AE3051 Experimental Fluid Dynamics

FORCE MEASUREMENT IN A SUBSONIC WIND TUNNEL

Objectives
The primary objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with the design,
calibration, and operation of a strain gage force and moment balance. This will be
accomplished by using balance of this type to make force measurements on a rectangular wing
fitted with a plain flap and end plates. In addition to learning techniques used in force
measurements, a secondary objective is to have the student become acquainted with the
operation of a subsonic wind tunnel and a computerized real-time data acquisition system.

BACKGROUND
a) The Aerodynamics Problem
The lift of a 2-D airfoil at a given angle of attack depends upon the curvature (camber) of
the airfoil section. The thin airfoil inviscid flow model predicts increasing lift with increasing
positive (concave downward) camber or with rearward movement of the location of the
maximum camber. At moderate angles of attack in a “real” viscous airflow this is also true.
Thus, the maximum value of the lift coefficient attainable with any airfoil increases with
increasing camber. This is of great benefit, since the higher the maximum lift coefficient the
lower the stalling speed. Also, the effective camber of an airfoil can be varied by deflecting a
segment of the airfoil such as a flap or aileron. It may be shown that, for a given amount of
deflection, the change in lift coefficient is larger if the deflection occurs at the trailing edge
rather than at the leading edge. Hence, flaps and ailerons are fitted at the trailing edge of an
airfoil or wing. The thin airfoil with flap was discussed in A.E. 2020.
The rectangular wing used in this experiment (see Table 1 for dimensions) is fitted with
end plates that inhibit the flow of air from the lower side of the lifting wing around the tips to
the upper side. Thus, the wing behaves as if it had no tips, i.e., as if it had an infinite span or
were a two-dimensional airfoil. This wing is fitted with a plain trailing edge flap. Lift and
drag forces on the airfoil will be measured as a function of wing angle of attack and flap
deflection angle. The lift results will show if increased flap deflection has the expected effect,
while the drag results will show whether an increase in lift at a fixed angle of attack by means
of a flap deflection is accompanied by any corresponding drag change. If there is a drag

Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2009 by H. McMahon, 1

J. Jagoda, N. Komerath, and J. Seitzman. All rights reserved.
AE 3051 Force Measurement in a Subsonic Wind Tunnel

increase this is not necessarily a disadvantage. For example, during landing the higher engine
power required to compensate for the drag increase will minimize engine acceleration time in
the event of a missed approach.
If the end plates are removed from the model, the behavior of the wing changes from one
of infinite span to one of finite span. The finite span wing will have a smaller lift coefficient at
a given angle of attack (i.e. the lift curve slope is reduced). Physically, this occurs because
some of the high pressure on the lower side of the wing that is contributing to lift is lost when
flow is allowed between the bottom and top surfaces. This was also discussed in A.E. 2020.*
The effect will be shown here by testing the wing with and without end plates at various
angles of attack for a fixed flap deflection angle.
b) Measuring Devices
The force-measuring device to be used in these experiments is the strain gage balance
shown in Figure 1. The lift, drag and moment arms each are fitted with four strain gages.
When, say, a positive lift is applied to the balance the vertical post is pulled upward. This, in
turn, transmits a down load to the lift arm through a linkage which is fitted with bearings to
minimize friction. The lift arm is a miniature cantilever beam (flexure); the load it experiences
causes a slight deflection at the end of the beam so that the upper fibers of the flexure are in
tension and the lower fibers are in compression. As a result of this, the two strain gages on the
upper surface exhibit an increase in electrical resistance while the two gages on the lower
surface show a decrease in resistance. The strain gage pairs are arranged as opposing resistors
in a 4-arm Wheatstone bridge circuit. Thus, when the lift load is applied the bridge is
unbalanced. The voltage supply to the bridge circuit, as well as the signal conditioning and
amplification is provided by an Omega DMD-465 module, which outputs an analog voltage.
This voltage is connected to the computer data acquisition system, which converts it to a
binary (digital) value, and the result is stored in the computer memory for future use.
If the unbalance of the bridge (voltage) is to be interpreted as a lift force, the voltage-force
relation must be known. Within the load limits of the balance this is a linear relation The
constant of proportionality is determined by calibration, that is, by applying known lift forces
(with weights and a calibration rig) and noting the corresponding voltage output of the lift-arm
strain gage bridge on the lift channel.
Ideally, application of a lift load should not introduce any force on the drag arm, and
vice-versa. However, due to balance imperfections, changes in one balance load will
invariably cause small changes in the readout of another. Thus, a change in lift load will result

*
See Anderson, Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, pp. 229, 256.

