Technology For Prepreg Production PDF

2
Technology for prep reg

production of semifinished
products of polymeric composite
materials
V.M. Vinogradov, G.S. Golovkin, A.I. Gorokhovich,
V.A. Grechishkin and A.I. Tikhonov
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS FOR PREPREG

PRODUCTION
Prepregs - semifinished products of polymeric composite materials
(SPPCM) - present a system of fibrous fillers organized in a certain
way and combined with polymeric binders. They are used for manual
or mechanized (laying out, winding) assembly (forming) of blanks
(piles) with a designer-specified scheme of fibrous filler orientation,
with configuration close to that of the final part, which are then
shaped into the part by pressing, vacuum, pneumatic, autoclave or
thermocompression methods or by pultrusion.
In some cases the application of prepregs increases the cycle time
and labour consumption of production processes. Therefore it is best
to apply them when it is necessary to improve the quality and
toughness relative to weight of parts, thereby decreasing the spread of
physicomechanical properties of polymeric composite materials
(PCM). The choice of binder type and the nature and structural
orientation of the fibrous filler in a prepreg is determined by the
requirements imposed on the final part.
The process of prepreg production includes operations for prepara-
tion of binder and fibrous filler and their combination through
A. G. Bratukhin et al. (eds.), Composite Manufacturing Technology

© Chapman & Hall 1995
30 Prepreg production of PCM semifinished products
impregnation, stirring, layer-by-Iayer assembly or textile methods
(braiding, weaving etc.).
Combining PCM semifinished product components can be carried
out by liquid-phase (wet) or solid-phase (dry) methods.
In liquid-phase combination the binder, having the consistency of a
viscous liquid, moistens the surface of a fibrous filler and penetrates
the interfibrous space. The solid-phase combination provides for a
uniform distribution (by blank volume) of the fibrous filler of solid
binder particles.
The liquid-phase method for obtaining prep regs (impregnation) is
subdivided into impregnation without pressure and impregnation
under pressure.
During the process of impregnation without pressure, the binder
penetrates the interfibrous space under the action of surface-tension
and gravitational forces, while forces of viscous friction resist binder
movement. In impregnation under pressure the velocity of binder
movement along intra fibrous capillaries is increased by superposition
of additional forces (atmospheric or extra pressure, centrifugal forces,
wave pressure etc.).
Impregnation without pressure is performed by dipping, contact or
spraying. Methods of impregnation under pressure include vacuum,
pneumatic and vacuum-pneumatic impregnation, centrifugal and
extrusion impregnation, impregnation with vibration and impregna-
tion by stirring.
For solid-phase combination polymeric binders are used in the form
of powder, films or fibre. Powdery polymeric binders are combined
with fibrous fillers by stirring or spraying, film binders by means of
layer-by-Iayer alternation of binder film, and sheet fibrous, filler
(veneer, cloth, mat, paper) by packet (blank) assembly before shaping
of an article. Fibrous binders are combined with filler fibres by
weaving and braiding.
2.2 PCM SEMIFINISHED PRODUCTS OBTAINED BY LIQUID-

PHASE COMBINATION OF BINDERS
2.2.1 Preparation of Polymeric Binders
Compositions of polymeric, oligomeric, resin and monomeric com-

pounds or their mixtures, including various additions, determining
material properties (of hardeners, initiators, catalysts, accelerators,
diluents, solvents, elastifiers etc.), are used as binders in PCM prepreg
manufacturing. The binders may be in the following physical states:
solid (partially crystalline or amorphous), elastic and viscous-fluid.
Liquid-phase combination of binders 31
The state depends upon the chemical structure of the molecular chain
and its molecular weight.
Binders in a viscous-fluid state are used for impregnation. Some
resins and oligomers have the properties of a viscous liquid, for
example polyester maleinate resins and oligo ester acrylates (PN-
I, ... ,PN-4, PN-ll, TGM-3, MGF-9, TMGF-ll, etc.) and epoxy resins
(EO-20, EO-16, etc).
The viscosity of polyester maleinates is sharply decreased by
introducing monomeric or oligomeric hardeners in their composition
(for example styrene or the oligoester acrylate TGM-3, which is less
toxic).
The viscosity of epoxy resins is decreased by introducing low-
molecular-weight epoxy oligomers as diluents (DEG-l, TEG-l, etc.),
copolymerized with resins during the solidification process. Solid
phenolformaldehyde resin is dissolved in furfural (FN binder), which
is an active diluent and hardener at the same time. Furyl alcohol may
be active diluent for phenolformaldehyde resin.
Active diluents introduced into the composition of binders affect
the structure and operating properties of the polymeric matrices.
Thus, for example, with increasing amount of the diluent OEG-l in an
epoxy binder, built into the polyepoxide grid and increasing the
distance between cross-bonds, the heat resistance of a plastic is
sharply decreased. Therefore, to achieve the required viscosity, pas-
sive solvents are added to binders - acetone, ethanol and ethanol-
acetone mixtures being the most commonly used solvents. Cyclohex-
ane, dioxane, methyl ethyl ketone, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, and
aromatic chlorohydrocarbons may also be used.
In selecting solvents, the solvent and polymer solubility parameters
'Y should be taken into consideration. A solution will be formed only if
the 'Y of the solvent and that of polymer are similar [2].
To improve prepreg production, it is necessary to use the melts of
binders based on resins instead of solutions. Impregnation of fibrous
fillers with polymeric binders is preferably effected using with melting
technology, because 3-6% of polymer solutions are in a fluid state.
Preparation of binders is performed in anchor, propeller and
planetary plate stirrers [3]. The viscous components of the binder are
first mixed in impeller stirrers. The stirrer tanks are equipped with
jackets through which a thermostatting liquid flows, ensuring the
required thermal regime for mixing of the binder components. The
binder components are loaded into the stirrer in a specific order: first
the resin and oligomer, followed by diluents, solvents, plastifiers and
other components. Before loading each component, those introduced
earlier are thoroughly dispersed. To prevent premature gelatinization,
hardeners and initiating agents are added at the end, the temperature
of thermostatting liquid being decreased simultaneously. Accelerators
and catalysts of solidification processes are added to the binder
directly before its use. Large pieces of solid resins are ground before
loading to sizes of no more than 5-10 mm in hamprer-type mills.
Combination of solid resins with elastomeric modifying agents
(rubbers) is performed in a roll mill.
Polymer powders and granules are first poured together with half of
the quantity of solvents to obtain polymer smolling, and then
remainder of the solvent is added and the binder is stirred until a
homogeneous solution is formed.
The suitability of a binder for prepreg production is determined
from its technical characteristics, some of which are also used in the
calculation of technological parameters of the processes of making
prepregs and shaping finished articles from them [4, 5].
The main technical characteristics of binders include density, binder
concentration, viscosity, quantity of volatiles, time to form a viscous-
fluid state (gelatinization), solidification time, exothermic nature,
elasticity of binder-component vapours and surface tension. The
binder density, determined by pycnometric or areometric methods,
depends upon the density of the components and their ratio in the
binder. If the densities Pi and relative volumes V; of the binder
components are known, the binder density is calculated as
n
Pc= L P;Vi
;= 1
This parameter is a definite characteristic of the binder. The con-

centration of binder components is determined by the density.
Binders with the maximum concentration (40-60%) are used in the
production of prepregs, since in this case deposition of the binder on
the surface of a fibrous filler is increased. On the other hand, highly
concentrated binders are very viscous, their rate of penetration into
intrafibrous space of filler is low, and thus the degree of impregnation
is reduced. Industrial polyester binders of PN type, containing from 28
to 45% styrene have viscosity from 0.5 to 2.5 Pa s. The viscosities of
binders based on various epoxy compositions vary from 0.1 to
1.5 x 104 Pa s, and ethanolic solutions of phenolformaldehyde resins
from 0.04 down to 10 Pa s with solvent contents from 35 to 55% [6].
Under laboratory conditions, the binder viscosity is determined by
capillary, rotating and falling-ball (Hepler) viscometers. To carry out
rapid analysis under production conditions, capillary viscometers
with calibrated holes (viscometers V3-3 and V3-4) are often used. In
this case the outflow time for a specified volume of binder through the
calibrated hole under the action of gravity is taken as an index of
viscosity, which can be transferred into a measurement in Pa s using
readily available tables.
The optimum viscosity of binders used in the impregnation of
fibrous fillers is in the range of 0.1-1 Pa s. The binder viscosity T/ c
depends upon the concentration C and molecular weight M of
dissolved resin (oligomer, or polymer), solvent viscosity T/ p and
temperature T and may be estimated by the following equations:
T/c = T/p(cT/x + ac 2 ) + 1 (2.1)
IT/Ix =kM a (2.2)

T/p = T/aeu/RT (2.3)
where IT/Ix is the characteristic viscosity of the solution, a, k, a and T/o

are constants, U is the energy of viscous-current activation, R is the
universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature.
The sources of volatile products and binders are passive solvents
and low-molecular-weight substances, reduced during solidification of
the binder. During solidification at high temperatures and under
vacuum treatment, volatile reactive components (monomers, harde-
ners, active solvents) may be removed from the binder. As a result, the
stoichiometric composition of the binder is changed and the
properties of solidified compositions deteriorate sharply.
Therefore the volatility of the binder components is taken into
consideration when determining the maximum degree of vacuum in
the vacuum impregnation of fibrous filler and in the membrane
methods for shaping articles from prepregs (vacuum, pneumatic and
autoclave shaping).
The viscosity of a thermosetting binder even at room temperature
grows as a result of chemical reactions causing an increase in its
molecular weight. In certain cases the polymeric part of the binder
loses its fluidity and is transformed into a gel-like state. With
increasing temperature, the gel formation occurs for a shorter time.
The gelatinization time 'frtJ for the majority of thermosetting binders is
related exponentially to the absolute temperature T:
(2.4)
where 'fa is a preexponential factor and Q is the energy of activation of

the solidification process. For example, for the binder EDT-lOP this
dependence takes the form [6]
Temperature 293K 313K 353K 393K 413K
gelatinization time 6 days 3 days 2h 15 min 8 min
Thus, in increasing the temperature in order to decrease the
viscosity of the binder and accelerate impregnation and improve
prepreg quality, it is necessary to take into consideration the sharp fall
in the binder gelatinization time and consequently impregnation
time.
The gelatinization time under laboratory conditions is determined
on a plastomer with parallel plates, using a torsion pendulum, or the
thermopeak method, while under production conditions the plate
method is employed [4, 5]. An important role is played in the
impregnation process by the surface tension 0', which for most
binders is the range 25-40 m N / m. The value of 0' may be decreased
by introducing various solvents and surface-active substances [7] into
the binder composition. The binder surface tension is heat-sensitive.
For various solvents introduced into the binder the thermal coefficient
of surface tension dO' / dT lies within the range 0.08-0.12 mN / m K.
2.2.2 Preparation of fibrous fillers

