NAME :- SOURABH KUMAR

ENROLLMENT:- 16FLICDDN02061

BATCH:- B.A.LL.B 4TH YEAR

BALLISTICS

BALLISTICS is the science of the motion of projectiles, a branch of applied physics which
deals with the motion of projectiles. The term ballistics itself was derived from the Greek
word 'BALLO' Which Means literally to threw. Its root was implied or used in the name of an
early Roman War Machine called “ballista” - A gigantic bow or catapult which was then used
to hurl missiles or large stones or hard objects against their enemy forces.

WHAT IS FORENSIC BALLISTICS

FORENSIC BALLISTICS is that branch of firearms identification wherein the ballistics

report of the examiner such as firearm, bullet, slugs, and shells are, presented and identified
by the prosecution during the proceeding and in turn disputed by the defense counsel before
the court of justice. The term “forensic”as applied to ballistics or to any other subjects
suggests a relationship to a court of justice and legal proceedings. The term being derived
from the Latin word 'forum’, or a public place, wherein people gathered for discussion of a
subject in issue.

BALLISTIC FINGERPRINTING

Ballistic fingerprinting refers to a set of forensic techniques that rely on marks that firearms
leave on bullets to match a bullet to the gun it was fired with.

Ballistic fingerprinting techniques are based on the principle that all firearms have inevitable
variations due to marks left by the machining process, leaving shallow impressions in the
metal which are rarely completely polished out. Also, normal wear and tear from use can
cause each firearm to acquire distinct characteristics over time.

When a bullet is fired through a rifled barrel, the raised and lowered spirals of the rifling etch
fine grooves called “striations” into the bullet. These can be matched with the barrel through
which the bullet was fired. Examiners distinguish between striations common to all guns of a
particular type (“class characteristics”) and those unique to a particular gun (“individual
characteristics”).
Marks on the cartridge case can be matched to marks in the chamber and breech. For a
number of reasons, cartridge cases are often easier to identify than bullets. First, the parts of a
firearm that produce marks on cartridge cases are less subject to long-term wear, and second,
bullets are often severely deformed on impact, destroying much of the markings they acquire.

Ballistic fingerprinting of bullets does not work with firearms such as shotguns that fire shot-
containing cartridges. In many cases the shot rides inside a plastic sleeve that prevents it from
ever touching the barrel, and even in cases where the shot does touch the barrel, the random
movement of the shot down the barrel will not leave any consistent marks. But shotgun cases
can still be examined for firing pin marks and the like.

TYPES OF BALLISTICS

There are basically three types of ballistics, internal, external and terminal.

Internal ballistics is the study of what happens within the barrel of a weapon from the
moment the firing pin hits the primer to the time the bullets exits from the barrel. It is mainly
concerned with propellant pressures, acceleration of the missile whilst it is in the bore,
muzzle velocity and recoil.

Esoteric considerations such as primer ignition time, primer pressure/time curves and

temperature also come within the general subject matter of interior ballistics. These
considerations are, however, far too specialized to be dealt with in this book.
External ballistics deals with the flight of the bullet from the muzzle of the weapon to the
target. This is truly a terribly complicated subject involving parameters such as bullet shape,
sectional density, atmospheric pressure and even, in larger-calibre weapons, the rotation of
the earth. With the advent of powerful personal computers, this subject has, however, now
come within the realms of the average person. What took hours of complex calculations and
reference to books of flight time tables can now be achieved in a few moments.
Terminal ballistics deals with the behaviour of the missile once it reaches the target. This is
obviously not concerned with simply piercing a paper target, but what the missile does once it
encounters a material considerably denser than air. Whilst this will usually be concerned with
the missile -s performance and wounding capabilities in animal tissue, this could also include
its performance in water, soil, brick, concrete, wood or bullet-resistant materials.

FIREARMS:

As per the India Arms Act, S. 2(e) defines firearm as-

"firearms" means arms of any description designed or adapted to discharge a projectile or

projectiles of any kind by the action of any explosive or other forms of energy, and includes,
--
 (i) Artillery, hand-grendades, riot-pistols or weapons of any kind designed or adapted
for the discharge of any noxious liquid, gas or other such things,

(ii) accessories for any such firearms designed or adapted to diminish the noise or
flash caused by the firing thereof,

(iii) parts of, and machinery for manufacturing, firearms, and

(vi) carriages, platforms and appliances for mounting, transporting and serving
artillery;

TYPES OF FIREARMS

1.Rifle

A relatively long-barreled firearm, fired from the shoulder, having a series of spiral grooves
cut inside the barrel (a process called ‘rifling’) imparting a rapid spin to a single projectile.

2.Shotgun

A shoulder-fired long gun with no rifling in the barrel, designed to shoot a large number of
small projectiles (“shot”) rather than a single large projectile (“a bullet”).

3.Machine gun

A machine gun is a fully-automatic firearm. This means the weapon will continue to load and
fire ammunition until the trigger, or other activating device, is released, the ammunition is
exhausted, or the firearm is jammed..