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in a small change in the drag voltage reading, and a drag load change will result in a small
change in the lift reading. Since the lift and drag are at right-angles (90 degrees) to one
another, any change in drag reading with a change in lift load (or vice-versa) is erroneous and
must be corrected for in the data reduction. This is termed a balance interaction correction.
The magnitude of these corrections can be found by simultaneously loading lift and drag
during calibration and recording the output of the two data channels, as explained below. The
interaction corrections are small and linear for a well-designed balance and can be included in
the data reduction scheme of the acquisition software so that correct force values are output
from the test.
Considering the interactions further and limiting our attention to only lift and drag forces,
i.e., neglecting the moment, there are four calibration constants to be found from the following
equations:

Lift (lb f ) = A × ΔVlift channel (Volts ) + B × ΔVdrag channel (Volts )

Drag (lb f ) = C × ΔVlift channel (Volts ) + D × ΔVdrag channel (Volts )
During calibration, the left-hand side of both equations is known for several different
combinations of applied loads. This is done by applying known weights as lift and drag loads
on the balance with the use of the calibration rig. The constants A, B, C, and D are found by
suitable matrix inversion methods. They represent:
A = change in lift force corresponding to a unit change in voltage on the lift channel
B = change in lift force corresponding to a unit change in voltage on the drag channel
C = change in drag force corresponding to a unit change in voltage on the lift channel
D = change in drag force corresponding to a unit change in voltage on the drag channel
The constants thus have units, e.g., lbf/Volt. All of the changes in aerodynamic force are
with respect to a zero datum reading with no airflow around the model (called the "wind-off"
reading) which is taken before the wind tunnel is started. If the balance is perfect, and there
are no interactions, then B = C = 0. Once these four constants have been determined by
calibration, measurements of voltages on the lift and drag channels during test will, by
substitution in the above equations, allow for the determination of the unknown magnitudes of
the lift and drag forces on the model. All of the mathematical operations are performed by the
computer software as part of the data acquisition process.
If the data are to be meaningful, each test run must be carried out at a (nearly) constant
value of wind tunnel dynamic pressure. Ideally, the magnitude of the lift and drag coefficients
would be independent of the magnitude of the dynamic pressure. In reality, this assumption

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AE 3051 Force Measurement in a Subsonic Wind Tunnel

might not be completely accurate, so the dynamic pressure should be held constant during a
particular data-taking run so that the coefficients will not be influenced by changes in
freestream conditions. The speed of the fan that drives the wind tunnel is nominally held
constant by the fan’s motor control system. This should produce a nearly constant wind tunnel
dynamic pressure. (If necessary, the dynamic pressure can be manually adjusted with the
tunnel speed control.) In addition, the data acquisition software will simultaneously acquire
and store the dynamic pressure along with the lift and drag data. The dynamic pressure is
measured directly by means of a Pitot-static probe* mounted in the freestream and connected
to the two sides of a capacitance-type differential pressure transducer. This transducer
interprets the displacement of a diaphragm due to a change in pressure difference across the
diaphragm as a change in capacitance in an electronic circuit, which is output as a DC voltage
change. This DC voltage is displayed on a digital voltmeter, which can be monitored by the
wind tunnel operator (as noted above, it is also connected to the data acquisition system).
Generally, the manufacturer arranges the pressure transducer and signal conditioner in such a
way that the maximum pressure difference which the transducer has been designed to measure
is made to correspond to an output of 10 volts.
c) The Wind Tunnel
A wind tunnel is a duct or pipe through which air is drawn or blown.** The Wright
brothers designed and built a wind tunnel in 1901. The basic principle upon which the wind
tunnel is based is that the forces on an airplane moving through air at a particular speed are the
same as the forces on a fixed airplane with air moving past it at the same speed. Of course,
the model in the wind tunnel is usually smaller than (but geometrically similar to) the full size
device, so that it is necessary to know and apply the scaling laws in order to interpret the wind
tunnel data in terms of a full scale vehicle. The wind tunnel used in these experiments is of
the open-return type (Figure 2). Air is drawn from the room into a large settling chamber (1)
fitted with a honeycomb and several screens. The honeycomb is there to remove swirl
imparted to the air by the fan. The screens break down large eddies in the flow and smooth
the flow before it enters the test section. Following the settling chamber, the air accelerates
through a contraction cone (2) where the area reduces (continuity requires that the velocity
increase). The test (working) section (3) is of constant area (42" × 40"). The test section is
fitted with one movable side wall so that small adjustments may be made to the area in order
to account for boundary layer growth, thus keeping the streamwise velocity and static pressure

*
Anderson, p. 128. You may also wish to read the lab manual for “Pressure Measurements in a Subsonic
Windtunnel.
**
Anderson, p. 123

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distributions constant. The air exhausts into the room and recirculates. The maximum
velocity of this wind tunnel is ~50 mph, and the turbulent fluctuations in the freestream are
typically less than 0.5% of the freestream velocity. Thus, it is termed a “low turbulence wind
tunnel.”

PRELIMINARY
The following items must be turned in at the start of your lab session.
1. Develop a single equation that gives difference between the total (stagnation) and static
pressure in the wind tunnel flow, which is known as dynamic pressure q, in units of mm
Hg (also called Torr) as a function of:
u, velocity of the flow (in mph),
Troom, room temperature (in °F)
proom, room pressure (in inches of Hg),
and two constants (i.e., numbers like “3.4”).