Various fibrous structures of continuous and staple fibres are used for
the manufacture of prepregs. The continuous structures include
thrown and unthrown primary threads, consisting of 100-200 eleme-
ntary fibres, cords, obtained by combination of primary threads, as
well as unidirectional tapes. This group also includes cloths made of
continuous fibres with different types of braiding, soft glass canvases
of sewn-through type etc. The staple structures are used for the
manufacture of rigid canvases and volume blanks, obtained by
spraying or deposition, or vacuum moulding of cloth on paper.
In the shaping of elementary fibres their surface is covered by
lubricants based on mineral oils, fatty acids, polyvinyl alcohol etc., in
order to improve the textile properties of the fibres (rewinding,
weaving etc.). However, the lubricants cause a large deterioration in
the adhesion properties of the fibres, and they are removed before
impregnation by washing off in a suitable solvent or by heat treatment
at the temperature exceeding the destruction temperature of the
substance from which the lubricant was manufactured. For mineral-
oil-based lubricants heat treatment is preferred: the amount of
lubricant on the surfaces of glass fibres was decreased by washing off
from 1.5-2% to 0.3-0.6%, while after heat treatment at 573 K only
0.05% remained. The wettability of heat-treated fibres by binder is
sharply increased owing to increasing surface energy. However, the
residual stress in a material shaped from such a semifinished product
of polymeric composite materials arising at the fibre-binder boundary
owing to the large difference in thermoelastic properties is increased.
To decrease this stress and increase the cohesive strength of reM
components, the fibres are coated with dresses - multifunctional
compounds that can interact with the fibre surface and the binder.
Dresses of types AGM-3 and AGM-9 are used for epoxy and
phenolformalaldehyde binders, and those of types GVS-9 and GKJ-12
for polyester binders. These dresses are surface-active substances;
therefore they may be introduced into the binder composition. In the
case of impregnation these dresses are put into filler surfaces in the
form of thin films. To decrease residual stresses more effectively the
high-molecular weight block copolymers of the type KEP-2, which
form mobile films with thickness of up to 250 A on the surface of a
fibrous filler, are used as dresses, introduced into the binder.
Recently, so-called direct lubricants have been developed; these are
compositions including substances (usually organosilicon compounds)
that increase the adhesion strength of binder and filler. Dressed and
nondressed glass fibres, which are stored for a long time before the
preparation of semifinished products of polymeric composite
materials, are dried at temperatures of 80-100°C in order to remove
the adsorbed moisture.
The surfaces of carbon fibres are coated by a layer of textile blend on
a base of polyvinyl alcohol. The lubricant and moisture adsorbed by
the surface are removed by heating the fibre in nitrogen (for example
by passing an electric current through it). This surface is then coated
with a layer of dresses or protecting polymer. The best results are
obtained when the surface is first coated with a thin layer of
monomer, well moistening the fibre and filling open pores. After
polymerization of the monomer, the fibres are coated with a thin layer
of protecting agent, filling surface defects. Surfaces of carbon fibres are
oxidized in strong oxidation agents (e.g. boiling HN03 ). As a result of
this, the fibre surface is increased by an order of magnitude and the
number of active hydrogen, oxygen, alcohol and phenol groups
causing higher surface energy is increased. An especially effective
method is the combination of a lubricant film dissolved electrochemi-
cally with ultrasonic action.
In spite of the fact that the surface energy of boron and its oxides is
much greater than that of carbon fibre, polymeric binders moisten it
rather poorly. The contact angle for the moistening of boron fibres
with epoxy resin is about 30°. This is because of pollution of the fibre
surface with adsorbed substances. The surface of fibre can be cleared
with aqueous acids or boiling ethanol. As a result of such treatment,
there is desorption together with removal of oxide film from fibre
surfaces, and the surface energy grows, with a concomitant decrease
in contact angle to 5-7 [1, 14].
0
It is mainly fibres of the PCM types, prepared from aromatic

polyamides, that are applied in industry for the manufacture of
prepregs from organic fibres. The surfaces of these fibres are usually
coated with a textile blend, which is washed of in a suitable solvent
before application of the binder. Polyamide fibres are extremely
hygroscopic; therefore, before impregnation, they are dried at a
temperature below the temperature of the fibre-forming polymer
vitrification.
Organic fibres are structurally inhomogeneous. Many of them
consist of orientated rods with high degrees of crystallinity and an
amorphous shell.
In obtaining prepregs, the low-molecular-weight components of the
binder diffuse in the amorphous shells of fibres, fill microdefects and
interact with the functional groups of the fibre-forming polymer. After
curing of the binder, the boundary between the components of the
organic plastic becomes diffuse, and the strength of adhesion of
binder and filler becomes higher than the transverse strength of the
fibre. Swelling in binder components at high temperature may cause
disorientation of the fibres and decrease their elastic characteristics
and strength. In addition as a result of diffusion of low-molecular-
weight components of the binder, the composition of the resin phase
in the fibre is changed, as a result of which the curing of polymeriC
matrix is incomplete, especially in directly neighbouring zones. To
avoid these effects, the surface of organic fibres is coated with a
barrier layer [1, 151.
2.2.3 Technological characteristics of fibrous fillers

The following characteristics and properties of fibrous fillers are
technologically relevant:
1. Diameter of elementary fibres d(f,Lm);
2. Linear density of long fibrous structures; (threads and bundles) t I
measured in terms of tex' the mass (in g) of a thread or bundle with

a length of 1 m.
3. Surface density of sheet fibrous structures (cloth, canvas and
paper), m (kg/m 2 ).
4. Relative volume porosity (coefficient of porosity) of fibrous struc-
tures n in the delivery state, calculated from the formula
n =1 _ PCTP (2.5)
PHAN
where PCTP is the density of the fibrous structure (kg/ m 3) and PHAN
is the density of the material from which the fibre is manufactured
(kg/m3 ), which depends on the packing pressure. The functional
dependence n = !(p) is determined experimentally by packing
model packets under various pressures. In the process of packing
the pile height is measured. The experimental dependence is
plotted as h = fOg p) (packing curve), where h = HpjHo is the
relative height of the pile (H pi is the height of the pile under a
pressure Pi and Ho is the initial height of the pile).
The dependence n = f(p) is found from the packing curve via the
formula
m
n=1----- (2.6)
PHANHpiBL
Figure 2.1 illustrates packing curves for various glass-fibre fillers;
it is possible to identify three zones. The first is characterized by
large reversible elastic bending deformations of the fibre bundles.
The quantity and area of contact between fibres in the second zone
are increased and the contact stresses grow. In the third zone
destruction of the fibrous filler begins, since contact stresses reach
the fibre strength limit.
Within the first zone, the relation between the relative thickness
h
1·0
0·8
~•~~ ~~ t-..
"l
~~ !-.
t-. ~
0·6
l
~ ~t. '?
0·4 ""-j
0·2
~
~ ~~ ...
~~ -
-L
- 5
')
o 6
0·10·20·30·50·812345 8 \0 203050 100 200 300
px 10-'(MPa)
(a)
h
1·0 , ,
0·9 -....... --.. ,
0·8
--......:.'
-
0·7
0·6
0·5
0·10·20·30·50·81·02345 810 203050100 200 300
pxlO-'(MPa)
(b)
Figure 2.1 Packing curves (--, loading) and (- - - -, unloading) for piles of
various glass-fibre fillers (a) and braid cloth (b): 1, braid cloth; 2, cloth of linen
weave; 3, canvas from continuous threads; 4, canvas rigid from cut fibres; 5,
canvas of aerial drawing; 6, soft canvas.
Table 2.1 Coefficients A and B of various types of glass fillers
Type of glass-fibre structure Coefficients
A B
1. Braid cloth 0.812 0.188

2. Cloth of linen weaving 0.837 0.185
3. Canvas, inflexible, of chopped fibres 0.606 0.394
4. Canvas of continuous threads 0.626 0.374
5. Soft canvas 0.523 0.477
6. Canvas of airy drawing 0.555 0.445
of the pile h and the packing pressure p is described well by the

formula
h =A - B 19p (2.7)
where A and B are coefficients whose values are given in Table 2.1.
It follows from the packing curves that when the pressure is
increased above the first-zone boundary, the decrease in packet
porosity and consequently the decrease of the fibrous filler content
are considerably delayed. From the packing curves, taking into
account the mass per unit area of sheet fibrous fillers m the
coefficient of porosity n, and the relative volume content of fibre in
the pile VB may be determined from the formulae
m
n=l---- (2.8)
PHANHpi
m
vB = l - n = - - - (2.9)
PHANHpi
5. Deformation-strength characteristics - modulus of elasticity of the

fibre E and break-up strength of the fibrous structure O"B (threads,
braids, fabrics etc). - are taken into account when specifying the
forces for drawing fillers through the channel of the impregnating
machine and the diameters of the machine rollers.
6. The surface energy of fibrous filler a allows a judgment to be made
about the possibility of combining it with a particular type of
binder. The surface energies of various fibres are given in Table 2.2.
7. One more important characteristic of the fibrous-filler-binder pair
is the contact angle of wetting e. Wetting of the fibre surface and
penetration of binder into the capillaries of the fibrous structure
take place only when e < 90°. Some technological characteristics of
mats (canvases) and woven fillers are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.2 Surface energy of various fibres
Type of fibrou s filler Surface

energy
a (erg/cm 2 )
1. Aluminoborosilicate 425
2. Quartz, amorphous 260
3. Boron 250
4. Carbon 50-70
5. CPM 30-40
6. Metallic 1300
7. Thread-like crystals to 2000
2.2.4 Liquid-phase combination of binders and fillers

(impregnation)
In the impregnation process the fibrous binder is either dipped into
the binder (impregnation by dipping), brought in contact with the
binder surface (contact impregnation) or sprayed onto the filler surface
(combination with spraying [16].
Penetration of the binder into the intra fibrous space is performed
under the force of surface tension, gravity, atmospheric pressure or
external forces applied to the binder (excess gas pressure, centrifugal
force etc.). Resistance of the fibrous filler to penetration of the binder
depends upon the pore sizes of the intra fibrous space. Since the pore
dimensions vary, the forces required to fill them with binder may be
different. However, since under real conditions the rates of binder
movement along the intrafibrous capillaries are extremely low, the
penetration characteristics of a porous medium are estimated by an
integral characteristic, the penetration coefficient K [6], which char-
acterizes the passage of a binder with viscosity 1/ through a porous
medium under a pressure p. It is calculated from the formula
K = 1/Qc1 (2.10)
5 ~p
using data obtained by experiments on model stands and packets of
fibrous fillers, impregnated with binders. In this formula 1/ is the
coefficient of dynamic viscosity (Pa s) Qc is consumption of binder
penetrating through the pile (em3 /s), I and s are the length and
cross-section of the pile, and ~p is the pressure difference along the
pile length (MPa). The value of the penetration coefficient depends
upon the structure of the fibrous filler and its anisotropy degree in
various directions.
The data given in Table 2.4 indicate that the penetration coefficients
K in cloths with various weaving patterns in the warp and weft
Table 2.3 Some technological characteristics of mats (canvases) and woven
fillers
Type Type of Type of inter- Surface Thick- Relative

of cloth, weaving density ness volume
fibre canvas (kgjm2) n porosity
(mm)
T-I0 Satin 8/3 0.29 0.23 0.486

