Chapter-2

What is Democracy? Why Democracy?

A simple definition of Democracy
Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people.
Summary definition of Democracy
1.      In a democracy the final decision making power must rest with those elected by the people.
2.      A democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of
losing.
3.      In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value.
4.      A democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizens’ rights
Why Pakistan under General Musharraf should not be called a democracy?.
1.      In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf led a military coup and overthrew a democratically elected government
and declared himself the ‘Chief Executive’ of the country.
2.      Later he conducted a referendum which was based on malpractices and fraud. He changed his designation as
President in 2002.
3.      In August 2002 he issued a ‘Legal Framework Order’ that amended the constitution of Pakistan. According to
this Order, the President can dismiss the national or provincial assemblies.
4.      The work of the civilian cabinet is supervised by a National Security Council which is dominated by military
officers.
5.      After passing this law, elected representatives have some powers but the final power rests with military officers
and General Musharraf himself. Because of these reasons Pakistan under General Musharraf should not be
called a democracy.
Should we consider the elections held in China and Mexico are democratic elections? Give
reasons.
 China
1.      In China, single party system is practiced.
2.      Before contesting elections, a candidate needs the approval of the Chinese Communist Party.
3.      Only those who are members of the Chinese Communist Party or eight smaller parties allied to it were allowed
to contest elections.
4.      The government is always formed by the Communist Party of China.
Mexico
1.      Since its independence in 1930, every election was won by a PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party).
Opposition parties did contest elections, but the PRI uses many dirty tricks to win elections.
2.      All those who were employed in government offices had to attend its party meetings.
3.      Teachers of government schools used to force parents to vote for the PRI. Media largely ignored the activities
of opposition political parties except to criticise them.
4.       Sometimes the polling booths were shifted from one place to another in the last minute, which made it difficult
for people to cast their votes. The PRI spent a large sum of money in the campaign for its candidates.
Which are the countries deny equal right to vote? How?
1.      In Saudi Arabia  women do not have the right to vote.
2.       Estonia has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to Russian minority find it difficult
to get the right to vote.
3.       In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has more value than that of an Indian-
Fijian.
 How is Zimbabwe government undemocratic  and autocratic? Give reasons.
1.       Zimbabwe has been ruled by ZANU-PF, the party that led the freedom struggle. Its leader, Robert Mugabe, is
popular but also uses unfair practices in elections.
2.       Over the years his government has changed the constitution several times to increase the powers of the
President and make him less accountable.
3.       Opposition party workers are harassed and their meeting disrupted. Public protests and demonstrations against
the government are declared illegal. There is a law that limits the right to criticise the President.
4.        Television and radio are controlled by the government and give only the ruling party’s version. The
government has ignored some court judgments that went against it and has pressurised judges.
What are the arguments put forward against democracy?
1.       Leaders keep changing in a democracy. This leads to instability.
2.      Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for morality.
3.       So many people have to be consulted in a democracy that it leads to delays.
4.        Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people. It leads to bad decisions.
5.       Democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition.
6.       Ordinary people don’t know what is good for them; they should not decide anything.
What are the arguments put forward for democracy?
1.      A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government.
2.      Democracy improves the quality of decision making by consulting various people and institutions.
3.      Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts. In any society where people belong to
different regions, speak different languages, practice different religions and have different castes.
4.      Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens by providing equality, fundamental rights and freedoms.
5.      Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to correct its own mistakes.
BROADER MEANINGS OF DEMOCRACY
Two types of Democracy

1.      Direct democracy- In which all the citizens of the country assemble in a place and directly take part in
decision making.
2.      Indirect democracy or Representative Democracy-In which people elect their representatives and those
elected representatives make major decision. The majority of people rule through their elected representatives.

Why is Representative Democracy become necessary in the present world?

1.        Modern democracies involve such a large number of people that it is physically impossible for them to sit
together and take a collective decision.
2.         Even if they could, the citizen does not have the time, the desire or the skills to take part in all the decisions.

What is an ideal standard democracy?

