Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Provisioning Inka feasts at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: the geographic origins of camelids

in the Pumapunku complex
Kelly J. Knudson a, *, Kristin R. Gardella b, Jason Yaeger c
a
Center for Bioarchaeological Research, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
b
Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
c
Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: While political integration can be achieved by many means, here we focus on the use of feasting and
Received 28 February 2011 statecraft in the Inka Empire of the Andean Late Horizon (c. AD 1400e1532) in South America. In order to
Received in revised form examine Inka political integration of the Lake Titicaca Basin of Bolivia, we examine paleomobility and
5 October 2011
paleodiet through radiogenic strontium and stable oxygen and carbon isotope data in archaeological
Accepted 6 October 2011
camelid remains from the site of Tiwanaku. Mean radiogenic strontium isotope values from all archae-
ological camelid enamel and bone samples is 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70998  0.00179 (1s, n ¼ 48), mean stable
Keywords:
oxygen isotope values from a sub-set of archaeological camelid enamel and bone samples is d18Ocarbonate
Andes
Inca (VPDB) ¼ 10.0&  2.6& (1s, n ¼ 18) and mean stable carbon isotope values from a sub-set of archae-
Late Horizon ological camelid enamel and bone samples is d13Ccarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 9.0&  1.7& (1s, n ¼ 18). While
Middle Horizon many camelids consumed in these feasting events were likely local to the Lake Titicaca Basin, others
Radiogenic strontium isotopes came from a variety of different geologic zones, elucidating our understanding of Inka statecraft and the
Stable carbon isotopes role of feasting in political integration in empires in the past.
Stable oxygen isotopes Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2. Feasting and political integration in past empires

While much research on past empires has focused on adminis-
trative structure and strategies for controlling subject provinces,
scholars are now turning to more nuanced discussions of practices
that fostered political integration in ancient empires, including
feasting. Here, we use biogeochemistry to investigate imperial feasts
in the Inka Empire in Late Horizon (c. AD 1400e1532) Andean South
America. We first provide a brief introduction to current theories of
statecraft and feasting, followed by a discussion of the Inka Empire.
We then describe the use of biogeochemistry in paleomobility and
paleodiet studies and the expected isotopic signatures in the study
area. After presenting our materials and methods, we present new
radiogenic strontium isotope, stable oxygen isotope, and stable
carbon isotope data from archaeological camelid remains recovered
from the Inka occupation of Tiwanaku, Bolivia. We conclude with
a discussion of our interpretations of the paleomobility and paleo-
diet data, including their implications for our the role of feasting in
Inka Empire.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 480 727 0767; fax: þ1 480 965 7671.
E-mail address: kelly.knudson@asu.edu (K.J. Knudson).
Recent approaches to understanding past empires have focused
on the variability and complexity of imperial processes over space
and time (e.g., Alcock, et al., 2001; Algaze, 1993; Given, 2004;
Gosden, 2004; Nash, 1987; Smith and Montiel, 2001; Smith and
Schreiber, 2005; Stein, 2005; Woolf, 1992, 1998). A number of
scholars have focused on the importance of state-sponsored ritual
activities and feasts for integrating disparate groups, demon-
strating state power, and creating and reproducing new forms of
social identities (e.g., Cook, 2005; Dietler, 1996; Goldstein, 2003;
Swenson, 2006), as well as the role of competitive feasting and
commensal politics in sociopolitical development more broadly
(Dietler, 1996; Dietler and Hayden, 2001; Gero, 1992; Hayden, 1996;
Spielmann, 2002; Stanish, 2002).
Given the important role of state-sponsored ritual activities and
feasts in imperial integration, biogeochemical analyses can be useful
in understanding paleodiet and paleomobility in past empires.