T-ll Satin 8/3 0.39 0.30 0.480
T-12 or 5/3 0.37 0.30 0.510
T-13 0.29 0.27 0.570
T-14 0.31 0.29 0.573
A-I Linen 0.11 0.10 0.560
A-2 0.07 0.06 0.534
TCU8/E-VM Satin 8/3 0.32 0.27 0.526
TUPR Linen 0.29 0.26 0.554
TS-5N 0.30 0.47 0.545
MTTS-2.1 Volume 2.10 2.20 0.618
MTBS-2.5 weaving 2.90 2.5 0.536
8.60 8.4 0.590
Glass MTBS-8 Cut glued 0.20-0.6 0.3-1.5 0.736-0.770
fibre Rigid threads,
canvas length
30-60mm
Soft Cut threads, 0.6-2.5 0.9-3.0 0.734-0.5
canvas fastened
by sewing
HJKN Continuous 0.3-0.5 0.5-2.0 0.760-0.90
glued
threads
laid in
8-form
Organic Linen 0.11 0.25-0.3 0.662-0.718

fibre
of 0.075 0.15 0.615
CPM Coarse 0.18 0.35 0.605
cloth 2/2
0.11 0.20 0.577
Satin 8/3 0.16 0.40 0.692
Unidirectional 0.17 0.35 0.626
tape
Table 2.4 Penetration coefficients of glass-fibre fillers
Structure of Penetration
glass-fibre filler coefficient K X 10 3
By warp Perpendicular
and weft to thickness
1. Cloth of linen weave 0.1-0.2 0.002-0.004

2. Cloth of satin weave 0.15-0.25 0.003-0.005
3. Braid cloth 0.25-0.35 0.004-0.008
4. Glass mat 0.7-1.0 0.05-0.62
directions differ little from each other, and decrease sharply in the
direction perpendicular to the sheet-filler thickness.
With increasing degree of packing of the impregnated fibrous filler,
its penetration coefficient decreases according to equation
(2.11)
where A', B' and D are coefficients whose values for glass-fibre fillers
are given in Table 2.5.
The woven fillers in the second zone of deformation become
practically impenetrable [17].
Impregnation of fibrous fillers without pressure

Impregnation of fibrous fillers by dipping. Drying of prepregs
During impregnation by dipping, the fibrous filler in the form of
threads, braids or cloth is rewound from spools, drums or rolls and
transferred along the plant channel for impregnation with binder in a
Table 2.5 Coefficients for determination of penetration of packed glass-fibre

fillers
Type of fibrous structure Coefficients
A' B' D
1. Braid cloth 435 382 81

2. Linen cloth 457 510 136
3. Cord cloth by warp 580 577 118
by weft 225 834 121
4. Rigid cloth 1880 1300 252
5. Canvas of continuous threads 5230 4750 1630
6. Canvas of aerial stretching 2360 2265 580
Figure 2.2 Mechanism of impregnation of fibrous filler with binder: I, binder;

2, braid (Palm and Rmp are atmospheric and impregnation pressures respe-
ctively); 3, 4 elementary fibres.
bath. At the outlet from the impregnation bath the binder is pressed
and the prepreg is directed to a drying chamber, where solvent is
removed and the binder is precured. The prepreg is then rolled-up,
inserting a film between the layers if there is any danger of the
semifinished product sticking. Figure 2.2 shows the regularity of
binder penetration into the intra fibrous space of the filler.
A braid of diameter 2R is in a bath with the binder to a depth ilH.
The binder penetrates into the intra fibrous space of the braid through
the side surface, through slits of width 8, in parallel with the
elementary fibres.
The movement of the binder during impregnation of the fibrous
filler is described well by Darcy's law
dp
Vq, = K- (2.12)
dR
where Vq, is the penetration rate and K is the penetration coefficient
and dp / dR is the pressure gradient along the braid radius.
In accordance with the theory of the hydraulic radius, the K is
related to the characteristics of the impregnated filler and binder
(2 .13)
K =bh(1- n?f
where a' = sin2 a is the orientation factor of the pore channels with
respect to the direction of binder flow (for randomly distributed
fibres a' = 0.75), b is the channel form factor (for channels between
rectangular cylinders b = 3) and f is the specific surface of the fibres
(the ratio of fibre surface length to cross-sectional area). The im-
pregnation pressure is a combination of several components-
capillary, hydrostatic and atmospheric pressures:
2(1' cos e
Pnp = 8 + Pg W + palm - ps (2.14)
Air in the intra fibrous spaces sets up resistance to binder move-

ment. Convergence of elementary fibres occurs under action of the
specific capillary force AF2 = (1' sin e and there is a consequent decrease
in 8 and the impregnation rate.
Impregnation is intensified by vacuum treatment of the intrafibrous
space of the filler (vacuum impregnation), increase in pressure under
the free surface of the binder (pneumatic impregnation), excitation of
acoustic pressure in the binder (impregnation through mechanical
vibration), application of centrifugal force (centrifugal impregnation)
and other methods.
In emerging from the impregnation bath, the fibrous filler surface,
together with binder that has penetrated into the intrafibrous space,
picks up a layer of more binder, whose thickness may be determined
from the formula
8 = 1.32RV( 1]:nr/3 (2.15)
for a braid of radius R, drawn with speed Vn through a bath of binder

with volume concentration V and viscosity 1].
For a cloth emerging from the bath at an angle ex with the
horizontal,
0.94 (1]Vn ?/3
8= - - - - -----''-------'''-- (2.16)
(1 + cos ex) (pg)1/2(1'1/6
The required content of binder in the prepreg is ensured by

subsequent pressing by rollers, knives or elastic sponges [16, 18, 20].
The process of drying prepregs is combined with impregnation of
the fibrous filler. Since the binders are solutions of 40-60% concentra-
tion and rates of impregnation are rather high, it is necessary to
remove a considerable quantity of solvent from the prep regs in a short
period.
For a drying chamber 2.5-4 m high and with 2-4 travels of the
prepreg through the chamber with a speed of 1-10 m / min the drying
time is 0.5-15 min. Under such conditions, ordinary convective drying
turns out to be inefficient, since binder is removed only from the
semifinished product surface, and the film of binder prevents removal
of the solvent. To intensify the process infrared drying can be used,
with suction removal of solvent vapours. In infrared drying the
prepreg are heated throughout its volume, the fibrous filler absorbing
the heat most strongly. Therefore the heat flow is from within to the
external surface of the prepreg, and a film is not formed on this
surface.
The energy Q from the radiating elements of drying chamber is
spent in heating the prepreg and in evaporating the solvent, as well as
in heating the chamber walls, since the fibrous fillers and the metal
from which the walls are made are not transparent to infrared
radiation. Air is practically transparent to infrared radiation, and
therefore it is only heated convectively from the walls.
In calculating the heat Q required for drying a prepreg, it is
necessary to specify the temperature of the radiators tn, the air
temperature tn and the temperature of the drying-chamber wall tK • It
is also necessary to know the nominal power of the chamber heaters,
the air consumption, the mass per unit length of prepreg, its binder
content and concentration and the rate of impregnation n.
The surface areas of the radiating plates Fl! the prepreg tape F2 and
the internal walls of the drying chamber F3 are determined. The plant
productivity in g/h, the quantity of solvent removed from the prepreg
in drying and the air consumption necessary to prevent formation of
an explosive medium in the chamber are then calculated.
The plant productivity
Gnp = 60mVn (g/h) (2.17)
where m is the mass (g) per metre of prepreg and Vn is the

impregnation rate.
The quantity of evaporated solvent is
(2.18)
where Ve is the mass content of binder (%) and Vp is the concentration

of solvent (%).
The total quantity of heat QL required for heating (Ql)! drying the
remaining binder (Q2)! and heating (Q3) and evaporation (Q4) of
solvent is
(2.19)
or
where Cn , Ce and Cp are the specific heat capacities of the filler, binder
and solvent respectively, mn , me and mp are their mass contents in the
prepreg, ~tn and Me are the differences between the drying tempera-
ture and the initial temperatures of the filler and binder respectively,
Mp is the difference between the boiling point of the solvent and the
initial temperature, and qp is the specific heat of evaporation of the
solvent at its boiling point under normal pressure.
The air consumption preventing the formation of an explosive
medium inside the drying chamber is determined from the formula
mp 3/ (2.21)
VB = (llDK)(HBll) (m h)
where IIDK is the permissible concentration of solvent and HBII is the

lower limit of explosion hazard.
The heat consumed in air heating is
(2.22)
where Cv is the heat capacity at constant volume of air, and t1 and t2

are the initial and final air temperatures.
The heat transferred to the prepreg from the infrared radiators (QH)
and the drying chamber-walls (QCK) is
(2.23)
In general form the heat
(2.24)
where
(2.25)
is the induced blackness coefficient, with C1 ' F1 and C2, F2 being the
blackness coefficients and the areas of the heated and radiating
surfaces, and T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the heated and
radiating surfaces.
Contact impregnation of fibrous fillers

This kind of impregnation is used when a fibre is manufactured from
high-modulus material (e.g. boron) and has a large diameter, and
therefore cannot be passed through the impregnating channels of
ordinary plants.
Figure 2.3 Plant for contact impregnation of fibrous filler.
Figure 2.3 shows the layout of an impregnation bath of plant for

contact impregnation. In the process of impregnation the fibrous filler
(1), moving under action of the drawing force N, is brought in contact
with the surface of the rotating roller (3), coated with a binder layer
(2). A continuous supply of binder to the impregnation zone is
ensured through rotation of the roller, which is dipped into the binder
bath (4). The diameter d of the contact roller is such that the stresses
arising in the fibres do not exceed the permissible value
d,,;EBdB (2.26)
[IT ]n"n
where EB and dB are the modulus of elasticity and the diameter of the
elementary fibres of the filler.
Penetration of binder into the intra fibrous space of filler occurs
under the action of capillary forces and the pressure
PN =2N /d
due to fibrous filler loaded with force N on the roller surface coated
with binder.
Impregnation by spraying
Impregnation by spraying is performed when it is necessary to
combine large flat blanks of fibrous filler with binder in a short time.
Such a problem arises in manufacturing large articles from large sheet
fibrous fillers (fabrics, mats) impregnated by a cold-solidification
binder with a limited time in the viscous-fluid state.
A layer of binder is sprayed onto the surface of a fibrous blank, of
thickness
o=Hn (2.27)
where H is the thickness of the impregnated pile and n is the relative
volume porosity of the pile.
Liquid -phase combination of binders 47
-H~r-------
---~-----
----~----
----~----
Figure 2.4 Impregnation of fibrous filler by spraying.
If the binder is applied to the filler surface 2 (Fig. 2.4) by the sprayer
(1), with productivity G <Cm3 /s), with b the width of the spot (3) of
applied binder, and L, Band H the dimensions of the impregnated
pile, then the speed of movement of the sprayer
V =-.£ (2.28)
P Hbn
and the spraying time is
HBLn
r=-- (2.29)
G
As in the previous case, the penetration of binder into intra fibrous
space occurs under the action of capillary forces.
Impregnation of fibrous fillers under pressure