 
1.       True democracy will come to a country only when no one goes hungry to bed.
2.       In a true democracy every citizen must be able to play equal role in decision making with equal right to vote,
equal information, basic education, equal resources and a lot of commitment.

Assignment
1.      Explain Summary definition of Democracy
2.      Why Pakistan under General Musharraf should not be called a democracy?
3.      Should we consider the elections held in China and Mexico are democratic elections? Give reasons.
4.      Which are the countries deny equal right to vote? How?
5.      How is Zimbabwe government undemocratic and autocratic? Give reasons.
6.      What are the arguments put forward against democracy?
7.      What are the arguments put forward for democracy?
Explain the broader meaning of democracy?

PALAMPUR
Features of Village Palampur-

Palampur is well connected to nearby towns and villages

The closest big village to Palampur is Raiganj and the nearest small town is Shahpur
Palampur has all weather roads which connect it to the above places
The major means of transport are bullock carts, tongas, cycles, jeeps, motorbikes, trucks and
tractors
Palampur has approximately 450 families belonging to different castes
There are 80 families belonging to the upper castes and they live in large houses made of bricks
and cement. The upper caste families own majority of the land in the village
One third of the village belongs to the lower castes called dalits or SCs. These lower caste
families live in a corner of the village and their houses are made of mud and straw, this indicates
that the lower caste families are also the poorer ones
There is electricity in many parts of Palampur which helps in running tube wells and small
businesses
Palampur has 2 primary and 1 high school
Palampur has 2 primary government health centers and 1 private dispensary
The Basic occupation of the people in Palampur is farming and 75% of the population is involved
in it.
Production-
Production is defined as the process in which various factors of production are combined to
produce goods and services to satisfy human wants in other words production is the process of
conversion of inputs into outputs.
Factors of Production-
There are 4 basic factors of production:-
Land- Land is a basic factor input; it includes soil, natural resources, water and mineral deposits
depending on the type of land on its location it can be used for different purposes. For example;
cultivation or industrial activities.
Labor- Labor is the second factor of production, defined as the human resources which are used
for production activites. For example; skilled and unskilled labor.
Capital- also called physical capital refers to the inputs used in the various stages of production.
Includes money, raw materials, buildings, machinery etc. There are 2 types of Capital-
Enterprise- This is the 4th most important factor of production. It is the ability to combine the
other factors and take risk by setting up a production unit. (There is risk because there may be
losses)
Factor Payments/Rewards-
Factor Rewards are defined as the payment made to the different factors of production for
contributing to the process of production. The following are the various factor rewards which are
earned-
Land in Palampur-
Land is a fixed factor and this is the biggest obstacle which prevents crop output to increase
The above is the biggest problem for farmers in Palampur
Measures to increase Production of Crops in Palampur-
Although land is a fixed factor, yet the crop output can be increased by the following methods:-
Use of better irrigational facilities. It is important to make use of modern methods of irrigation
which are operated with the help of electricity such as tubewells
Use of modern equipment and machinery. Example; tractors
Use of better variety of seeds and other inputs such as fertilizers
Converting waste land into cultivable land
Definitions-
Yield: Yield is the total crop output in a particular land area
Hectare: It is the unit of measurement of cultivable land area. It is equal in area to a square piece
of land with each side=100m
Crops which are Cultivated Seasonally in Palampur-
Rainy season i.e. Kharif season: Jowar and Bajra; they are used for feeding the cattle
October to December: Potatoes
Winter Season i.e. Rabi season: Wheat is grown by the farmers for their own use and selling the
extra wheat in the market
Sugarcane is also grown in some parts of the land. Sugarcane or jaggery is sold at Shahpur
Surplus Output-
Surplus output i.e. extra output left with the farmers after they have consumed the amount that
they want to. This surplus output can be sold to earn money and is also called marketable
surplus.
Differences-
Green Revolution-
The use of modern farming methods in India in the late 1960s led to a revolution known as the
green revolution. The green revolution is associated with the rapid and sustained increase in the
output of agricultural crops over a long period of time.
Initially, the green revolution was limited to wheat but it subsequently spread to other crops like
rice, oil seed etc.
The first phase of the green revolution was limited to:
Few areas like Punjab and Western UP.
Few crops like rice and wheat.
The second phase of green revolution was spread over a larger area and more crops.
Over-exploitation of land
Modern farming methods have led to an overuse of the natural resource base. Indicators of this
over-exploitation are:
Loss of soil fertility
Overuse of fertilizers has led to a situation where fertilizers have lost their effectiveness. Thus, in
order to maintain the existing level of yield, greater quantities of fertilizers have to be used. This
loss of fertility has increased costs of production. In addition, chemical fertilizers kill the micro-
organisms in the soil which makes it less fertile.
Pollution and depletion of ground water
Use of modern farming methods involves a well-developed system of irrigation. Thus, the ground
water resources are being used up fast. At the same time, the use of chemical fertilizers and
harmful pesticides is polluting the ground water.