Biogeochemical analyses have been used in studies of archaeological
empires in the Andes (Andrushko et al., 2009; Finucane, 2007;
Kellner and Schoeninger, 2008; Knudson and Tung, 2011;
Knudson, et al., 2006; Slovak et al., 2009; Tung and Knudson,
2008, 2010, 2011; Turner, et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2007) and

0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.003
480 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491
beyond (Buzon and Bowen, 2010; Buzon et al., 2007; Chenery et al.,
2010; Dupras et al., 2001; Dupras and Tocheri, 2007; Eckhardt et al.,
2009; Fuller et al., 2006; Keenleyside et al., 2009; Killgrove, 2010;
Perry et al., 2008; Prowse et al., 2008; Prowse et al., 2004; Redfern
et al., 2010; Schweissing and Grupe, 2003a; Thompson, et al.,
2008). However, biogeochemical analyses of faunal remains to
understand larger imperial processes have been largely limited to
a small number of studies at Roman sites (Berger et al., 2010;
Schweissing and Grupe, 2003b; Sykes, et al., 2011). Here, we use
biogeochemistry to investigate paleomobility and paleodiet in
archaeological faunal remains from the Inka occupation of Tiwa-
naku, Bolivia. By identifying the geographic origins of camelids
consumed in Late Horizon feasts at Tiwanaku, we can better
understand the complex strategies of political integration used in
the Inka Empire.
3. Feasting and political integration in the Inka Empire of
South America
3.1. The Inka Empire: a brief introduction
At its height, the Inka Empire was the largest in the Americas,
stretching from Colombia to Chile (see overviews in D’Altroy, 2002;
McEwan, 2008). In order to integrate and administer this vast
expanse, ruling elites implemented a number of different imperial
strategies that varied over space and time (see overviews in
D’Altroy, 2002; Malpass, 1993; McEwan, 2008). For example, the
Inka established large provincial administrative complexes (e.g., La
Lone and La Lone, 1987), transformed labor and economic activities
in a number of tribute areas (e.g., D’Altroy, 1992; Earle, 1994;
Stanish, 1997), and utilized complex state rituals and sacred land-
scapes to integrate their vast empire (e.g., Bauer, 1992; 1996; Ceruti,
2004; Moore, 2004; Wilson et al., 2007).
3.2. The Inka Empire in the Lake Titicaca Basin
The Lake Titicaca Basin in modern Peru and Bolivia was one of
the first regions outside of the Inka heartland to be incorporated
into the Inka Empire (D’Altroy, 2002, see overviews in Frye, 2005;
Julien, 1983; Stanish, 2003). In the Lake Titicaca Basin, the Inka
transformed settlement patterns and resettled largely local groups
into economically efficient and strategic colonies of mitmaqkuna
(Frye, 2005; Stanish, 1997, 2003). In addition, the Inka ruling elites
established a large sanctuary complex and pilgrimage center on the
Islands of the Sun and Moon (Bauer et al., 2004; Bauer and Stanish,
2001; Stanish, 2003) and created a number of small ceremonial
sites throughout the basin (Arkush, 2005).
Recently, Yaeger directed archaeological fieldwork to under-
stand the Inka settlement at the site of Tiwanaku in the southern
Lake Titicaca Basin, a site that had been largely abandoned before
Inka conquest of the region (Yaeger and López Bejarano, 2004).
Tiwanaku was the political and ceremonial center of the Tiwanaku
polity, which reached the height of its influence during the Middle
Horizon (c. AD 600e1100) (Goldstein, 2005; Janusek, 2004, 2008;
Kolata, 1993). The Inka occupation of Tiwanaku focused on the
Pumapunku pyramid complex (Yaeger and López Bejarano, 2004).
Although built during the Middle Horizon, the Pumapunku had
fallen into disuse after the collapse of the Tiwanaku polity (Vranich,
2006), as had the rest of the site’s monumental core (Smith, 2002;
Yaeger and Vranich, in press). During the subsequent Late Horizon,
the Pumapunku pyramid complex became a major focus of the Inka
occupation of Tiwanaku and a site for offerings of Inka material
culture and human remains (Yaeger and López Bejarano, 2004).
Yaeger and López Bejarano (2004) have argued that these offerings
were part of a larger Inka strategy to incorporate the largely
abandoned site of Tiwanaku into imperial sacred geography and
political history.