The vacuum, pneumovacuum and centrifugal methods are the most
widely used for the impregnation of fibrous filler with binder under
pressure.
Vacuum impregnation
One of the vacuum impregnation schemes is presented in Fig. 2.5. A
roll of cloth filler (5) is placed into a chamber (1), closed tightly with a
cover (2). A vacuum chamber meter (3) is mounted inside the latter. A
pipeline (4) connects the internal cavity of chamber with a vacuum
system. The free end of the cloth is drawn through a spinneret (6), the
front part of which is dipped into a bath containing the binder (8), a
transfer roller (9) and pressing rollers (7). The rate of penetration of the
binder into the intrafibrous space of the filler in the slot of the
Figure 2.5 Plant for vacuum impregnation of fibrous filler.
spinneret is larger than for capillary impregnation, because of the

action of the additional pressure pA, which is equal to the difference
between the atmospheric pressure and the residual air pressure in the
vacuum chamber. To prevent the binder settling in the chamber (1),
the drawing speed of the cloth filler through the impregnation bath is
made to equal the speed of movement of the binder in the intra fibrous
space.
Pneumovacuum impregnation
For pneuomovacuum impregnation, an ordinary impregnation plant is
equipped with a special vacuum chamber, through which the fibrous
filler is drawn. The binder is pumped under pressure into the
intra fibrous space of the filler in the chamber. Piles assembled from
fibrous fillers and packed in rigid moulds (Fig. 2.6) are impregnated
under pressure.
P!I p PJ
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6 Deformation curves for tightened piles: relative height of pile (a)
and relative volume content of pores in it (b) as functions of tightening
pressure.
1
Figure 2.7 Tooling for impregnation of fibrous filler under pressure.
Let us consider the problem of obtaining a plate of glass plastic with
dimensions L, Band H. The relative volume content of binder Vc and
fibrous filler VH in the plate is Vc + VH = l.
Let the plate be made from glass fabric with mass m unit per area
and thickness o. For model packets assembled of glass fabric, we have
obtained experimentally the deformation curve h = !(p); h = !(p) is
obtained by calculation. (Figs. 2.6a,b).
The glass-cloth packet (1) (Fig. 2.7) is assembled in a die (2) and
packed by a punch (5), creating a pressure Py" Through the hole (4) the
binder is pumped into the die under a pressure pn, filling the collector
(3), and is then filtered through the packet pores and emerges from the
die through the hole (6).
It is necessary to determine the packing pressure PYI the impregna-
tion pressure pn and the impregnation time of the packet Tnp (Fig. 2.6).
The value of n for the packed pile should be such that, after filling
the pores, the relative volume content of the binder is equal to the
specified value Vc. Taking the point Vc on the n axis of the graph of n
versus p, we draw through it a line parallel to the p axis until it meets
the curve n = !(p). From the point of intersection, we take a line down
perpendicular to the PY axis, and thus determine the packing pressure
Py. We then take this value on the py axis of the graph of h versus p
and draw a perpendicular line to the curve h = !(p). For the intersec-
tion, we take a line parallel to the p axis and thus find h and then the
initial pile thickness Ho that after packing under a pressure py will
give a thickness equal to H of the part and with the specified porosity
n.
The maximum permissible gradient of the impregnation pressure
that does not lead to bearing stress and a shift in the pile is
determined from the formula
dpn 2p!
-<::;- (2.30)
dl H
where f is the coefficient of friction between the fibrous filler and the
50 Prep reg production of peM semifinished products
1
n
Figure 2.8 Mould with horizontal axis of rotation for centrifugal impregnation
of fibrous fillers.
die material, whose value for a glass-fibre filler and steel die is within
the range 0.14-0.20.
The impregnation period for a flat pile may be determined from the
formula [17,20].
eTJn
r = -----=--- (2.31)
np 2t1pn' K
Centrifugal impregnation
Centrifugal impregnation of fibrous fillers is performed in rotating
asymmetric moulds (Fig. 2.8). The filler pile (3) is assembled on the
forming surface of the tool (2). The tool faces are covered with lids (I)
and brought into rotation with frequency n. A layer of binder (4) is
sprayed onto the packet surface, the volume of binder being calculated
from the formula
Ve = 1t(R~ - R~)L11 (2.32)
where Ro and Rn are the radii of the internal surface of the tool and of
the pile respectively, and Land 11 are the length and porosity of the
pile respectively. To distribute the binder along the pile surface
evenly, the mould should rotate with frequency
n; . 9.55 Ie
1/2
( )
(2.33)
where Re is the internal radius of the binder.

The impregnation time may be determined from
11TJ{R6(21n (Roj Rn) - 1) + R~
r = (2.34)
np 2.2 X 1O-5KpC<R~ - R~)n2
Solid -phase combination of components 51
Table 2.6 Characteristics of prepregs
Type of prepreg Maximum Resin Thick-

width content ness
(mm) (%mass) (mm)
Glass tape, unidirectional 50 20±2 0.1 ± 0.02

Glass fabric 1000 30±2 0.3 ± 0 02
.
Carbon tapes LU 250 40±5 0.12 ± 0.02
Carbon tape made of 50 37±3 0.3 ± 0.03
VMN-4-fibre
Carbon tape made of 50 37±3 0.2 ± 0 03
.
VMN-RK fibre
Silicon fabric KT-ll 800 40±5 0.5 ± 0 0. 5
Control of the prepreg quality
The finished product is checked for binder content and degree of

solubility, content of volatile substances, stickiness and flexibility of
prepregs, and cross-sectional dimensions. In a number of cases
prepreg mechanical properties are checked on flat or circular samples.
The working life of prepregs during storage in a freezer or at room
temperature should be sufficiently long (from 7-10 days up to 3-6
months). Prepregs wound on inlet reels should be capable of unreel-
ing without damage of the fibrous filler over the whole guaranteed
period of storage.
Table 2.6 contains some characteristics of prepregs.
2.3 PCM SEMIFINISHED PRODUCTS OBTAINED BY SOLID-

PHASE COMBINA nON OF COMPONENTS
These are typical of polymeric composite materials (PCM) based on

thermoplastic binders with molecular weights several orders of mag-
nitude greater than those of self-solidifying oligomeric binders. The
thermoplastic solutions, even in the case of 3-6% concentration, are
jelly-like, and solvent excess cannot subsequently be removed from
the PCM.
Impregnation with thermoplastics without solution (i.e. from the
melt) is more difficult, since the viscosity 1/ at permissible tempera-
tures reaches 1011 _10 12 Pa s. Even in the case of special selection of
thermoplastics (polyamides, polyesters, polysulfones and some other
polymers with 1/ = 10 1 _10 3 Pa s), the rate of impregnation of fibrous
fillers does not exceed 2.5-5 cm / min, and often tends to zero in the
absence of external pressure.
The essence of solid-phase combination of components consist in a
preliminary treatment of the filler elements of the polymeric binder
(initial matrix elements) in order to obtain a situation where in the
subsequent melting during peM processing into an article the melt
length is minimized, so that impregnation of filler can be performed
most profitably in terms of energy consumption, i.e. under cover
pressure and at lower temperatures. In the USSR powders, films and
synthetic fibres (see Fig. 2.9) have been used as matrix elements, in
the powder, film and fibrous methods. Preference is sometimes given
to solid-phase combination of components because of technological
and environmental concerns [21].
The powdery matrix elements may be thermoplastic or thermoac-
tive. Phenolformaldehyde resin is used most often. For example,
Mechanical
L
~ r--
I Pneumatic
I - 5· -
~.
I Combined
r-
<Q
[
et>
""- ;;:
I In pseudo-liquified medium I
1---",,-
CIl
I I - 'S.
'tl
Stream method OJ
...,
" n
I In combination with
vibration effect
~=- r-- ...
e.
!!.
:s::
'"et>
8:::> .
I Lay-up
1- ~ .,,.3g.
'T1
~.
:T
'" et>
l l - "3
(l.
Winding n
'tl
(3
n (l.
Felt
""-
"In' "Inn
Needle punching
Weaving-stitching
'T1
Splicing ...6'et>
'"
Braiding
Weaving
Winding
Figure 2.9 Types of solid-phase matrix semifinished products and methods

for their combination with fibrous filler reM.
Solid-phase combination of components 53
semifinished products of discrete glass fibres and die powder with
particle diameter 150,.....m are suitable for pressing and sheet rolling at
413 K for 20 min.
Polyethylene, polyamides, polystyrene, copolymers of vinyl chloride
with vinyl acetate and some other copolymers are most often used
together with a number of thermoplastic powders.
The properties of these binders under technological regimes applied
during the pressing of thermoplastic materials are given in Table 2.7.
Powdery matrix elements (depending upon their dispersion and
type of fibrous filler) are introduced into the composition of semifin-
ished products by various methods. In particular, when manufactur-
ing compositions from randomly distributed fibres (e.g. asbestos and
Table 2.7 Dynamic viscosity of melts of soviet industrial thermoelastics at the

maximum temperature of processing [22]
Type of thermoplastic Melt temp- Melt viscosity

erature 'T/ (Pals)
in the case
of thermal it = 1 S - 1 it =lOs - 1
stability
15 min (K)
Low-density polyethylene 553 1050 405

PENP 10803-020
High-density polyethylene 553 2700 620
PEVP 2108-075
Polyamide-6,PA-6-21O/310 543 120 120
Polyamide-22,PA-12-10 558 342
General-purpose polystyrene 553 1100 320
Polycarbonate:
PK-1 1500 1500
PK-2 563 625 625
PK-3 320 320
Macrolone 310 650 650
Poly(methyl methacrylate) PMMA 503 2300 1400
Polyformaldehyde 493 1050 1050
Poly(ethylene terephthalate), 543 200 200
typeB
Poly(butylene terephthalate) 543 270 270
Poly(phenylene oxide) 553 8000 8800
Polyarylate, DV-105 683 5000 5000
Polysulfone: type A 425 415
R-1700 613 790 790
R-3500 1700 1520
basalt), the introduction of powdery polymeric binders is performed
by dry mixing. The process is usually carried out in drum mixers,
where mixing is effected owing to circulation of loose components
under the action centrifugal and gravitational forces. This method is
simple and ensures good quality of the semifinished product, but the
process turns out to be both time- and power-consuming.
To enhance dry mixing, another variant is used, providing for
creation of a pseudo-liquified layer - an aerial suspension of the
components. This is done using a counterflow of compressed air,
continuously imparted into the mixer. Disadvantages of both methods
is that the semifinished product has low density, complicating its
supply into the shaping tool (mould, extruder head etc.); therefore it is
often subjected to subsequent packing, for example, by processing on
a roller mill or by extrusion, giving monolithic granules.
Discrete fillers in the form of mats on unwoven materials, as well as
continuous reinforcing fibres in the forms of threads, fabrics or tapes,
are combined with matrix powders by spraying. There are various
application of the method (Fig. 2.9). There exist a number of spraying
variants for die powders, in pseudo-liquified layers and by stream
method.
Pseudo-liquification is performed by means of an air (or some other
gas) flow, by vibration of the matrix powder mass or by electrical
action on an ionized powder. For even deposition and strong
attraction of matrix powder to the filler-fibre surfaces in drawing mats,
cloths etc. through a pseudo-liquified bath, it is recommended that the
passage furnace be mounted directly in front of the bath. The furnace
should be heated to a temperature exceeding the melting point of the
matrix powder by 50-150°C.
The stream method of spraying matrix powders also varies depend-
ing on the equipment. Industrial applications involve gas flames (the
powder is transferred through the flame of a gas torch at a tempera-
ture of IS00°C for a fraction of a second), plasmas (powder is heated
by an ionized inert gas in an elastic arc at a temperature of
15 000-20 OOO°C) and the electrostatic method (ensuring transfer of
opposite electric charges to the fibrous filler and the matrix powder,
the latter being negatively charged on passing through an earthed
stationary spraying head or hand pistol).
In all variants of spraying to equalize the concentration of matrix
powder through the volume of the semifinished product the latter is
simultaneously subjected to vibration with frequencies often reaching
20 000 Hz.
The disadvantages of powder methods are the difficulty in achiev-
ing a uniform distribution and keeping die powders within the
volume of the PCM semifinished product. These processes are
influenced by dimensions of the polymer particles and the homoge-
neity, structure and density of the fibrous fillers. It is therefore very
difficult to ensure high quality of impregnation with powder melts.
Application of film matrix elements in the production of peN
semifinished products is based on layer-by-Iayer alternation of fabrics,
braids or threads with thermoplastic or solidifying films, whose
thickness is chosen proceeding from the given volume ratio of the
components in the plastic. Usually the film thickness varies within the
range of 0.05-0.1 mm. The widest application of this type of semifin-
ished product in the USSR has been in manufacturing continuously
reinforced thermoplastic carbon plastics because of the possibility of
maintaining the integrity and consequently the properties of the
carbon fibres during processing. An example is given by the data
shown in Table 2.8, in which physico-mechanical characteristics are
specified for three types of thermoplastic (polycaproamide, PA-6)
carbon plastics compared with the characteristics of a solidified carbon
Table 2.8 PhYSico-mechanical characteristics of unidirectional polycap-