Fragmentation of land
The problem of agricultural holdings in India is two-fold:
They are small
They are fragmented and found in tiny plots scattered all over the village
The reason behind these small and fragmented land holdings is the law of inheritance. This
means that upon the death of a land owner, his land will be sub-divided so that after some
generations only tiny plots are left with the decedents of a large land owner.
Due to small and fragmented land holdings, even improved irrigation and modern farming
techniques are not sufficient to earn a living. Thus, small farmers look for additional work during
part of the year.
Indian Experience
Irrigated area in India is less than 40% of the total cultivated area. Thus, more than 60% of the
cultivated area is still dependant on monsoons. The well irrigated area includes the riverine
plains and the coastal regions. Areas with low level of irrigation include the plateau region ie the
Deccan Plateau.
Cultivated land in India is unequally distributed among small and large farmers.
Why is there unequal distribution of land?
The reason behind this unequal distribution is that small farmers own a very little portion of the
total cultivable land, and the medium and large farmers own a very large portion of the total
cultivable land.
Labour
Labour used for farming small farms and medium and large farms differs.
Small farms: Small farms are cultivated by small farmers with the help of their families.
Medium and large farms: Medium and large farmers hire farm labourers to work on their fields.
Farm labourers are:
People who work on land owned by another person.
Paid for their services in the form of wages. Wages may be paid in cash or in kind (example,
crops).
Either landless people or very small farmers whose land holdings do not generate enough
income.
As agriculture is a seasonal activity, farm labourers get employed only when particular
operations on land are to be carried out like ploughing of land, harvesting of crops, etc.
There are more persons willing to work as farm labourers than are required. These extra
labourers are referred to as surplus labour. The heavy competition for work among farm
labourers pushes down wages. Those who cannot find work in their own villages, end up
migrating to other villages and towns in search of work.
Migration from villages takes place due to:
Push factors like poor living conditions that compel labourers to move.
Pull factors like better job opportunities elsewhere that attract labourers.    
Capital
Modern farming methods being a package programme require more inputs and hence capital.
The capital used for farming by small farmers and medium and large farmers is obtained
differently:
Small farmers borrow from money lenders and medium and large farmers.
Medium and large farmers use their own savings to arrange for capital.
Small farmers borrow money to arrange for capital required for farming. However, getting a loan
is difficult and they have to agree to tough conditions like:
Very high rates of interest on loan borrowed.
Promise to work for free or at a very low wage in the farms of large farmers.
Sale of surplus farm products
Crops produced on farms may be used for:
Self-consumption
Sale in the market for profits (also known as marketable surplus). The profits earned from sale in
the market may be:
Saved and invested
Used to buy capital for next year’s production
Marketable surplus is that portion of the agricultural produce which is sold in the market.
Marketable surplus = Total output produced – Output kept for self-consumption
Small farmers mainly keep crops produced for self-consumption and have no marketable surplus.
The marketable surplus is mainly supplied by medium/large farmers.
Non-farm activities
Non-farm activities should be encouraged because:
They can bring an end to poverty in rural areas as they yield greater incomes. Most poor farmers
do not have enough money to even arrange for the next year’s production. Thus, they end up
borrowing but fail to repay their debt. By taking up non-farm activities, these farmers can turn to
other occupations besides farming which does not yield high income anyways.
They provide employment to the surplus labourers in rural areas. Land being fixed, not everyone
can depend on farming as a means of livelihood. The surplus labourers who fail to find
employment in farms can turn to non-farm activities.
How can we encourage non-farm activities?
Providing loans at low rates of interest. Non-farm activities require little land, but more capital.
Therefore, rural people should be given loans at low rates of interest to start non-farm activities.
Providing transportation facilities. Transportation facilities should be provided in rural areas so
that procurement of raw materials as well as marketing of finished products can be made easier.
Providing training of rural people. Training of rural people on skills like carpentry, masonry, etc.
so that they can set-up their own non-farm activities.
Some non-farm activities in villages
Dairy
Some village families raise buffaloes for their milk which they sell in nearby villages. They require
refrigeration facilities from where the milk can be transported. The raw materials required would
be cattle feed like grass; jowar & bajra and the fied capital would be cows/buffaloes,
refrigerators, etc.
Small-scale manufacturing
Manufacturing refers to production of goods by application of labour and capital to raw materials
and other intermediate inputs. In contrast, agriculture, mining, forestry, fishing, etc. which
produce primary products that have not been processed, and therefore, are in their natural state.
Manufacturing involves simple production methods done on small-scale. They are carried out at
home or in fields with the help of family labour only.
Small trading activities like shops
Trade refers to exchange of goods and services. This sale-purchase takes place in the chain
shown below.
Producers of primary and secondary products
Wholesalers
Shopkeepers/traders/retailers
Transport
This is a service. People involved in it ferry goods and people from one place to another in return
for a payment.

