusted experience a constant thrust or force due to
so that they are as close as possible to the rim the atmosphere.
of the wheel, in order to increase the friction. e amount of force due to the atmospheric
E.g.: Sumo players, Kabbadi players rub air that acts on unit surface area of the Earth
their hand with mud, to get a better grip. Football is known as atmospheric pressure.
shoes are having soles with many projections, Atmospheric pressure can be measured by a
for providing a stronger grip with the ground. device called barometer.
b) Using lubricants: 1 atmospheric pressure = 1 atm = pressure
A substance, which reduces the frictional due to 76 cm of mercury column in a
force, is called a lubricant. E.g.: grease, coconut barometer = 1.01 × 105 N m–2
oil, graphite, castor oil, etc.
25 Forces and Pressure
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Science 26
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4. The value of the atmospheric pressure at 7. Liquid pressure decreases with the
sea level is decrease of depth.
a) 76 cm of mercury column 8. Using barometers, one can measure the
b) 760 cm of mercury column height of a building.
c) 176 cm of mercury column 9. Surface tension causes the spherical
d) 7.6 cm of mercury column nature of a water drop.
5. Pascal’s law is used in 10. Viscosity depends on the pressure of a liquid.
a) hydraulic li IV. Arrange the following in the
b) brake system
c) pressing heavy bundles
1. Rolling friction, static friction, sliding
d) All the above
friction
6. Which of the following liquids has more 2. Let a marble roll on the following surfaces.
viscosity? Arrange the choice of the material such
a) Grease b) Water that a marble moving over it covers a
c) Coconut oil d) Ghee greater distance.
7. The unit of viscosity is Cotton cloth, glass plate, paper, card board,
a) N m2 b) poise silver plate
–1
c) kg m s d) no unit
V. Match the following
II. Fill in the blanks
Match: I
1. The pressure of a liquid column _____ Column I Column II
with the depth of the column. a) Static friction viscosity
2. Hydraulic lift works under the principle
b) Kinetic friction least friction
of _____.
c) Rolling friction objects are in motion
3. The property of _____ of a liquid surface
enables the water droplets to move upward d) Friction between objects are sliding
in plants. the liquid layers
4. A simple barometer was first constructed e) Sliding friction objects are at rest
by _____. Match: II
Column I Column II
III. State whether the following
a) Barometer reduce friction
statements are true or false:
b) Increase friction atmospheric pressure
1. Force acting on a given area is called
c) Decrease friction cause of friction
pressure.
d) Lubricants increasing area of
2. A moving body comes to rest due to
contact
friction alone.
3. A body will sink if the weight of the body e) Irregular surface decreasing area of
is greater than the buoyant force. contact
4. One atmosphere is equivalent to 1,00,000
newton force acting on one square metre.
5. Rolling friction is slightly greater than the 1. Knot in a thread : _____ friction; ball
sliding friction. bearing : _____ friction
6. Friction is the only reason for the loss of 2. Downward force : weight ; Upward force
energy. offered by liquid : _____
4. A bubble rises from the bottom of a pond 3. Concepts of Physics (Volume-1) 1st
to its surface by increasing its radius by 3 Edition (English, Paperback) H. C. Verma.
times its value when it was at the bottom. 4. Fundamentals of Physics (English,
Calculate the depth of the pond. (Hint: Hardcover) David Halliday
Pressure depends on the depth of the pond.
Volume is inversely related to pressure.)
[Science Olympiad]
1. h t t p s : / / w w w . y o u t u b e . c o m /
watch?v=Oe6bDTL3YQg
Observe the devices, gadgets or things 2. h t t p s : / / w w w . y o u t u b e . c o m /
around you. List out the types of friction involved watch?v=KndNN28OcEI
in each device? How would you minimise the 3. https://www.youtub e.com/watch?v=-
friction? Record your observations and discuss B5IBoZ08-I
your results with your classmates. 4. https://www.stufftoblowyourmind.com/
videos/51302-stuff-to-blow-your-kids-
mind-atmospheric-pressure-video.htm
5. http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/graphics/
1. Fundamentals of Physics (English, diagrams/forces/spouting_can.gif
Hardcover) David Halliday & Jearl Walker.