roamide carbon plastics at 293 K
Property indices Type of carbon tape Solidified

carbon
ELUR-O.1P LU-0.2P 'Kulon' plastic,
TU-6-06-31- -TU6-06- TU-6-06-31- KMU-31
212-78 31-481-80 -485-84
Reinforcementvolume(%) 60 61 59 55
Density (kg/m3 ) 1400(0.7) 1420 (0.7) 1510 (1.3) 1400
Shift resistance (MPa):
across fibres 75 78 (10) 80
along fibres 40 30
In axial direction
Destructive stress (MPa):
in tension 685 (1.5) 588 (3.6) 587 (2.7) 650
in compression 340 210 (19.5) 400
in bending 1320 (13.2) 1070 (4.2) 859 (2.4) 1000
in shifting 31 28 29
Module of elasticity (GPa):
in tension 128.5 (1 .1) 135.1 (2.1) 151.1 (5.2) 120
in bending 100 (1.5) 975.5 (8.2) 89.7 (7.4) 100
In transverse direction
Destructive stress (MPa):
in tension 38 44 49 14
in compression 130 133 (7.1)
Note: The coefficients of variation of property indices are given in parentheses (in %).
Table 2.9 Effect of the reinforcement scheme for semifinished products on the
strength and rigidity of carbon plastics on PA-6 bases
Type of Directions of Modulus of Destruction

carbon reinforcing elasticity strength
tape fibres in tension (MPa)
(CPa)
0° 135.1 (2.1) 588 (3.6)

90° 5.8 44
±45° 39.2 100
LU-0.2Pn 0°; 90°, ±45° 51.8 159
0°; ±60° 61.3 143
0° 151.1 (5.1) 587 (2.7)
90° 9.8 (3.2) 49 (1.6)
'Kulon' ±45° 45.1 (12.2) 153 (5.7)
0°; 90°; ±45° 82.2 (6.0) 209 (4.5)
0°; ±60° 60.6 (3.6) 188 (2.1)
Note: The coefficients of variation are shown in parentheses (in %).
plastic of the type KMV-31, manufactured in accordance with ordinary

impregnation technology [23]. The semifinished film products of
carbon plastics were processed by pressing at a temperature exceeding
the RA-6 melting point by 30-40 K under a pressure of 1.2 ± 0.2 MPa
for 10 min. Tests were carried out according to COST requirements.
The peM semifinished film product, consisting of PA-6 films of
PK-4 grade (specification TV 6-05-1775-76), alternating with carbon
tapes, may have reinforcement schemes in accordance with specified
requirements. The variation of peM properties is shown in Table 2.9.
Manufacturing and processing of peM semifinished products using
films of polyamides PA-66 and PA-12, polyolefins, polyvinyl chloride
and other thermoplastics, for which the optimal melt viscosity
approximately 150 Pa s, are carried out in the same way. Powdery
semifinished products are also made similarly.
However, in using film matrix elements, the reduction of melt flow
path during subsequent impregnation of the fibrous fillers is limited,
since the melt begins to flow from the surface of the fabric, canvas or
braid. For more complete filling of the intrafibrous space, it is
necessary to increase the film thickness, which on one hand decreases
the reinforcement volume and on the other increases the rigidity of
the peM semifinished products and complicates its laying out on
surfaces with intricate configurations.
The introduction of thermoplastic matrix fibres into the composition
of peM semifinished products is performed using practically all
known methods of production of woven materials, depending upon
the required composition and structure of peM. This allows removal
of peM semifinished product production from the main cycle of
production of peM articles, to specialized enterprises of the weaving
and chemical industry. In the case of the USSR this has given the
possibility of improving productivity by 2-5 times, to reducing
energy and labour expenditures to 60-80%, and releasing up to 25%
of production areas and up to 10% of production labour.
The basic principle of this so-called 'fibrous technology' is maxi-
mum reduction of the matrix melt flow path I in impregnation of
reinforcing filler. For discrete fibres this is performed by means of
uniform mixing and packing of mats, and for continuous matrices and
reinforcing fibres by their regulated alternation in the composition of
the peM semifinished products [24]. Glass fibres (NPS-I0 /200 VNS-6,
VMPS-6, BSP-ll etc.), organic fibres (phenylone, SVM, terlone etc.)
and carbon fibres (KV-2, UKN) have been applied in the composition
of semifinished products. Polypropylene, lavsan and phtuorine-2 are
used in a form of thermoplastic threads. For example, an unwoven
semifinished product that may be punched by a needle (specification
TU 6-06-31-605-87) and with a thickness of 5 mm and surface density
of 500 g/m2 is manufactured using discrete fibres of SVM and capron
with volume ratio 1: 1. The semifinished product has a deformability
of up to 200%, which is sufficient for processing by stamping. In this
case the peM has a tension strength of 124 MPa and an impact
strength of 75 kg/m2.
The greatest advantage in reducing the matrix melt flow path is
achieved by using continuous matrix fibres, subjected to automatic
alteration in the volume of semifinished product by winding or
weaving. The result in respect of impregnation quality and mechanical
properties of the reinforcing fibres is the better, the more that they can
be distributed regularly together with the matrix fibres. This fact can
be seen from theoretical models of 'fibrous technology' (Fig. 2.10)
Figure 2.10 Models of transfer of binder to fibrous filler: (a) from surface; (b)
from places of melting of surface particles; (c) from regularly and evenly
positioned fibres subject to a constant ratio of peM phases.
which reproduce the elementary cells of PCM semifinished products
with liquid-phase or solid-phase introduction of binder as film (a),
powder or discrete fibres (b) or regularly alternating continuous fibres
(c). Therefore, in a semifinished product of type (a) the binder is
supplied from outside and passes along the maximum possible path 1,
equal to the constant thickness of the pile of reinforcing fibres. This
path is considerably less in model (b), but it reaches its minimum,
when the fibres passes through the section of the semifinished
product with maximum periodicity (c) - the more often and more
uniformly the lower the diameter of the matrix fibres.
Calculations [21] show that the value of I may be theoretically
reduced by more than 80% in PCM semifinished products with
reinforcement volume 70%. In turn, this allows reduction of the
pressure required for impregnation by a factor of 25, subject to the
other conditions of transformation of the semifinished products into
the final article being equal. In practice, reducing I is first shown by
the decrease in porosity of a thermoplastic PCM from the normal
10-14% to 0.25-2.0%, in accordance with the improvement in
physico-mechanical indices.
In this connection the greatest successes have been achieved with
woven-fibre PCM semifinished products. It is possible to determine
the required structure of woven semifinished products (WSP), procee-
ding from the specified technological regimes for their transforming
into the final article, the required depth of impregnation of the
reinforcing fibres and the likely realization of their properties in PCM
[25]. The connections between these parameters are shown in Fig.
2.11, where WSP are characterized by such structural characteristics of
weaving production as the ratio between the numbers of reinforcing
and matrix threads na/nmo in the warp of the WSP, their diameter ratio
d mo / da the density of threads laid by warp no and the quantity n my and
diameter d my of matrix threads laid by weft, specified plastic
properties (degree of filling and strength coefficient K), approximate
value of the thickness 8 of the WSP monolayer after melting of the
matrix fibres, and technological parameters of the transformation of
the WSP into the final article (T, P, r). The nomogram in Fig. 2.11
consists of the main field, including design (left-hand) and technolog-
ical (right-hand) parts, and two additional scales. Scale A is intended
for determination of the diameter dmo of matrix threads, placed along
the weft of the WSP; scale B is for the quantity of matrix weft threads
n my•
Given the degree of filling da of composite material and strength
coefficient Kucp of the reinforcing fibres in the composite material, we
determine the angular parameter cp characterizing the curvature of the
reinforcing weft threads of the WSP warf. We then find the quantity
d"",
T. d"",xlo-J(m)
1080
A
0 0·30
5·0MPa
0·26 1440
0·25 543K
0·47
0·666 .
0·777 0·20 1800
1·11 ' ;mp(S)

0·135 0·15 oO-O---WNN
. :. v.ov.oo v.
.f>.
1·48 6 V. V. 6
1·55
8:63 a:: a::
1·85
da xlO-'( m ) .,
.." ;p
V'lV'I V'lVlU'l V. VItA Vl till v.
ONO.p..ON NO N,J:t. .f>.
2·22 VJWt".)WVJ(",.) WVJ (,.oJ W W
.~ ~
cp (rad)
B o
0·0560
0·0938
d my X 1O-' (m) 0· 1248
0· 1860
0·30 0·2310
0·2750
0·20 0·3040
0·3600
0·10
0·09 n my x 1O- 2(N/ m) 0.4400
o
Figure 2.11 Nomogram for determining textile parameters of woven SPPCM
from the specified operating characteristics of the PCM and their processing
into articles.
of matrix threads nmy using scale B, initially choosing the minimum
diameter of meltable thread dmy from those produced in series.
Ouring impregnation of matrix threads, the matrix polymer melt
flow path 1 is determined by the parameters (T, P, r) for processing of
WSP into the final article. Proceeding from the approximate thickness
of the monolayer of woven semifinished product after melting of the
matrix fibres, the diameter of the reinforcing thread is found from
catalogues of available thread. Observing the condition da > dno > dmy ,
we select the diameter of the matrix warp thread dmo from a catalogue.
The ratio of the diameters of matrix warp threads and forcing threads
dmo / da is determined from scale A. Its value and the specified degree
of reinforcement Va allow determination of the ratio na/ nmo (upper-left
area of the nomogram). The density of laying threads by warp
(upper-right area) is determined by the length of the flow of the
matrix-fibre melt and by the ratio na/ nmo '
For example, let the tensile strength of the PCM be u + = 250 MPa,
the thickness of article be 1.0 mm, and let the transformation (process-
ing) of WSP into the article be performed by pressing at T = 523 K and
Pyg = 21 MPa for r = 900 s. From this it is determined that the required
strength may be achieved when Va = 0.5; Ku = 0.9 (let u; = 550 MPa
for threads of linear density of 29 tex). Then, from the nomogram for
the specified Va and Ku we find cp = 0.l248 rad (left area of nomogram);
from scale B we find the weft parameters to be dmy = 10- 4 m and
nmy = 800 thr / m, while from scale A the ratio dmol da = 0.777 when
d mo = 1.5 X 10- 4 m and da = 1.93 X 10- 4 m. Proceeding from the values
of d mo / da and Va on the left, we find na/ nmo = 0.5.
On the basis of typical methods of WSP design that have been
proved in practice, we have obtained more than 40 variants of WSP, in
particular, TOPAF, TOPASVM, TOP AT (oriented polyamide fabrics
reinforced by phenylon fibres, glass-fibre material and terlone respe-
ctively) with volume content of reinforcing threads 30-70%, optimal
degree of reinforcement with PCM on a base of thermoplastic binders
with 1/ = 103 Pa s. Variants of woven semifinished products have two
types of placement of reinforcing threads - warp and weft. The latter
are more effective, simplifying the process of warp setting and
reducing labour consumption through the use of the mechanized weft
laying.
It has been determined that the breaking strength of woven
semifinished product is 1.2 times higher in the case of placement of
reinforcing fibres by warp than in the weft case. This is explained by
the difference in the stretching of threads during weaving. The design
features and properties of the optimized WSP TOPAF and TOPA-SVM
are presented in Table 2.10.
On a base of woven semifinished products we have obtained the
Table 2.10 Constructional features and properties of the optimized woven semifinished products TOP AF and TOPASVM
Type of semifinished Compositional and structural parameters Properties