This means your equation should have only two numbers, and three variables (u, Troom and
proom). You will measure Troom and proom (in the units given) and use this equation to
determine the wind tunnel q (in mm Hg) for a wind speed given in mph. Watch your units,
this is part of your grade. Turn in the equation and its development.

2. Bring a suggested list of 8 angles of attack for making the lift and drag measurements (see
item 3 in the Procedure section below). This will save you time in the lab - and let you
leave earlier, if you have thought about what would be good values to test. In other words,
consider at what angles interesting “things” happen to the lift. It may help to check out
(look up) some lift versus angle of attack data for airfoils similar to ours (see Table 1 for
its dimensions). You may want to start out with symmetric airfoils since ours is symmetric
when the flap angle is zero. Note, the airfoil’s angle of attack can only be adjusted
between a range of roughly –2° to 18°.

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the rig containing the pulleys and weights to calibrate the lift and drag
measurements from the balance. The calibration constants are determined by applying
known loads in the two directions (i.e., upwards and backwards) and recording the
changes in voltage of the bridges. The calibration computer program will prompt you to
perform a number of measurements; it will provide the total weight that should be applied
to the lift and drag for each measurement. On completion, remove the calibration rig.

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2. Next, use the computer program to find the zero angle of attack deflection. You will
accomplish this by varying the angle of attack on the airfoil while monitoring the lift, with
the windtunnel operating.
3. The airfoil flap is set to a specified deflection angle (typically your choice); this
adjustment is done manually. During the test (step 5), the airfoil is run through a range of
angles of attack under computer control by sending an appropriate number of pulses to an
angle of attack drive stepper motor (Figure 1). Tests will be run at eight values of angle of
attack, which your lab group will pick.
4. The wind tunnel is started and the speed increased until the desired level of dynamic
pressure is reached. The desired level will correspond to a specified freestream velocity
supplied by the TA’s (typically, 30-38 mph). The resulting dynamic pressure must be
expressed in mm Hg since that is the measurement unit of the transducer (see
PRELIMINARY section).
5. Data are taken and stored on the computer using a LabView Virtual Interface (VI). The
data will be displayed in tabular and graphical form on the computer monitor.
6. You will repeat the measurements as a function of angle of attack for a total of three flap
deflection angles. After the flap tests are completed, the flap will be set at a fixed (but
nonzero) angle, the end plates will be removed, and one run will be made with the model
now a 3-dimensional wing. All sets of measurements (for each flap angle and for the 3-d
wing) must use the same angles of attack.
7. After the tests are concluded, the appropriate data files will be transferred by the TA’s to
the lab website for later data reduction (as noted below).

DATA TO BE TAKEN
1. Calculate the transducer (voltmeter) reading corresponding to a specified true airspeed,
i.e., a transducer reading corresponding to the specified speed at laboratory ambient
conditions. You must read room temperature and barometric pressure in order to perform
this calculation. You will need to use the expression (or an improved version) that you
developed before the lab (see the Preliminary section).
2. Run the data acquisition program. The result will be a series of files containing lift and
drag force in pounds versus geometric angle of attack in degrees for various flap deflection
angles (and, in one case, with no end plates).

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AE 3051 Force Measurement in a Subsonic Wind Tunnel

DATA REDUCTION
Express all forces in coefficient form, e.g. lift and drag coefficients. Make sure you use
the appropriate definitions of the coefficients for the airfoil versus the wing. The chord to be
used is the chord of the wing/airfoil from the wing leading edge to the flap trailing edge.

RESULTS NEEDED FOR REPORT

1. Wing geometry - chord of wing (including flap), span, chord of flap, planform, thickness
ratio, diameter of end plates.
2. Calibration constants for the balance.
3. Plot a figure showing lift coefficient (ordinate) versus angle of attack (C vs. α) for the ~2-
d wing at three flap deflection angles.
4. Plot a figure showing drag coefficient (ordinate) versus angle of attack (Cd vs. α) for the
~2-d wing at three flap deflection angles.
5. Plot a figure with drag coefficient as abscissa and lift coefficient as ordinate (C vs. Cd) for
two different flap deflections, the smallest and the largest. (Try to include both curves on
the same plot. If software limits you, make separate figures for the two flap angles.)
6. Plot a figure comparing the lift coefficients versus angle of attack for the model with and
without endplates.

Table 1. Dimension of rectangular planform wing.

Dimension Value (inches)

Span 18

Chord (including flap) 3

Flap Chord 0.75

Thickness 0.5

Diameter of Endplates 9 (equal to 3 chords)

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AE 3051 Force Measurement in a Subsonic Wind Tunnel

Figure 1. Strain gage balance and calibration schematics.

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AE 3051 Force Measurement in a Subsonic Wind Tunnel

Figure 2. Georgia Tech low turbulence wind tunnel.