2. Principles of Physics, International Student
Version (English, Paperback) Jearl Walker,
David Halliday, Robert Resnick.
Mind Map
rust and force
Forces on solids-
Pressure Forces in liquids
friction
Atmospheric pressure
Buoyant force E ects of friction
and its e ects
Disadvantages
Methods to reduce
friction
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
• Select the “Fluid Pressure and Pascal’s Law” .You can view this page
• You can view this page .Touch the play button
• To get more idea about the Pascal’s Law for uid pressure through Experiment
Science 30
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UNIT
Lo y mountains covered with greenish We use mirrors in our daily life for various
vegetation, magni cent trees reaching up to purposes. We use them for decoration. In
the clouds, beautiful streams dri ing down the vehicles, they are used as rear view mirrors.
valleys, bluish sea water roaring towards the ey are also used in scienti c apparatus, like
coast and the radiant sky in the morning being telescope. e mirror is an optical device with
lled with golden red color, all give delight to a polished surface that re ects the light falling
our eyes and peace to our mind. But, can we see on it. A typical mirror is a glass sheet coated
them all without light? No, because, we can see with aluminium or silver on one of its sides
things around us only when the light re ected to produce an image. Mirrors have a plane or
by them reaches our eyes. curved surface. Curved mirrors have surfaces
Light is a form of energy and it travels in that are spherical, cylindrical, parabolic and
a straight line. You have studied in your lower ellipsoid. e shape of a mirror determines
classes, how it is re ected by the polished the type of image it forms. Plane mirrors
surfaces such as plane mirrors. In this lesson, form the perfect image of an object. Whereas,
you will study about other types of mirrors like curved mirrors produce images that are either
the spherical mirrors and parabolic mirrors and enlarged or diminished. You would have
their applications in our daily life. You will also studied about plane mirrors in your lower
study about the laws of re ection and the laws of classes. In this section, you will study about
refraction and some of the optical instruments, spherical and parabolic mirrors.
such as periscope and kaleidoscope, which work
on these principles.
31 Light
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Mirrors
¢
A spherical mirror, in which the re ection
of light occurs at its concave surface, is called
a concave mirror. ese mirrors magnify the
Figure 3.2 Concave and Convex mirrors
Science 32
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33 Light
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Highly diminished,
At in nity At F Virtual and erect
point sized
Science 34
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You can observe from the table that 2. They are used in torches, search lights
a concave mirror always forms a real and and head lights as they direct the light
inverted image except when the object is to a long distance.
placed between the focus and the pole of the 3. They can collect the light from a larger
mirror. In this position, it forms a virtual and area and focus it into a small spot.
erect image. Hence, they are used in solar cookers.
4. They are used as head mirrors by
doctors to examine the eye, ear and
throat as they provide a shadow-free
Take a curved silver spoon and see the image illumination of the organ.
formed by it. Now, turn it and nd the image
5. They are also used in reflecting
formed. Do you nd any di erence? Find
telescopes.
out the reason.
35 Light
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wider field of view as they are curved light, falling on a body having a shiny, polished
outwards. and smooth surface alone is bounced back.
2. They are found in the hallways of is bouncing back of the light rays as they fall
various buildings including hospitals, on the smooth, shiny and polished surface is
hotels, schools and stores. They are called re ection.
usually mounted on a wall or ceiling Re ection involves two rays: i) incident
where hallways make sharp turns. ray and ii) re ected ray. e incident ray is
3. They are also used on roads where the light ray in a medium falling on the shiny
there are sharp curves and turns. surface of a re ecting body. A er falling on
the surface, this ray returns into the same
medium. is ray is called the re ected ray. An
imaginary line perpendicular to the re ecting
surface, at the point of incidence of the light
ray, is called the normal.