product
Threads Density of Ratio Content Mass Breakdown
weft laying of of rein- of load of cloth
Warp Weft (thr/cm) threads forcing 1 m2 tape (50 mm) (N)
in weft threads (g)
na: nm (vol .%) Warp Weft
TOPAF-9 K,0.2mm F, 29 tex; K, 0.2 mm F,24; 1.5 32.7 340 35.4 266.0
(58 tex) (58 tex) K, 16
(50 tex) (11 tex) K,30
(50 tex) (50 tex) K,30
(40 tex) (50 tex) K,10
TOPAF-17 K,O.13mm F,29 tex; K, 0.09 mm F,32.5; 1.0 67.3 137 29.6 214.8
(36 tex) (7 tex) K, 32.5
TOPASVM-7 K,0.12mm SVM, 29, 4 tex; SVM, 26; 1.0 51.4 180 17.6 835.0
(11 tex) K, 0.12 mm, 34 tex K,26
TOPASVM-8 K,0.12mm SVM 29.4, 4 tex; SVM,31.5; 1.0 67.1 143 22.0 920.0
(34 tex) K, 0.09 mm, 11 tex K, 31.5
TOPASVM-9 K,0.12mm SVM, 29.4, 4 tex; SVM-32 1.0 62.3 185 30.0 761.0
(34 tex) K, 0.12 mm, 34 tex
Notes: 1. Letter abbreviations: F, phenylone thread; K, capron monothread; SVM, glass-fibre thread. 2. Density of laying by warp and
weft is equal for all variants and is 4 thr I cm.
plastics PAP-F and PAP-SVM (polyamide reinforced with phenylone
and SVM respectively) with specified properties. They were obtained
by pressing specimens at T = 523 ± 5 K and P = 1-2 MPa for r = 5-
10 min/mm of thickness. As may be seen from Table 2.11, the tensile
strength of PAP-2 plastic samples, obtained from various variants of
TOPAF semifinished product, varies from 126 to 296 MPa, and the
modulus of elasticity varies from 5449 to 7999 MPa. For specimens of
PAP-SVM plastic O'~ in the direction of the reinforcing fibres is
720-806 MPa, while E + = 40 700-45 800 MPa. The coefficients KO' and
KE lie in the range 1.2-1.5.
The mechanical properties of woven glass fibre semifinished prod-
ucts and their processing into articles are now newly optimal. Their
impact properties are an order of magnitude and more better than
those of structural metals and 1.5 times as high as those of solidifying
FCM owing to the decrease in the porosity of thermoplastic PCM (to
0.5-10%). As a result, the woven semifinished products TOPAF-17
and TOPASVM-8 have been recommended for wide industrial
application.
The estimation method allows determination of the structure of
woven semifinished product not only for the manufacture of organic
plastics, but also for obtaining other PCM, for example glass plastics
and carbon plastics.
All of these woven WSP are characterized by high technological
effectiveness: they have practically unlimited periods of storage, they
are easily cut into blanks and they are suitable for both laying out and
rolling. However, with regard to the latter, the effectiveness of peM
semifinished products obtained directly on an article mandrel by
winding with specified alternation of matrix and reinforcing fibres
may turn out to be higher.
When winding fibrous semifinished products of PCM, denser layers
of matrix and reinforcing fibres are obtained without extra bends,
which is especially important for glass, basalt and carbon plastics. The
strength coefficient and modulus of elasticity of the reinforcing fibres
may be higher than for processing woven semifinished products if,
winding, the reinforcing fibres are low-orientation polyaramide fibres
of the phenylon type (see Table 2.12).
Shrinkage, shrown by stretched reinforcing fibres in the case of
melting of matrix fibres, contributes additionally to impregnation,
giving a positive effect. However, as in the case of processing of
woven semifinished products, the optimal viscosity of matrix melts is
300-350 Pa s.
There are now a large number of PCM semifinished products with
solid-phase combination of components. New types of semifinished
products have been produced on glass bases, for example using
Table 2.11 Strength coefficients and modulus of elasticity of reinforcing fibres in the organoplastics PAP-F and PAP-SVM
on optimized WSP bases
Type of WSP and Characteristics Mechanical property

properties of coefficients of
reinforcing WSP PCM reinforcing fibres
MPA threads
'PI, 'P2 'P3 dmox u u V", K" KE K K
(rad) (rad) 10 - 3, (MPa) (MPa) ( %) K K
(m)
TOPAF-9
a:= 550, E: = 14000 0.0628 0.188 0.303 154.8 5589.0 2.2 0.865 0.9 0.994 1.18
TOPAF-12
a:= 530, E: = 12000 0.0476 0.1746 0.281 250.3 7126.0 3.13 0.85 0.915 0.973 1.07
TOPAF-13
a:= 530, E: = 12000 0.0663 0.1746 0.281 126.0 5449.0 1.32 0.907 0.927 0.891 1.38
TOPAF-14
a:= 530, E: = 12000 0.0448 0.1563 0.251 254.0 6635.0 3.07 0.865 0.929 1.02 1.026
TOPAF-17
a:= 530, E: = 12000 0.0212 0.1489 0.239 296.0 7900.0 2.8 0 8. 63 0.944 0.961 0.995
TOPASVM-7
a:= 2100, E: = 105000 0.035 0.0845 0.135 733.6 45000.0 2.0 0.762 0.838 0.964 0.986
TOPASVM-8
a:= 2 100, E: = 105000 0.0304 0.1446 0.232 806.0 45800.0 3.1 0.587 0.67l 0.975 0.964
TOPASVM-9
a:= 2100, E: = 105000 0.0315 0.1446 0.232 720.0 40700.0 2.4 0.591 0.657 0.931 0.94
Note: Twisting of reinforcing thread in all variants is 100 tw I m .
Table 2.12 Strength coefficient and modulus of elasticity of unidirectional
peM manufactured from WSP combining capron matrix (linear density 80 tex)
with reinforcing threads, stretched with a force of O.3aB (glass fibre, O.laB)
Composition Va Density +
aB Coeffi- E+ Coeffi-
of semi- (kg/m 3 ) (MPa) cient (GPa) cient of
finished of fibre fibre E
product a
reinforcing
fibre
Phenylone, 0.6 1270 480 1.2 7.7 1.03

29.5 tex
SVM, 29.4 tex 0.55 1270 1100 0.96 50 1.04
Glass-fibre 0.5 1750 1000 0.82 35 0.83
diameter of
filament thread
up to 20 fLm
biofibres, whose external shells are transformed into matrices.

Polymer threads have been used as matrix fibres, which are solidified
after monolithization of the PCM matrix. Threads with chemically
activated surfaces, allowing matrix-free monolithization during resha-
ping and packing of the fibre mass, have also been used as reinforcing
fibres.
The last variant of semifinished products ensures the manufacture
of reinforced (as much as possible) PCM [24].
2.4 EQUIPMENT FOR PRODUCTION OF PREPREGS
2.4.1 Purpose, field of application, basic types of equipment
Special equipment for unreeling of source material, and its impregna-

tion, drying and unreeling on receiving drums, is used in the
production of the prepregs on glass, carbon and organic filler bases.
Continuity of impregnation and drying is ensured through the use of
devices for connecting and accumulating lengths of cloth. Narrow
types are obtained by employed cutting devices at appropriate
positions in the equipment.
For obtaining prepregs of unidirectional materials (braids, threads),
production lines are equipped with spooling machines with a large
number of spools. Semifinished products are produced from woven
tapes through the use of two-position feeding devices.
Equipment for production of prepegs 65
Impregnation of fillers (glass or carbon fibres, SVM fibres) is
performed with solutions of resins in organic solvents or with resin
melts. Depending upon the width of the material being impregnated,
prepreg production lines corne in several standard sizes, including the
following:
up to 100 mm width model ULe-3M;

up to 300 mm width models UPST-300,
MLP-305VT, MLP-303VG,
MLP-300GO and UNS-300;
up to 1000 mm width models UPST-l000M,
MLP-l005VT and
MLP-l003VG;
up to 1600 mm width model UPST-1600M.
Longitudinal cutting of prepregs may be performed directly on

production lines and on individual plants of models UPST-300M and
UPST-l000. Individual plants for longitudinal cutting are used in
those cases where it is necessary to obtain more than 2-3 narrow cloth
tapes.
In all models of prepreg production lines convection-radiation
drying is applied, with electric heating of the drying chambers. Since
most lines use solutions of resins in organic solvents (acetone, ethanol,
esters), solvent vapours are released during drying and may form an
explosive mixture with air at a certain concentration. The lines are
therefore equipped with ventilation systems, and their electrical
equipment is manufactured in accordance with the fire-safety require-
ments hazard. t All lines for prepreg production from resin solutions
are equipped with vertical drying chambers, while the MLP-300GO
line for prepreg production from resin melts and the UNS-300 line for
prepreg production from powdered binders are equipped with horiz-
ontal drying chambers.
2.4.2 Equipment schemes, principles of operation and design

features
The model UPST-l000M is typical of lines for prepreg production

using of solutions of binders. It is intended for prepreg production
t The rooms in which these lines are mounted must be of sufficient volume that a 5%
vapour concentration of solvents cannot occur in the event of occasional spillage from
the impregnating bath. The volumes of the impregnation baths are selected to be as
small as possible within the limitations of the impregnation technology, while feeding
devices are of the minimum possible volume in order to ensure that they do not spilL
2 ---...._"1.
1----1-
14 13 12 11 10
Figure 2.12 Scheme of the UPST-lOOOM line: 1, two-position device for cloth
feeding; 2, cloth roll; 3, swivel; 4, accumulator; 5, movable shaft of ac-
cumulator; 6, drying chamber; 7, squeezing shafts; 8, roll of separating film; 9,
driven shafts; 10, two-position receiving device; 11, cutting device; 13,
drawing device; 13, stationary shaft of impregnation bath; 14, impregnation
bath; 15, device for connection of cloths.
from glass, carbon and organic fabrics with widths of up to 1 m. The

