Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic

solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are

generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquidat room
temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words
"oils", "fats", and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to
fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to
refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to
both liquid and solid fats, along with other related substances. The word "oil" is also
used for any substance that does not mix with water and has a greasy feel, such
as petroleum (or crude oil), heating oil, and essential oils, regardless of its chemical
structure.[1]

Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical
structure and physical properties. This category of molecules is important for many
forms of life, serving both structural and metabolic functions. They are an important
part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans). Fats or lipids are broken
down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas.

Examples of edible animal fats are lard, fish oil, and butter or ghee. They are obtained
from fats in the milk and meat, as well as from under the skin, of an animal.
Examples of edible plant fats include peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame,
coconut, olive, and vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable shortening, which can be
derived from the above oils, are used mainly for baking. These examples of fats can
be categorized intosaturated fats and unsaturated fats.

Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed,
and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids,
an important dietary requirement.

Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs
against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function.

Fats also serve as energy stores for the body, containing about
37.8 kilojoules (9 Calories) per gram of fat[3]. They are broken down in the body to
release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted to glucose by the
liver and thus used as a source of energy.

Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When a particular
substance, whether chemical or biotic—reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream,
the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending
substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until
such time as the offending substances can be metabolized and/or removed from the
body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or
intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.

While it is nearly impossible to remove fat completely from the diet, it would be
unhealthy to do so. Some fatty acids are essential nutrients, meaning that they
can't be produced in the body from other compounds and need to be consumed in
small amounts. All other fats required by the body are non-essential and can be
produced in the body from other compounds.

A carbohydrate is an organic compound which has the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n;

that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with a
hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water). Carbohydrates can be viewed
ashydrates of carbon, hence their name. Structurally however, it is more accurate to
view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The

carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical
groupings:monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In
general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lowermolecular
weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars.[1] The
wordsaccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar".
While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the
monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For
example, blood sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, table sugar is the
disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose (see illustration).

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living things. Polysaccharides serve for

the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen) and as structural components
(e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon
monosaccharide ribose is an important component ofcoenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD,
and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The
related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include
many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune
system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.[2]

In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means
any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such
as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found
in candy, jams and desserts).

A carbohydrate is an organic compound which has the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n;

that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with a
hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water). Carbohydrates can be viewed
ashydrates of carbon, hence their name. Structurally however, it is more accurate to
view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The

carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical
groupings:monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In
general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lowermolecular
weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars.[1] The
wordsaccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar".
While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the
monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For
example, blood sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, table sugar is the
disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose (see illustration).

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living things. Polysaccharides serve for

the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen) and as structural components
(e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon
monosaccharide ribose is an important component ofcoenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD,
and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The
related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include
many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune
system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.[2]

In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means
any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such
as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found
in candy, jams and desserts).

Classification

For dietary purposes, carbohydrates can be classified as simple

(monosaccharides and disaccharides) or complex
(oligosaccharides andpolysaccharides). The term complex carbohydrate was first
used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human
Needspublication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977), where it denoted "fruit,
vegetables and whole-grains".[14] Dietary guidelines generally recommend that
complex carbohydrates, and such nutrient-rich simple carbohydrate sources such
as fruit (glucose or fructose) and dairy products (lactose) make up the bulk of
carbohydrate consumption. This excludes such sources of simple sugars as candy
and sugary drinks.
The USDA's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 dispensed with the
simple/complex distinction, instead recommending fiber-rich foods and whole
grains.[15]

The glycemic index and glycemic load concepts have been developed to
characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich
foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on blood glucose levels.
Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while
glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. The insulin
index is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their
effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some
amino acids in food.

Catabolism

Catabolism is the metabolic reaction cells undergo to extract energy. There are two
major metabolic pathways of monosaccharidecatabolism: glycolysis and the citric acid
cycle.

In glycolysis, oligo/polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by

enzymes called glycoside hydrolases. The monosaccharide units can then enter into
monosaccharide catabolism. In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate
types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not
present.

Proteins (also known as polypeptides) are organic compounds made of amino

acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a globular form. The amino acids in
a polymer are joined together by the peptide bonds between
the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of
amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in
the genetic code.[1] In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids;
however, in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine—and in
certainarchaea—pyrrolysine. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a
protein are often chemically modified by post-translational modification, which alters
the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity, and ultimately, the
function of the proteins. Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular
function, and they often associate to form stablecomplexes.[2]

Of the most distinguishing features of polypeptides is their ability to fold into a

globular state, or "structure". The extent to which proteins fold into a defined
structure varies widely. Data supports that some protein structures fold into a
highly rigid structure with small fluctuations and are therefore considered to be
single structure. Other proteins have been shown to undergo large rearrangements
from one conformation to another. This conformational change is often associated
with a signaling event. Thus, the structure of a protein serves as a medium through
which to regulate either the function of a protein or activity of an enzyme. Not all
proteins requiring a folding process in order to function as some function in an
unfolded state.

Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids,

proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process
within cells. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are
vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such
as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in thecytoskeleton, which form a
system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell
signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Proteins are also
necessary in animals' diets, since animals cannot synthesize all the amino acids
they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food. Through the process
of digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then
used in metabolism.

Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder and
named by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1838. Early nutritional
scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most
important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body, because it was
generally believed that "flesh makes flesh."[3] The central role of proteins as
enzymes in living organisms was however not fully appreciated until 1926,
when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein.[4] The
first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger, who won the Nobel
Prize for this achievement in 1958. The first protein structures to be solved
were hemoglobin and myoglobin, by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew,
respectively, in 1958.[5][6] The three-dimensional structures of both proteins were
first determined by x-ray diffraction analysis; Perutz and Kendrew shared the
1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for these discoveries. Proteins may bepurified from
other cellular components using a variety of techniques such
as ultracentrifugation,precipitation, electrophoresis, and chromatography; the advent
of genetic engineering has made possible a number of methods to facilitate
purification. Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function
include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis,nuclear magnetic
resonance and mass spectrometry.

The best-known role of proteins in the cell is as enzymes, which catalyze chemical
reactions. Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one or a few
chemical reactions. Enzymes carry out most of the reactions involved in metabolism,
as well as manipulating DNA in processes such as DNA replication, DNA repair,
and transcription. Some enzymes act on other proteins to add or remove chemical
groups in a process known as post-translational modification. About 4,000 reactions
are known to be catalyzed by enzymes.[33] The rate acceleration conferred by
enzymatic catalysis is often enormous—as much as 1017-fold increase in rate over
the uncatalyzed reaction in the case of orotate decarboxylase (78 million years
without the enzyme, 18 milliseconds with the enzyme).[34]

The molecules bound and acted upon by enzymes are called substrates. Although
enzymes can consist of hundreds of amino acids, it is usually only a small fraction of
the residues that come in contact with the substrate, and an even smaller fraction—
three to four residues on average—that are directly involved in catalysis.[35] The
region of the enzyme that binds the substrate and contains the catalytic residues is
known as the active site.

Most microorganisms and plants can biosynthesize all 20 standard amino acids, while
animals (including humans) must obtain some of the amino acids from the diet.
[28]
The amino acids that an organism cannot synthesize on its own are referred to
as essential amino acids. Key enzymes that synthesize certain amino acids are not
present in animals — such as aspartokinase, which catalyzes the first step in the
synthesis of lysine, methionine, and threonine from aspartate. If amino acids are
present in the environment, microorganisms can conserve energy by taking up the
amino acids from their surroundings and downregulating their biosynthetic pathways.

In animals, amino acids are obtained through the consumption of foods containing
protein. Ingested proteins are then broken down into amino acids through digestion,
which typically involves denaturation of the protein through exposure
to acid and hydrolysis by enzymes calledproteases. Some ingested amino acids are
used for protein biosynthesis, while others are converted
to glucose through gluconeogenesis, or fed into the citric acid cycle. This use of protein
as a fuel is particularly important under starvation conditions as it allows the body's
own proteins to be used to support life, particularly those found in muscle.[68] Amino
acids are also an important dietary source ofnitrogen.[citation needed]

The human gastrointestinal tract refers to the stomach and intestine,[1] and
sometimes to all the structures from the mouth to the anus.[2] (The "digestive
system" is a broader term that includes other structures, including the accessory
organs of digestion).[3]

In an adult male human, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is 5 metres (20 ft) long in a
live subject, or up to 9 metres (30 ft) without the effect of muscle tone, and consists
of the upper and lower GI tracts. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut,
and hindgut, reflecting theembryological origin of each segment of the tract.

The GI tract releases hormones as to help regulate the digestion process. These
hormones, including gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and grehlin, are mediated
through either intracrine or autocrine mechanisms, indicating that the cells
releasing these hormones are conserved structures throughout evolution.[4]

The upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, andduodenum.[5]

Some sources also include the mouth cavity and pharynx.[citation needed]

The exact demarcation between "upper" and "lower" can vary. Upon gross
dissection, the duodenum may appear to be a unified organ, but it is often divided
into two parts based upon function, arterial supply, or embryology.

Lower gastrointestinal tract

The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of
the large intestine.[6] According to some sources, it also includes theanus.[citation needed]

Bowel or intestine

Small intestine, which has three parts:

Duodenum - Here the digestive juices from pancreas (digestive enzymes) and liver
(bile) mix together. The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies
fats into micelles. Duodenum contains Brunner's glands which produce bicarbonate
and pancreatic juice contains bicarbonate to neurtralize hydrochloric acid of
stomach

Jejunum - It is the midsection of the intestine, connecting duodenum to ileum.

Contain plicae circulares, and villi to increase surface area.

Ileum - It has villi in where all soluble molecules are absorbed into the blood
(capillaries and lacteals).

Large intestine, which has three parts:

Cecum (the vermiform appendix is attached to the cecum).

Colon (ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and sigmoid flexure). The
main function of colon is to absorb water, but it also contains bacteria that produce
beneficial vitamins like Vitamin K.
Rectum

Anus

The ligament of Treitz is sometimes used to divide the upper and lower GI tracts.[7]