4.Sub-machine gun

A hand-held, lightweight machine gun consisting of relatively low-energy handguntype

cartridges and fired from the hand, hip, or shoulder .

5.A revolver

It is a firearm that has a cylinder with a number of chambers. These chambers are designed to
be manually loaded with cartridges of the appropriate caliber and then, as the cylinder rotates
into position under the hammer, the trigger can be pulled, releasing the hammer causing the
cartridge to be fired.

6.Pistols

They are firearms designed for a more automatic operation. Cartridges are loaded into an
ammunition magazine which is inserted into the firearm. As long as cartridges are present in
the ammunition magazine and the firearm is functioning properly, the action of the firearm is
responsible for the feeding and chambering of the cartridge and the extraction and ejection of
the cartridge case once the cartridge is fired. They can be designed to fire semi-automatically
or fully automatic. Semi-automatic operation requires a pull of the trigger to fire each
cartridge. Fully automatic operation allows for multiple cartridges to be fired with a single
trigger pull for as long as ammunition is available to be fired

7.Craft weapons

according to Small Arms Survey, “craft production of small arms refers principally to
weapons and ammunition that are fabricated largely by hand in relatively small quantities.
Craftproduced small arms range from rudimentary pistols and shotguns to more advanced
assault rifles.” The homemade guns are included in this category. Homemade guns are crude
firearms roughly made from basic, household materials.

8.Other

Other types include air, gas, and antique guns, light weapons, etc.