scheme of band transport in the UPST-lOOOM line is shown on Fig.
2.12. Manufacturing semifinished products from polymeric composite
materials involves a complex series of operations, including unreeling
of dry cloth, its preliminary drying for removal of moisture and
lubricant, impregnation with resin solutions, convective-radiative
drying, and winding of prepreg and of separating film onto the
cartridges of the receiving device. Continuity of the process when rolls
are changed is ensured by the use of a two-position feeding and
receiving device, an accumulator and devices for the connection and
cutting of cloth. A roll of dry cloth (2) is set in the lower, loading,
position of a two-position device for feeding cloth (1), and is fastened
in it. By turning a swivel (3), the roll is transferred from the lower
position to the upper, working position. The end of the cloth is
unrolled from the roll, passed between the stationary lower and upper
movable heated plates of the device (15) for cloth connection and fed
to the cloth accumulator (4), the movable roll (5) of which can move up
and down, providing cloth tension. From the accumulator, through
Equipment for production of prepregs 67
the lower and upper transferring rolls, cloth is drawn into the drying
chamber (6), equipped with electric heaters and heat-setting systems.
The dried cloth comes to the impregnation bath (14), inside which a
stationary roll (13) is mounted; this roll is equipped with a water
system for temperature stabilization. Then, passing through the
pressing rolls (7), the cloth goes to the second channel of the drying
chamber, where the organic solvent va pours are removed and the
binder gelling occurs.
Drawing of the cloth along the line is performed by means of the
drawing device (14), which is equipped with a speed-stabilized drive.
Separating film is fed from the roll (8) through transferring rolls to the
driving shaft of the drawing mechanism. Cloth with a peel ply passes
through the drawing device and the driving rolls (9), and is fed to the
cartridge of a two-position receiving device (10), which has an
electromagnetic mechanism for stretching the cloth with a regulated
degree of tension. The cloth is cut by a guillotine-type device (11) with
a pneumatic drive. The ends of the cloth panels are connected in the
device (1S) by means of thermal welding of a melted capron band,
placed between the lapped ends of cloth panels. The movable plate of
the connection mechanism is heated electrically to a temperature of
2S0-300°C and lowered by means of pneumatic cylinder. Welding is
carried out for 20-40 s. During connection of the cloth-panel ends,
feed of cloth from the feeding device is stopped by means of the
braking roller and the cloth is fed into the impregnation bath and
drying chamber from the accumulator, the carriage of the accumulator
being moved down to from its upper position.
Binder is fed into the impregnation bath manually from a feeding
tank, which in turn is filled manually from movable tanks.
Excess binder is removed from the cloth by pressing rollers.
The electric heaters of type TEN in the drying chamber have no
direct contact with the solvent va pours removed from the cloth - they
are placed in dismountable containers made of thin stainless steel.
The line is equipped with a carbon dioxide fire-extinguisher
system. The basic parameters of lines and plants for prepreg produc-
tion are given in Tables 2.13-2.17.
The MLP-30SVT, MLP-300VT, MLP-I00SVT and MLP-I003VT lines
differ from the ULS-UPST line in the types of device fastened on a
special foundation without common bed. Both standard sizes of lines
for width of 300 mm and 1000 mm have two types of chamber,
differing in height: S m for MLP-30SVT and MLP-I00SVT, and 3 m for
MLP-303VT and MLP-I003VT. The higher drying chambers allow
faster prepreg production.
The drying-chamber height is specified in the production order. The
scheme of the line MLP-30SVT is shown in Fig. 2.13. Besides the unit
Table 2.13 Basic parameters of prepreg production lines of the ULS-UPST
series using solution of binders
ULS-3M UPST-300 UPST-1000M UPST-1600M
Impregnated filler Glass, carbon, or- Carbon cloths Glass, carbon, or- Glass, carbon or-
ganic braids, ganic cloths ganic cloths
threads, cloths
Width (mm): 5-50
Unidirectional 100 300 1000 1600
tapes
Cloths
Drying method Convective- Convective- Convective- Convective-
radiative radiative radiative radiative
Drying-chamber heater 40 100.8 100 142.5
power (kW)
Maximum air temperature 300 150 150 150
in drying chamber (OC)
Maximum speed of tape 20 5 2 2
drawing (m/min)
Volume of impregnation 5 7 10 15
bath (I)
Maximum solvent 10 16 30 48
consumption of (kg/h)
Productivity (output) of 500 850 1250 2250
drying-chamber
ventilation system (m 3 /h)
Overall dimensions 10000 X 2800 7600-2250 7200 X 5250 7520 X 6900
(mm) X 4800 x5500 x5500 X 5350
Weight (kg) 5000 7120 12000 14000
construction, the lines of MLP models are characterized by the

following basic design features.
1. Their devices for feeding cloth of both standard line sizes, and the
receiving devices of lines MLP-I005VT and MLP-lO03VT and the
intermediate regulated rollers on lines MLP-305VT and MLP-303VT
are equipped with systems of cloth-edge tracking. In these tracking
systems a photosensor observes the position of the base edge of
cloth, using the modulated signal of infrared light reflected from
the cloth. The signal goes from the sensor through an amplifler to a
DC electric motor and screw mechanism moving the carriage of the
receiving or feeding coils in the direction of decreasing discrepancy
between the specified and actual positions of the tape.
2. Lines are equipped with X-ray systems for control of binder
Table 2.14 Basic parameters of prepreg production lines of the MLP series
MLP- MLP- MLP- MLP-

300VT 305VT 1000VT 1005VT
Impregnated filler Carbon, organic, glass cloths

Width (mm) 300 300 1000 1000
Drying method Convective-radiative
Drying-chamber heater 112 178 185 281
power (kW)
Maximum temperature of 240 240 150 150
drying (0C)
Maximum speed of cloth 5 10 3 5
drawing (m / min)
Volume of impregnation 5 5 15 15
bath (I)
Maximum solvent 16 30 42 72
consumption (kg/h)
Productivity of drying- 850 1400 2000 3400
chamber ventilation
system (m 3 /h)
Overall dimensions (mm) 11 000 X 4800 11 000 X 4 800 10 000 x 7125 10000 X 7125
X 11 000 x5000 X11 000 x 9000
Line area (m2) 51.6 51.6 77 77
Line weight (kg) 13000 13000 25000
deposition in the prepreg. Control of binder deposition (Fig. 2.14)

is performed using the difference in weakening of a beam of X-ray
radiation passing through dry and impregnated cloths. The linear
dependence of radiation attenuation upon the quantity of applied
binder allows determination of binder deposition to an accuracy of
Table 2.15 Basic parameters of the prepreg production line NLP-300GO using
resin melting
Impregnated filler Glass, carbon, organic braids ,

threads, cloths
Width of tape or cloth (mm) 300

Drying method Convective
Speed of tape drawing (m/min) 1-10
Maximum temperature of heating 240
spinneret and drying chamber (0C)
Total power of electric heaters and motors 85
(kW)
Number of receiving coils 5
Overall dimensions (mm) 20 000 X 3 700 X 2 800
Weight (kg) 20000
70 Prepreg production of peM semifinished products
Table 2.16 Basic parameters of the prepreg production line UNS-300 using
powdered binders
Impregnated filler Carbon cloth
Width of cloth (mm) 200

Drying method Convective-radiative
Speed of cloth drawing (m/min) 1-5
Maximum air temperature in drying chamber (0C) 150
Maximum speed of batcher shaft rotation (rev / min) 20
Maximum voltage of the high-voltage source in the 50
electrostatic spraying system (kV)
Overall dimensions (mm) 5000 X 2700 X 2200
Weight (kg) 3000
1%, and a microprocessor device gives information about the

deposition directly in percent. The low power of the X-rays
employed allows their application without special biological
protection.
3. Lines are equipped with systems for temperature stabilization in
the drying chamber using analog multipoint instruments and
microprocessor-regulated controllers, allowing a possibility of 14
zones of temperature regulation (2 in the preliminary drying
Table 2.17 Basic parameters of the plants URST-300M and URST-lOOO for
longitudinal cutting of prepregs
URCT-300M URCT-l000
Prepreg type Glass, carbon cloths

Cloth width (mm) 300 1000
Speed of cloth 20 10
drawing (m/min)
Cutting tool Driven disc blades, Driven disc blades
stationary blade,
separation by shafts
Power of cutting-device 0·375 0·85
electric motor (kW)
Power of motors 2 X 0·375 2 x 0·75
mounted on shafts of
receiving device (kW)
Overall dimensions 3400 x 1400 x 1800 3700 x 2500 x 1800
(mm)
Weight (kg) 2000 32000
r- -----,
f 2 3 I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
"6 11
Figure 2.13 Scheme of the MLP-305VT line: I, two-position device for cloth
feeding; 2, photosensor of cloth-edge tracking system; 3, device for cloth
connection; 4, accumulator; 5, X-ray cloth-density sensor; 6, drying chamber;
7, impregnation bath; 8, pressing-squeezing shafts; 9, binder-content meter;
10, second servo-system for cloth-edge tracking; 11, drawing device; 12,
receiving device.
channel and 12 in three drying channels), with stepless regulation

of the supplied energy, which provides increased accuracy of
temperature setting compared with 'on-off' relay systems.
4. There is recirculation of heated air from the preliminary drying
1 2 3 4
I
IL ____ .J
Figure 2.14 Binder-content measurement system for prepregs: I, cloth; 2,

cloth-density sensor; 3, impregnation bath; 4, binder pump sensor; 5,
amplifiers; 6, recorder; 7, monitor; 8, microprocessor.
zone, where there are no flammable solvents, to the inlets of
drying-chamber channels in order to describe energy consumption.
5. Lines have transport tanks for feeding binder, equipped with
self-cleaning screw pumps of regulated capacity. Two transport
systems may be connected to each line, each of volume 50 1. The
preparation of the binder and the filling of tanks with it is carried
out in a separate room.
6. The distance between the shop floor and the lower face of drying
chamber is up to 2 m to allow ease of servicing.
7. There is an arrangement of wires inside the power cases of line
units.
The MLP-300GO and UNS-300 lines are designed for obtaining
prepregs from resin melts. This is preferable to solution technology in
terms of peM strength and for environmental reasons and better
power consumption. The scheme of the MLP-300GO line does not
differ from that for obtaining a prepreg with heated binder fed from
spinneret to a transporting peel ply, impregnated with an anti-
adhesive composition and a combination of impregnated unidirec-
tional or woven tapes with binder applied to the peel ply in a
calender, their subsequent drying to the specified degree of gelatini-
zation, cooling, cutting and receiving on coils (see Fig. 2.15).
The special feature of the MLP-300GO line is the application of
electric heating to spinneret, rollers, calenders and drying furnace,
with a system of temperature stabilization, including analog regulat-
ing instruments ensuring stepless regulation of supplied energy. The
specified temperatures are compared with signals from thermocouples
placed in spinneret and directly in the stationary parts of the heated
1 2 3
ri"•• ~..-Jt~ta
I•••
I•••
I• • •
T
::11-1-.......
L~T~
/2 If /0 9 8 18 5"
Figure 2.15 Scheme of the MLP-300GO line: 1, device for drying braids; 2,
tank with binder; 3,6, calenders; 4, receiving device; 5, device for longitudinal
cutting; 7, drying chamber; 8, spinneret; 9, heated roller; 10, unit for binder
application; 11, sublayer unreeling unit; 12, spooling device.
Figure 2.16 Heated calender: 1, electric heaters; 2, rotating casing; 3, stati-