French Society Before the Revolution

1774, King Louis XVI ascended the throne of France at the age of 20. He was married to Marie
Antoinette and led an extravagant life.

He decided to support the American War of Independence and hence increased France’s debt to
over 3 billion Livres.

The 18th century French society was divided into three estates. The first estate consisted of the
clergy.
The second estate comprised the nobility while the third estate, which formed about 97% of the
population, consisted of the merchants, officials, peasants, artisans and servants.

The clergy and nobility did not have to pay any taxes. It was only the third estate that paid taxes.
A part of third class called the middle class was part of the third estate. This group consisted of
educated people such as teachers, lawyers, artisans and merchants.  They started to question
the privileges being enjoyed by the nobility.

In the midst these thoughts, the increase in the price of bread added to the existing taxes,
resulting in riots. King Louis decided to convene the Estates General and put forth his proposal.

Outbreak of the Revolution

The financial condition in France was in a pitiable state. Louis had almost bankrupted France with
a 3 million livre debt. In order to increase the taxes to offset this permission was needed from all
three estates.

The Estates General was convened on 5th May 1789 at Versailles comprising representatives
from all three estates.
 The members of the third estate gathered on 20th June, 1789 in Versailles and declared
themselves as the National Assembly and decided to draft a constitution that would limit the
powers of the King.

Their key leaders were Mirabeau and Abbe Sieyes. On August 4th 1789 Louis recognized the
National Assembly and agreed to abide by their framework. The National Assembly abolished the
feudal system of taxes, tithes and the special privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobles by
birth.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

So the recognition of the National Assembly by King Louis and him agreeing to their demands
was a victory for the entire Third Estate.
 
In 1791, the National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution. As per the new
constitution, France became a constitutional monarchy with the King, or the Executive, having to
share power with the legislature and the Judiciary.
 
Only men who were older than 25 years and who paid taxes were allowed to vote. The
constitution commenced with the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
 
It stated that the right to life, to freedom of speech, to freedom of opinion and to equality before
the law were intrinsic to all human beings.
 