e relation between the incident ray, the
re ected ray and the normal is given as the law
of re ection. e laws of re ection are as
follows:
• The incident ray, the
reflected ray and the
normal at the point of
Figure 3.3 Convex mirrors incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
• The angle of incidence and the angle of
List out various convex and concave mirrors reflection are always equal.
used in your daily life.
normal
incident ray reflected ray
Science 36
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Regular reflection
When a beam of light (collection of
parallel rays) falls on a smooth surface, it Take two plane mirrors and keep them
gets reflected. After reflection, the reflected perpendicular to each other. Place an object
rays will be parallel to each other. Here, the between them. You can see the images of
angle of incidence and the angle of reflection the object. How many images do you see in
of each ray will be equal. Hence, the law of the mirrors? You can see three images. How
reflection is obeyed in this case and thus a is it possible to have three images with two
clear image is formed. This reflection is called mirrors?
‘regular reflection’ or ‘specular reflection’.
Example: Reflection of light by a plane mirror
and reflection of light from the surface of still
water.
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bre is used instead of mirrors for obtaining line path. is bending of light about the
a higher resolution. e distance between the normal, at the point of incidence; as it passes
mirrors also varies depending on the purpose from one transparent medium to another is
of using the periscope. called refraction of light.
When a light ray travels from the rarer
medium into the denser medium, it bends
• It is used in warfare and navigation of towards the normal and when it travels from
the submarine. the denser medium into the rarer medium, it
• In military it is used for pointing and bends away from the normal. You can observe
firing guns from a ‘bunker’. this phenomenon with the help of the activity
given below.
• Photographs of important places can
be taken through periscopes without
trespassing restricted military regions.
• Fibre optic periscopes are used by Take a glass
doctors as endoscopes to view internal
beaker, ll it with
organs of the body.
water and place a
pencil in it. Now, look
at the pencil through
the beaker. Does it
appear straight? No. It
will appear to be bent
at the surface of the
water. Why?
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¾ e focal length of a spherical mirror is half ¾ Based on the nature of the surface, re ection
of its radius of curvature. can be classi ed in to two types namely,
¾ Real images can be formed on a screen, while i) regular re ection and ii) irregular re ection.
virtual images cannot be formed on a screen. ¾ e number of images formed by a mirror
¾ Concave mirrors form a real image and it can depends on the angle of inclination of the
be caught on a screen. mirrors.
¾ Concave mirrors are used as make-up ¾ Snell’s laws of refraction are: e incident ray,
mirrors. the refracted ray and the normal at the point
¾ Convex mirrors are used in vehicles as rear of intersection, all lie in the same plane; e
view mirrors. ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to
¾ e laws of re ection are: e incident ray, the sine of the angle of refraction (r) is equal
the re ected ray and the normal at the point to the refractive index of the medium, which
of incidence, all lie in the same plane. e is a constant.
angle of incidence and the angle of re ection
are always equal.
Mirror Glass sheet coated with aluminium or silver on one of its sides to
produce an image.
Center of Curvature e center of the sphere from which the mirror is made.
Radius of Curvature Distance between the center of the sphere and the vertex.
Pole Point on the mirror’s surface where the principal axis meets the mirror.
Principal Axis Line joining the pole of the mirror and its center of curvature.
Focus Point where the re ected rays converge at or appear to diverge from a
point on the principal axis.
Focal length Distance between the pole and the principal focus.
Re ection Bouncing back of the light rays as they fall on the smooth, shiny and
polished surface.
Specular re ection Re ection that obeys the laws of re ection and produces a clear image.
Di used re ection Re ection that does not obey the laws of re ection and does not
produce a clear image.
Kaleidoscope Device, which produces numerous and wonderful image patterns.
Periscope Instrument used for viewing objects, which are over and around
another body.
Refraction of light Bending of light about the normal, at the point of incidence; as it passes
from one transparent medium to another.
Refractive index Ratio of the speed of light in the air to the speed of light in that
particular medium.
Dispersion of light Splitting of white light into its seven constituent colours (wavelength).