onary body; 4, thermocouple; 5, stationary axle; 6, cloth.
rollers and calenders, where external rings rotate relative to the body
(Fig. 2.16).
Continuity of peel ply tension by tape traction of the line is
maintained by means of several DC drives working in parallel and
synchronized in speed with each other.
The line of the UNS-300 model intended for obtaining prepregs
using powdered binder melted directly onto the tape of the filler
material, for example carbon tape. The scheme of the line is shown in
Fig. 2.17. The powdered binder is supplied from a bunker to a batcher
equipped with a regulated drive. The central roller of the doser is
equipped with several scrapers, feeding the required quantity of
powder to the net-shaped bottom of batcher. Carbon tape is placed
under the batcher, and the powdered binder is sprayed onto it.
Uniformity of spraying is achieved by the application of brushes with
mechanical drive and an electrostatic field created by a high-voltage
generator. The positive electrode is the brush placed over the tape,
while the negative one is the current-conducting carbon tape itself
together with an electrode under it. The tape with applied binder goes
into a thermal chamber, where the binder is melted at a specified
temperature, maintained by the stabilization system. The speed of
tape drawing along the line is regulated by the drawing-mechanism
drive, the density of prepreg laying is ensured through the receiving
device, which is equipped with a winding mechanism that ensures
constancy of the braking moment and consists of an electric motor, a
gear box with electromagnetic clutch working in the sliding mode and
a receiving shaft, over which the coils of prep reg are formed.
In the batcher zone there is an air pipeline, by means of which the
74 Prep reg production of PCM semifinished products
View A
Figure 2.17 Scheme of the UN5-300 line: 1, suction device; 2, batcher; 3,

receiving device; 4, drawing device; 5, melting chamber; 6, high-voltage
electrode; 7, two-position device for cloth feeding; 8, body; 9, agitator; 10,
central roller; 11, scraper; 12, bottom; 13, brush.
spilled powder is supplied to a suction device with cyclone, and the

powder from the receiving tank is transferred manually to the line
bunker.
The URST-1000 and URST-300M models are intended for cutting
prepregs into narrow tapes. The scheme of URST-lOOO is shown in
Fig. 2.18. The plant is equipped with a feeding device consisting of a
prepreg roll and a cutting device equipped with two driving shafts
with disc-type self-cleaning blades. The blades are adjusted to the
specified width of the tape to be obtained. Constancy of the base-edge
position of the prepreg to be cut is ensured by means of a
photosensor, included in a servo system with a mechanism for
cross-movement of the prepreg roll. Cut tapes are received on coils set
in staggered order on two reception shafts. Each shaft is equipped
with a mechanism for creating an axial force, which ensures a constant
braking moment on the coils and the required density of tape laying
due to the brake discs being fastened rigidly on the shafts and to coils
with appropriate clearance fit on the shafts. Rotation of shafts and
coils is performed by means of electric drives with DC motors
working in the braked mode (the speed of prep reg drawing is always
less than the tape winding speed on the coils of the receiving device,
References 75
2 3 f 5
Figure 2.18 Scheme of the URST-I000 plant: 1, cloth feeding device; 2,

photosensor of servosystem of cloth-edge tracking; 3, cutting device; 4, drive
of cutting device; 5, drive of drawing device; 6, drawing device; 7, two-
position receiving device.
the diameter of which varies during winding). The cutting device is
equipped with a guard.
The URST-300M model differs from URST-1000, besides the width
of processed fabrics, in the possibility of cutting not only by driven
disc blades but also by stationary blades and parting the weft of
carbon tapes on two shafts.
Prepregs obtained on all of the above-mentioned lines are intended
for subsequent processing into articles by means of winding and
lay-up machines. In this connection, the receiving devices of all the
plants are designed using coils with external diameter of 500 mm
(possibly 400 mm), bore diameters of 130 mm and width correspond-
ing to the width of the tapes to be obtained.
Production of prepregs involves hazardous work conditions. To
meet the requirements on permissible levels of toxic substances
released from the binders, as well as those of glass and carbon dust,
the rooms in which the prepregs production lines are mounted must
be equipped with ventilation devices, and the areas of the lines where
hazardous substances are involved must have local suction devices. It
is useful to divide prepreg production lines into separate production
areas, isolated from the binder-preparation and the sections for
forming articles on winding and lay-up machines.
REFERENCES
[l] Vinogradova, V.M. and Golovkina, G.5., eds, Handbook on Plastic Process-
ing Techniques. Khimiya, Moscow 1980.
[2] Babaevsky, P.G., ed., Handbook of Polymer Materials . Khimiya, Moscow,
1980.
[3] Tsyplakov, O.G., Scientific Foundation of Fibre Composite Techniques, Vol.
1. Permskoye kmizjnoyeizdatelstvo, 1974.
[4] Shalun, G.B. and Surzjenko, E.M., Laminated Plastics. Khimiya, Leningrad,
1978.
[5] Trostyanskaya, E.B., ed., Plastics for Structural Purposes (Thermosetting
Plastics). Khimiya, Moscow, 1974.
[6] Chermyak, K.I., Epoxy Compounds and Their Application. Sudostroyeniye,
Leningrad, 1978.
[7] Kozulin, N.A., Shapiro, AY. and Cavurina, RK., Equipment for Plastics
Production and Processing. Khimiya, Leningrad, 1967.
[8] Askadsky, AA. and Matveev, Y.I., Chemical Structure and Physical
Properties of Polymers. Khimiya, Moscow, 1983.
[9] Abramzon, AA. and Schukina, E.D., eds, Surface-Effect and Surface-
Active-Substance Handbook. Khimiya, Leningrad, 1984.
[10] High-Strength Reinforcing Fibres (Obzornaya informatsiya. Ser. Promyshlen-
ost khimicheskih volokon). NIITEHIM, Moscow, 1983.
[11] Zjigach, AF. and Tsirlin, AM., Physico-mechanical properties and
strength characteristics of boron filaments, and their application. Zhurnal
VKhO im. D. I. Mendeleeva , 23 (1978) 264-72.
[12] Konkin, AA and Konkina, N.F. Mechanical and physico-chemical
properties of carbon fibres. Zhurnal VKhO im. D. I. Mendeleeva, 13 (1978)
259-63.
[13] Alperin, V.I., Korolkov, N.V. and Motavkin, AV., Structural Glass-Fibre
Plastics. Khimiya, Moscow, 1979.
[14] Perepyolkin, K.E., Structure and Properties of Fibres. Khimiya, Moscow,
1965.
[15] Hodokovsky, M.D., ed., Production of Glass Fibres and Fabrics. Khimiya,
Moscow, 1973.
[16] Textile Carbon-Fibre-Based Materials and Methods of Property Definition
(Obzornaya informatsiya . Ser. Promyshlenost khimicheskih volokon).
NIITEHOM, Moscow, 1985.
[17] Aslanova, M.5., ed., Glass Fibres , Khimiya, Moscow, 1979.
[18] Talvik, RY. and Levin, AN. Analysis of some glass filler fabricating
characteristics. Plasticheskiye massy, 4, (1966) 51-8.
[19] Kalnin, I.L., Carbon-fibre surface, its modification and effect on high-
modulus carbon-fibre plastic fracture. Mekhanika kompozitsionnyh
materialov,3 (1979) 379.
[20] Churaev, N.V., Surface-forces effect on fluid movement in porous media.
In Uspekhi kolloidnoi khimii. Nauka, Moscow, 1973, p. 78.
[21] Tendler, V.M., Investigation of impregnation procedures during glass-
fibre plastic product fabrication. Plasticheskiye massy, 10 (1963) 24-9.
[22] Deryagin, B.A. and Levi, I.M., Theory of Solution Application on a Moving
Substrate. Khimiya, Moscow, 1965.
[23] Colovkin, C.5., Match of fiber fillers with thermoplastic binders: a
review. Plasticheskiye massy, 12 (1984) 23-6.
[24] Kalinchev, E.L. and Sakovtseva, M.B., Properties and Processing of
Thermoplastics : A Handbook. Khimiya, Leningrad, 1983, pp. 82-6.
[25] Colovkin, C.5., Dmitrenko, V.P. et al., Structural polycaproamide-based
materials with carbon fillers. Plasticheskiye massy, 12 (1986) 26-8.
[26] Colovkin, C.5., Fibre technique of linear polymer processing. In Sbornik:
Nauchno-tekhmicheskiye dostizjeniya v oblasti napolnennyh plastikov, prime-
nyaemyh v mashinostroenii. MDNTP, Mosco, 1987, pp. 98-104.
[27] Colovkin, C.5. and Rbykina, E.C., Textile semi-finished product design
on the basis of product design and production requirements. Sbornik
referatov NIOKR, obzorov , perevodov i deponirov. rukopisei. VIMI, 1985,
Ser. XII, No.5, DN 1082.

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2

Technology for prep reg

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS FOR PREPREG

A. G. Bratukhin et al. (eds.), Composite Manufacturing Technology

2.2 PCM SEMIFINISHED PRODUCTS OBTAINED BY LIQUID-

2.2.1 Preparation of Polymeric Binders

Compositions of polymeric, oligomeric, resin and monomeric com-

This parameter is a definite characteristic of the binder. The con-

IT/Ix =kM a (2.2)

where IT/Ix is the characteristic viscosity of the solution, a, k, a and T/o

where 'fa is a preexponential factor and Q is the energy of activation of

2.2.2 Preparation of fibrous fillers

It is mainly fibres of the PCM types, prepared from aromatic

2.2.3 Technological characteristics of fibrous fillers

measured in terms of tex' the mass (in g) of a thread or bundle with

Type of glass-fibre structure Coefficients

1. Braid cloth 0.812 0.188

of the pile h and the packing pressure p is described well by the

5. Deformation-strength characteristics - modulus of elasticity of the

Type of fibrou s filler Surface

2.2.4 Liquid-phase combination of binders and fillers

Type Type of Type of inter- Surface Thick- Relative

T-I0 Satin 8/3 0.29 0.23 0.486

Organic Linen 0.11 0.25-0.3 0.662-0.718

1. Cloth of linen weave 0.1-0.2 0.002-0.004

Impregnation of fibrous fillers without pressure

Table 2.5 Coefficients for determination of penetration of packed glass-fibre

Type of fibrous structure Coefficients

1. Braid cloth 435 382 81

Figure 2.2 Mechanism of impregnation of fibrous filler with binder: I, binder;

Air in the intra fibrous spaces sets up resistance to binder move-

for a braid of radius R, drawn with speed Vn through a bath of binder

The required content of binder in the prepreg is ensured by

where m is the mass (g) per metre of prepreg and Vn is the

where Ve is the mass content of binder (%) and Vp is the concentration

where IIDK is the permissible concentration of solvent and HBII is the

where Cv is the heat capacity at constant volume of air, and t1 and t2

In general form the heat

Contact impregnation of fibrous fillers

Figure 2.3 Plant for contact impregnation of fibrous filler.

Figure 2.3 shows the layout of an impregnation bath of plant for

Figure 2.4 Impregnation of fibrous filler by spraying.

Impregnation of fibrous fillers under pressure

Figure 2.5 Plant for vacuum impregnation of fibrous filler.

spinneret is larger than for capillary impregnation, because of the

where Re is the internal radius of the binder.

Type of prepreg Maximum Resin Thick-

Glass tape, unidirectional 50 20±2 0.1 ± 0.02

Control of the prepreg quality

The finished product is checked for binder content and degree of

2.3 PCM SEMIFINISHED PRODUCTS OBTAINED BY SOLID-

These are typical of polymeric composite materials (PCM) based on

Figure 2.9 Types of solid-phase matrix semifinished products and methods

Table 2.7 Dynamic viscosity of melts of soviet industrial thermoelastics at the

Type of thermoplastic Melt temp- Melt viscosity

Low-density polyethylene 553 1050 405

Table 2.8 PhYSico-mechanical characteristics of unidirectional polycap-

Property indices Type of carbon tape Solidified

Type of Directions of Modulus of Destruction

0° 135.1 (2.1) 588 (3.6)

Note: The coefficients of variation are shown in parentheses (in %).

plastic of the type KMV-31, manufactured in accordance with ordinary

1·11 ' ;mp(S)