Angular Kinematics

Describing Objects in Angular Motion

objectives
When you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Define relative and absolute
angular posi-tion, and distinguish
between the two
• Define angular displacement
• Define average angular velocity
• Define instantaneous angular
velocity
• Define average angular
acceleration
• Define instantaneous angular
acceleration
• Name the units of measurement for
angu-lar position, displacement,
velocity, and acceleration
• Explain the relationship between
average linear speed and average
angular velocity
• Explain the relationship between
instan-taneous linear velocity and
instantaneous angular velocity
• Define tangential acceleration and
explain its relationship to angular
acceleration
• Define centripetal acceleration and
explain its relationship to angular
velocity and tangential velocity
• Describe the anatomical position
• Define the three principal
anatomical planes of motion and
their correspond-ing axes
• Describe the joint actions that can occur at each of the major joints of the append-ages
This is concerned with angular kinematics, the description of angular motion. We described
kinematics as part of dynamics, which is a branch of mechanics. We also learned about linear
kinematics. Angular kinematics is the other branch of kinematics. Angular motion occurs when all
points on an object move in circular paths about the same fixed axis. Angular motion is important
because most human movements are the result of angular motions of limbs about joints. An
understanding of how angular motion is measured and described is important.

Angular Position and Displacement

Before further discussion, a definition of angle is needed. What is an angle? An angle is formed
by the intersection of two lines, two planes, or a line and a plane. The term angle refers to the
orientation of these lines or planes to each other (figure 6.1).

Figure. An angle (ș) formed by the intersection of two lines.

➲ an angle is formed by the intersection of two lines, two planes, or a line and a plane.

In figure the Greek letter ș (theta) is used to rep-resent the angle formed by the intersections of
the lines and planes. Greek letters are used to represent many of the terms used in angular
kinematics.

Angular Position
Angular position refers to the orientation of a line with another line or plane. If the other line or
plane is fixed and immovable relative to the earth, the angular position is an absolute angular
position. The angle your forearm makes with a horizontal plane describes the absolute angular
position of your forearm, because a horizontal plane is a fixed reference. These absolute angular
positions are our primary concern in the first part of this chapter.

If the other line or plane is capable of moving, the angular position is a relative angular
position. The angle your forearm makes with your upper arm describes a relative angular
position of your forearm, or your elbow joint angle. Angles formed by limbs at joints describe
relative angular positions of limbs. Anatomists have developed special terms for describing the
relative positions and movements of limbs at joints. These anatomical terms are presented in the
last part of this chapter.

What units of measurement are used for angles? You probably are most familiar with
measuring angles in degrees, but there are units of measurement for angles besides degrees,
just as there are units of measurement for linear distance besides feet.

A
a

B
A

A circle is used in describing the angle of a line (a) if the center of the circle coincides with the
inter-section of the lines defending the angle (b).
Line BC with the same length as AB. We could then draw a circle using the length of AB as the
radius and the point B as the center (figure 6.2b). The angle of ABC could then be described as
the fraction of the circle created by the pie ABC. An angle of 1° represents 1/360 of a circle
because there are 360° in a circle.

Another way to describe an angle is to measure how many radii are in the arc length AC if one
radius is equal to the length of line segment BC or AB. In other words, if the length BC
represents 1 radius, how long is the arc from A to C measured using this radius as the unit of
measure? Mathematically, an angle measured in radius units (we’ll call these radians) is
 arc length
  (6.1)
r r
where
ș = angular measurement in radians,
ℓ = arc length, and
r = radius.
The radian (abbreviated rad) unit of measure for an angle is really a ratio of arc length
divided by the radius.
Figure 6.3 graphically shows the definition of an angle of 1 rad, π (pi) rad, and 2π rad.
If you recall from geometry, the circumference of a circle is 2πr, so there are 2π rad in a
circle or 2π rad in 360°. These conversions are as follows:
360  2 rad  6.28 rad
circle circle circle
360 57.3
2 rad rad

Angular Displacement
Angular displacement is the angular analog of linear displacement. It is the change in
absolute angular position experienced by a rotating line. Angular displacement is thus
the angle formed between the final position and the initial position of a rotating line. (We
often speak of the angular displacement of an object when the object is not a line. To
measure such a displacement, choose any two points on the object. Imagine a line
connecting these two points. If the object is rigid, the angular displacement of this line
segment is identical to the angular displacement of the object.)
➲ Angular displacement is the change in absolute angular position experienced by a
rotating line.