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c) cradius of curvature
d) aperture
1. e spherical mirror used in a beauty
4. The spherical mirror used as a rear view parlour as make-up mirror is ___________.
mirror in the vehicle is 2. Geometric centre of the spherical mirror
a) concave mirror b) convex mirror is ___________.
c) plane mirror d) None of the above 3. Nature of the images formed by a convex
5. The imaginary line passing through the mirror is ___________.
centre of curvature and pole of a spherical 4. The mirror used by the ophthalmologist
mirror is called to examine the eye is ___________.
5. It the angle of incidence is 45 , then the
a) centre of curvature b) pole
angle of reflection is ________.
c) principal axis d) radius curvature
6. Two mirrors are parallel to each other,
6. The distance from the pole to the focus is then the number of images formed is
called
__________.
a) Pole length b) focal length
c) principal axis d) None of the above
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UNIT
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ions. Molecules are also made up of atoms of Greeks to represent the four basic elements around
same or di erent kinds. Hence, atoms are the us such as earth, air, re and water.
building blocks of matter. Alchemist symbol
1. Atom: An atom is the smallest particle of an In the days of alchemists, the di erent
element, which exhibits all the properties materials that they used were represented by the
of that element. It may or may not exist above-mentioned symbols while they try to
independently but takes part in every change less valuable metal into gold. e process
chemical reaction. We have learned about was called alchemy and the men who did this
the basics of atoms in Class VII, atomic work were known as alchemists.
structure chapter.
Dalton symbols
2. Molecules: Atoms of the same element
In 1808, John Dalton, English scientist
or di erent elements combine to form a
tried to name the various elements based on
molecule. A molecule is the smallest particle
these pictorial symbols. ese symbols are
of a pure substance (element or compound),
di cult to draw and hence they are not used.
which can exist independently and retain
It is only of historical importance.
the physical and chemical properties of the
substance. Pictorial symbols
3. Ions : Atoms or group of atoms having a
charge (positive or negative ) are called ions.
operations by symbols. For example (+) denotes Nitrogen Pot Ash Ole ant
Carbon Oxygen Carbonic Oxide
addition; (–) denotes subtraction, etc. In the
Sulphur C Copper Carbonic Acid
same way in chemistry each element is denoted
Phosphorus L Lead
by a symbol. Writing out the name of an element Alumina Water
Sulphuric Acid
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• e symbol O stands for the element of and uses. e wealth of a country is measured
Oxygen by the amount of gold in its reserve.
• One atom of oxygen ese days, metals and non-metals are
used for making tools, machines, cars, utensils,
etc. Some of the common metals used are iron,
Teacher: Dear students, let us play a memory copper, silver, gold, lead, zinc, aluminium,
game. is is an interesting game, which helps magnesium, nickel, chromium and mercury
you to remember the symbols and their names. etc. Similarly, the common non-metals used are
Make cards as instructed and then form a nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, sulphur,
small group with your class mates to play. phosphorus and chlorine etc.
INSTRUCTIONS: An element can be identi ed as metal or
Prepare 15 cards with the name of elements non-metal by comparing its properties with the
written on them and 15 cards with their general properties of metals and non- metals.
corresponding symbols. Here is a list of In doing so, we nd that some elements neither
names of elements (you have the freedom to t with the metals or with non-metals. Such
choose the name of the elements) elements are called semi-metals or metalloids.
Hydrogen Calcium Arsenic Elements are classi ed into metals,
Sodium Mercury Oxygen non-metals, and metalloids based on their
Argon Chlorine Gold properties
Magnesium Copper Helium ELEMENTS
Chromium Iron Manganese
How to play?
1. Shu e the 30 cards and place the cards METALS NON-METALS METALLOIDS
face down on the table.