BULLETS
One of the primary methods of categorising bullets is based on their calibre. Calibre refers to
the diameter of the bullet, which can be expressed in various terms, including millimetres
(metric system), inches (imperial system) or 100ths of an inch (American system). For
example, a 9mm bullet may also be referred to as a 0.35 inch bullet or .35 calibre. However it
must be taken into consideration that the calibre of a bullet does not necessarily prove the
calibre of the weapon used to fire it, as on occasion a cartridge too large or two small may be
used.
Bullets are generally composed of metal, although substances such as plastic or rubber may
be used. The core of a bullet most commonly consists of lead, as it is very dense and yet
easily moulded so as to produce a gas-tight seal in the barrel upon being fired. However this
also means that it will easily become deformed on impact, therefore it is commonly combined
with other materials, often copper, tin or antimony, to ensure it will withstand pressure.
The use of a lead bullet can also lead to a problem known as “leading”, in which friction
between the bullet and barrel results in the transfer of metal to the barrel, ultimately causing
less accuracy. Therefore copper is frequently used to jacket the bullet to reduce the lead being
deformed and improve the effects of rifling. For this reason lead is often combined with other
metals such as copper, tin or antimony to strengthen the projectile. Lubrication may also be
applied to the surface of the bullet. However these techniques can only reduce the problem of
leading, therefore bullets are commonly enclosed in some form of ‘jacket’.
A full metal jacket involves a metal such as copper being used to cover the entire outer
surface of the bullet. Fully jacketed bullets often display high accuracy and penetration. Some
bullets are semi-jacketed, with a partial copper covering with a hollow or blunt lead tip. In
this case the nose of the bullet is exposed and this type of bullet can severely deform on
impact into a ‘mushroom shape’, producing greater damage. Bullets may also be unjacketed,
though these projectiles have a low muzzle velocity and do not penetrate deeply.
Shotgun cartridges differ significantly from bullets. They are generally loaded with pellets or
shot, which are small, round metallic balls. Shotguns can also fire single, larger projectiles as
well. The shotgun cartridge may also contain a number of wads, which are designed to
provide a form of gas seal in the bore. These wads may be found at the scene or even
embedded in the target, and can be chemically analysed to provide details of the propellant
and primer.
artridges
The examination of cartridges, precisely-fitting metal cases containing the bullet, propellant
and primer, can provide vital information to an investigation. The composition of most
cartridge cases is brass, an alloy of zinc and copper, ideal due to its low density, though other
metals may be used. Similar to calibre, chambering refers to the shape and size of a cartridge.
The primer, held in the primer/percussion cap at the base of the cartridge case, consists of a
small amount of explosive, a fuel and an oxidiser. Modern primers generally consist of lead
styphnate, barium nitrate and antimony sulphide, though the substances used may vary. The
propellant, often referred to as “gunpowder”, is an explosive mixture designed to ignite and
produce enough hot gas to force a projectile from the firearm.
In some instances cartridge cases may be found at the scene of a shooting, though this often
depends on the type of gun used. As previously stated, self-loading handguns will eject the
cases from the weapon, whereas revolvers retain the cartridges until the shooter manually
removes them. However the absence of cartridge cases is not an accurate sign of the type of
firearm used, as the perpetrator may have picked up the cases from the scene before leaving.
Initially, any cartridge cases retrieved from the scene should be accurately measured in all
dimensions to aid future comparison. The examination of any cartridge cases found can
provide clues as to the firearm used during the shooting. For example, cartridges designed for
use in a revolver have projecting base rims, whereas those designed for self-loading firearms
do not.
Cartridge cases also bear more distinguishing features that can be used to identify them. The
headstamp is an indentation produced at the base of many cartridges during the
manufacturing process. These markings can then be used to trace a cartridge back to the
manufacturer and determine the make and type of the ammunition. Various sources are
available to help identify headstamps. When the firing pin strikes the cartridge case, a
characteristic indentation is caused that can be used to link cartridges to specific firearms,
similar to the comparison of rifling marks (discussed below). Other markings that should be
looked for include ejector, extractor and breech face marks. Firearms often have different
firing pin, extractor and ejector designs, therefore the examination and comparison of marks
produced by these implements can aid in establishing the firearm used. It should be noted that
it is possible for cartridge cases to be reloaded with a new bullet and fresh propellant and
primer and reused, in which case the cartridge may bear numerous additional markings.
Furthermore, cartridge cases recovered from the shooting scene should be examined for
fingerprints and similar forensic evidence.
Rifling
During the manufacturing process of firearm barrels, a series of spiralling lands and grooves
is produced along the inside of the barrel, known as rifling. Land refers to the raised portion
of these spiralling indentations, whereas the grooves are the lower portions between these
lands. Rifling, which can be one of numerous types, will be cut with either a left or right hand
twist, determining whether the bullet will spin clockwise or anticlockwise. As the bullet
passes through the barrel, these markings cause the projectile to spin, increasing stability and
accuracy whilst leaving characteristic marks on the bullet itself. The grooves present on the
surfaces of bullets are unique to the barrel that caused them, making rifling patterns ideal in
matching bullets to specific firearms. Bullets are often viewed side by side using a
comparison microscope, allowing rifling patterns to be contrasted and any similarities noted.
The type and number of spiral grooves, their measurements, and whether they rotate
clockwise or anticlockwise can help narrow down the search for the weapon used. Measuring
the calibre of a bullet and the angle of grooves can allow for the calculation of twists per
metre and thus provide further details of the rifling of a particular firearm.
Serial Number Restoration
During the manufacturing process, legally produced firearms are stamped with a uniquely
identifying serial number, usually on the barrel or action. These numbers are stamped into the
firearm, a process which also impresses the digits below the surface of the metal. Even
though criminals may attempt to erase these serial numbers to avoid the weapon being traced,
it may be possible to restore these serial numbers to a state in which they are legible. Serial
numbers are often erased by filing or grinding, which will not necessarily remove the digits
below the surface. Alternatively the perpetrator may attempt to change the serial number.
Various techniques and reagents have been used to successfully restore these original
numbers.
Fry’s Reagent is a substance composed of hydrochloric acid, copper(II) chloride, ethanol and
water, commonly used on iron and steel. Other reagents are available for use on other types
of metal. Initially the metal is polished to smooth the surface, a process which in itself may
partially restore some of the digits. Following this, the etching reagent is then applied using a
cotton swab, removing scratches and markings covering the numbers. This process can be
repeated until the entire serial number is restored. However chemical etching methods can be
very time consuming and are obviously damaging to the evidence.
An alternative method of restoring serial numbers on iron or steel is the Magnaflux method.
As in the chemical etching method, the surface to be treated is first smoothed. A magnet is
then attached behind the area and a mixture of iron filings mixed in a light oil is added to the
surface. These minute metallic pieces will hopefully arrange themselves to visualise each
digit. This technique is particularly beneficial due to its non-destructive nature, however it is
not effective on all types of metal.
Similar to serial numbers are proof marks, markings imprinted on a firearm specific to the
manufacturer or testing facility. These unique imprints are applied to a weapon before it is
released and after any significant repair work is conducted on the firearm.
Gunshot Residues
When a firearm is discharged, a cloud of gases and fine particles is released composed of
gunshot residues (GSR), sometimes referred to as firearms discharge particles (FDRs) or
cartridge discharge residues (CDRs). The mixture will often contain both organic and
inorganic particulates, the organic matter consisting of unburned and partially combusted
propellant and inorganic matter produced by hot gases acting on the bullet. When released,
these fine particles will settle on any nearby surfaces and are easily carried away from the
scene. The presence of such residues can provide strong links between suspects or objects
and the scene of a shooting, therefore various methods of detecting gunshot and other
residues have been developed.
Gunshot residues are initially collected using swabbing, washing an item with dilute acid,
film lifts or adhesive tape. Once collected, these resides can be analysed and compared both
physically and chemically. Initially colour tests such as the paraffin test were previously
used, though this lacked sensitivity and specificity so is no longer utilised. Further methods
such as the Greiss test were developed to detect gunshot residues, however it was soon
established that this technique was not sensitive enough and positive results could be caused
by any nitrites.
Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy has been
successfully utilised in visualising and detecting minute particles associated with firearms.
This technique allows for the morphology of the particles to be observed and their chemical
compositions established.
Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a technique primarily used for determining
concentrations of elements and has been used in the analysis of residues from firearms.
However the use of this technique is very expensive and requires access to a nuclear reactor
which is not readily available to all organisations. Flameless atomic absorption spectroscopy
(FAAS) largely replaced the use of NAA due to it having various advantages and costing a
more reasonable price.