Visual symbols were used to share the message to the uneducated and illiterate people:
•       The broken chains stood for freedom
•       The blue white and red symbolized the national colours of France
•       The Red Phrygian cap was a sign of freedom and was worn by slaves when they became free
•       The all seeing eye stood for knowledge
•       The self devouring snake indicated eternity
•       The bundle of rods of fasces indicated strength in unity
•       The winged woman stood for the law
•       The sceptre was a symbol of royal power
•       The tablet also known as the law tablet signified equality
 
All women and children, and men who did not fall into the category of active citizens, were
termed passive citizens, and were denied the right to vote.
 
The preamble to the constitution of 1791 consisted of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen. These rights included the rights to life, the freedom of speech, the freedom of opinion
and equality before the law.

France Becomes a Republic

The National Assembly succeeded in making France into a constitutional monarchy. King Louis
XVI deprived of all his powers conspired to dissolve the National Assembly with the King of
Prussia, Frederick William II.

The most successful political club was Jacobins, headed by Maximilian Robespierre. Jacobins
were also
called sansculottes which meant ‘those without knee breeches’. They wore long striped trousers
similar to dock workers and wore a red Phrygian cap that symbolized liberty.
 On August 10, 1792 people stormed the palace of the Tuileries where King Louis and his family
were hostage. On September 21, 1792 a new assembly called the Convention was formed and
France was declared a Republic.

The national committee put King Louis on trial and found him guilty. On January 21, 1793, King Louis
was beheaded while Queen Marie Antoinette was guillotined on October 16th of the same year. 

The Reign of Terror

King Louis was executed on 21st January 1793 at the Palace de la Concorde followed by the
execution of the queen. The year following the formation of the French republic is referred to as
the reign of terror.
Maximilian Robespierre suspended the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Robespierre started
executing people he suspected of counter-terrorist activities.
 
Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern Chemistry, famous for discovering Oxygen and Hydrogen
was executed.
 
Many rules were enforced on social and economic front. Camille Desmoulins, a revolutionary
journalist opposed the Reign of Terror but was eventually executed.
 
In July 1794, Robespierre was charged with treason and sentenced to death. With the death of
Robespierre ended the reign of terror.

Did Women have a Revolution?

 Women came into the forefront on October 5, 1789, when they marched to Versailles and
brought King Louis the sixteenth back to Paris.
 
The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was formed in 1793 to voice its opinion and
grievances against the constitution of 1791 which denied them the right to vote.

 The eminent writer and political activist, Olympe de Gouges opposed the constitution and the
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen of 1791. She later drafted the Declaration of Rights for
Women and Citizen.
 
Olympe de Gouges was charged with treason and was guillotined on November 2, 1793.
 
The revolution carried out by the women of France triggered the international suffrage
movement, for the next two centuries. As a result of this movement, in 1946, the women of
France won the right to exercise their franchise and equal wages.

The Abolition of Slavery

Before the French Revolution in 1789, France had three colonies of the Caribbean - Martinique,
Guadeloupe and San Domingo under its control. These places were major suppliers of sugar,
coffee, indigo and tobacco.
 
The triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and America began in the 17 thcentury.
 
Merchants sailed from the French ports to the African coast where they bought Negroes, who are
natives of Africa, from the local chieftains.
 
Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes were flourishing economically because of the slave trade.
 
The National Convention voted to abolish slavery in all the French colonies on February 4, 1794.
 
Slavery was reintroduced in the French colonies by Napoleon Bonaparte. Slavery was finally
abolished in
1848 by the French Second Republic.

Revolution and Everyday Life

After 1789 there was a significant difference in the lives of the French people, in the way they
dressed, the language they spoke and the books they read.
 
After the storming of the Bastille in July 1789, censorship was abolished.
 
The government put into practice the ideologies of liberty, equality and fraternity.
 
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen contained in the Preamble of the Constitution of
1791 asserted that every citizen had the right to freedom of speech and expression.
 
Written material such as newspapers, books, pamphlets and pictures were spread throughout
France.
 
Printed pictures and paintings were circulated, and pamphlets and books were read aloud for the
illiterate. Plays, songs and processions made it easy for the common people to grasp the
revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality and justice.
 
Freedom of the press in the Declaration of 1791 supported the right to oppose views of events.
This paved way for political clubs to convince the others of their position through the medium of
print.