2. Start the game. Each player will get a chance of
taking 2 cards at a time to see. If a player does
not get the correct pair, then he/she should Iron,copper,gold,silver, etc. that we use in
keep the cards at the original position. If the our daily life are metals. Can you add some
name and symbol of the cards match correctly, more examples that you come across in day
then he/she can show to all the players and to day activities.
can keep the correct pair of cards with him/
her. If correct pairs are shown, players will get
another chance until the player makes wrong
match. Game will continue till all the cards
are taken up. e winner is the one having
maximum number of cards.
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51 Matter
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2. Copper is used for making electrical wires, 3. Phosphorus is used in matches, rat poison etc.
coins and statue. 4. Nitrogen is used for manufacturing
ammonia.
5. Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent and in
sterilizing water.
6. Hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel and
hydrogen ame is used for cutting and
Figure 4.8 Coins contain nickel
welding purposes, as well as a reducing agent
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Let us tabulate some compounds and their constituents that we use in our daily life.
Water Hydrogen Oxide Hydrogen and oxygen For drinking and as solvent
Essential component of our daily
Table salt Sodium chloride Sodium and chlorine diet, preservative for meat and
sh.
Carbon, hydrogen Preparation of sweets, to ees and
Sugar Sucrose
and oxygen fruit juices.
Fire extinguisher, preparation of
Sodium Sodium, hydrogen,
Baking soda baking powder and preparation of
bicarbonate carbon and oxygen
cakes and bread.
Sodium Sodium,carbon and As cleaning agent in soap and
Washing soda
carbonate oxygen so ening of hardwater.
Bleaching Calcium oxy Calcium, oxygen and As bleaching agent, disinfectant
powder chloride chlorine and sterilisation of drinking water.
Quick lime Calcium oxide Calcium and oxygen Manufacture of cement and glass.
Calcium Calcium, oxygen and
Slaked lime White washing of walls.
hydroxide hydrogen
Calcium Calcium ,carbon and
Lime stone Preparation of chalk pieces.
carbonate oxygen
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Gases: Material which has neither de nite Metalloids: Elements which have some
shape nor definite volume, is easily properties of metal and some of non-metals
compressible and has no free surface is called are called metalloids. Some examples are
gas. arsenic, germanium etc…
Metals: Metals are elements that are hard Sonority: On being hit, metals produce a
and shiny in appearance.Some metals used in typical sound. ey are said to be sonorous.
our daily life are iron,copper,gold,silver, etc. is property is being made used in making
Metals conduct heat and electricity. temple bells.
Non metal: Elements that generally do not Symbol: e easiest way to represent the
shine, neither too hard nor too so are non- element and to write the chemical formulas
metals. All gases are non-metals.Some non- easily.
metals are sulphur,carbon,oxygenetc..
Disinfectant Chemical substance which kills or prevents the disease causing microorganism.
Semiconductor Substance which acts as bad conductor at low temperature and act as good
conductor at high temperature.
Reducing agent Substance which undergo oxidation reaction.
Carbohydrate Compound contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are called carbohydrate.
Bleaching agent Substance which is used to remove the colour.
Preservative Substance which prevent from food spoiling organism.
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3. Write the symbols for these elements 7. Name six common non-metals and write
a) Oxygen b) Gold their symbols.
c) calcium d) cadmium e) Iron 8. Mention any four compounds and their
4. Name two soft metals that can be cut with uses.
a knife. 9. Mention the metals that are used in
5. Which non-metal is essential for our life jewellery.
and all living beings inhale it during 10. Mention the uses for the following
breathing? compounds.
6 .Why are bells made of metals? a) Baking soda b) Bleaching powder c) quick
7. What does a chemical symbol represent? lime
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Hg Matter
Liquid
Cu Au Fe
metal
Metals
Solids Liquids Gases O2, N 2, H2
Br Non-metals
Example
No free surface
Example
NaCl SiO2 CaCO3 Do not ow No de nite
volume they
take the shape of Example
H 2O HCL containing vessel
CO2 SO2
is activity enables the students helps to know about the States of Matter
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Cells alive
URL: https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/states-of-matter-basics/latest/states-of-
matter-basics_en.htm (or) scan the QR Code
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