As with linear displacement, angular displacement has direction associated with it. How is
angular direction described? Clockwise and counterclockwise are common terms used to
describe the direction of rotation. The hands of a clock rotate in a clockwise direction when you
view a clock face from the front. If you could view a clock face from the back, would you still see
the hands rotating in a clockwise direction? Because your viewpoint changed, the clock hands
would now appear to be rotating counter-clockwise! They didn’t change the direction of rotation;
you just changed your viewing position. If you describe an angular displacement as clockwise, a
person must know your viewing position to be certain of the direction of the angular
displacement.

A
r
c
l
e
n
g
t
h
r
adian
! s
1 r
1

r a
a d
d i
i a
a
n n

1 radius

2 ! n
s
radia

Figure. The relationships among the radius of a circle, the arc length along a circle, and
an angle measured in radians.

One way of overcoming this possible source of confusion is to first identify the axis of rotation
and the plane in which the part rotates. The axis of rotation is always perpendicular to the plane
in which the motion occurs. This axis of rotation is like the axle of a bicycle wheel, and the
spokes of the wheel lie in the plane of motion. Along the axis of rotation, establish a positive
direction. If you situate the thumb of your right hand so that it points in the positive direction along
the axis of rotation, the direction in which your fingers curl is the positive direction of rotation.
This is called the right-hand thumb rule.

Now consider the direction of rotation of the hands of a clock. The plane of their motion is the
clock face, and the axis of rotation is a line through the plane of the clock face. If the positive
direction along this axis is established as pointing out of the clock face toward you, the positive
direction of rotation is counterclockwise as you face the clock. Check this by pointing your right
thumb out away from the clock in the positive direction of the axis of rotation. Then observe the
direction in which your fingers curl—counterclockwise.

Most screws, nuts, and bolts have right-handed threads. They follow the right-hand thumb rule. If
you point your right thumb in the direction you want the screw or nut to move, your right fingers
curl in the direction in which the screw or nut must be turned. This sign convention also applies
to torques and measures of angular position.
Figure. The right-hand thumb rule. The direction in which the fingers curl indicates the positive
angular direction if the right thumb points in the positive linear direction along the axis of rotation.
 Now let’s consider how angular displacement is measured. A pitcher is being evaluated for
shoulder joint range of motion. The measurement begins with the pitcher’s arm at his side, as
shown in figure 6.5. The pitcher then raises his arm away from his side as far as he can (he
abducts his shoulder). What is the angular displacement of his arm?
The axis of rotation is the anteroposterior axis, a line through the shoulder joint with the
positive direction pointing out of the page toward us. The plane of motion is the frontal plane—
the plane formed by his arms, legs, and trunk. If the initial position of the arm is 5° from the
vertical and its final position is 170° from the vertical, the angular displacement is
ǻș = șf − și (6.2)
ǻș = 170° − 5°
ǻș = +165°

170°

Figure. Angular displacement of a pitcher’s arm at the shoulder joint around the anteroposterior
axis.

where
ǻș = angular displacement,
șf = final angular position, and
și = initial angular position.
The displacement is positive because the rotation is in the direction in which the fingers of your
right hand curl if your thumb is pointed in the positive direction of the axis of rotation (anteriorly
and away from the shoulder).

As a coach or teacher, you will rarely measure angular displacements precisely, but in some
sports, angular dis-placement is an important part of the skill. The number of twists or
somersaults done in diving, gymnastics, or figure skating is a measure of angular displacement
and plays an important role in how many points a judge awards. The angular displacement of a
swing (range of motion) in golf or tennis affects the manner in which the ball is hit in these sports.

Angular and Linear Displacement

We discovered that our muscles must pro-duce very large forces to lift modest loads. The reason
for this is that most muscles attach to bones close to the joint; thus they have small moment
arms about the joint. Because of the small moment arm, large forces must be produced by the
muscles to produce modest torques about the joints. The muscles are at a mechanical
disadvantage for producing torque.
References:

Introduction to Sports Biomechanics:

http://www.profedf.ufpr.br/rodackibiomecanica_arquivos/Books/Introduction%20to%20Sports

%20Biomechanics.pdf

Duane Knudson, Fundamentals of Biomechanics:

http://www.profedf.ufpr.br/rodackibiomecanica_arquivos/Books/Duane%20Knudson-%20Fundamentals%20of

%20Biomechanics%202ed.pdf

Robertson, Douglas “Introduiction to Biomechanics for Human Motion”