3.3. Inka feasting at Tiwanaku: Late Horizon excavations at
Pumapunku
State-sponsored feasts in the Inka Empire were a central prac-
tice, and were informed by and reinforced an ideology of reci-
procity. Inka imperial subjects provided regular tribute of labor and
goods and in return were invited to participate in periodic feasts
sponsored by the empire, in which copious amounts of food and
drink, particularly the maize (Zea mays) beer called chicha, were
provided (Bray, 2003a, 2003b, 2009; Gose, 2000; Murra, 1980).
While couched in notions of reciprocity and mutual obligations,
feasts revealed the differences in power between imperial hosts
and their subject guests, and reinforced the legitimacy of the Inka
Empire (Bray, 2003a, 2003b, 2009; Gose, 2000; Murra, 1980).
A number of different lines of evidence indicate the central role
of feasting in Inka political economy. First, kallankas, which were
huge rectangular structures used for feasting events and other
political activities, were built at many Inka provincial administra-
tive centers and were often the largest buildings in those sites (e.g.,
Morris, 1986; Morris and Thompson, 1974). Second, agricultural
practices of subject provinces often changed after Inka conquest as
tribute demands led to intensified production of valued feasting
foods such as maize and camelid (Lama sp.) meat (e.g., Bray, 2003a;
2009; Hastorf, 1990, 2003). Finally, paleodietary studies suggest
that provincial populations consumed much more maize, likely
imbibed as chicha, after Inka conquest (Hastorf, 1991).
Several lines of evidence lead us to infer that feasts were hosted
in a plaza adjacent to the Pumapunku, and that these feasts were
part of Inka political strategies. This open plaza is located adjacent
to the north face of the Pumapunku. It was first identified by
geophysical prospecting (Henderson and Conyers, 2003) and
confirmed through test excavations. Because of its relatively large
size, at least 1200 square meters in area, this plaza would have been
suitable for Inka feasting and other public activities, albeit not at
the same scale as the much larger central plazas at sites like Huá-
nuco Pampa and Cuzco (Moore, 1996). The plaza was demarcated
on the east and south by tall Inka galleries built directly on the first
terrace of the Middle Horizon Pumapunku. These galleries con-
tained long, very narrow interior spaces but possessed very wide
doorways that facilitated visual access between the plaza and the
galleries. Large blocks of polished, imported andesite sat on the
plaza floor like pedestals flanking the doorways. These wide
doorways and the flanking andesite blocks are consistent with the
display of important persons or objects, which could have partici-
pated directly or indirectly in activities in the plaza that they
overlooked.
The northern boundary of the plaza remains undefined, but
a complex of at least four rectangular buildings formed its western
edge. These buildings were similar in form but much smaller in scale
to kallankas documented at other Inka administrative sites (Morris
and Thompson, 1985). The narrow corridor that connected the
plaza and this complex was marked by a double-jambed doorway,
an Inka architectural form that demarcated passage into more
politically charged and/or sacred space. The corridor also contained
a narrow screen wall that closed the viewshed from the plaza into
the complex. Thus, the architectural data reveal an open plaza that
articulated with two very distinct architectural zones. On the south
and east, it is connected to the narrow galleries on the Pumapunku,
which are designed to maximize visual access between the plaza
and the galleries. In contrast, the complex of rectangular buildings
on the plaza’s west side could only be reached through a narrow
corridor marked by a double-jambed doorway and nearly closed by
 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491
a screen wall, all of which created a strong architectural distinction
between the plaza and the complex.
Excavations in this western complex revealed relatively thin but
dense deposits of charcoal; faunal remains including camelids,
other mammals, birds, and fish, a few of which were recovered
intact with bones and scales articulated; and a ceramic assemblage
dominated by soot-covered cooking pots and aribolas, the type of
ceramic vessel used for storing and serving chicha. The contents of
these middens suggest they were used for the preparation of food
and drink for mass consumption events (Yaeger and López
Bejarano, 2004). The restricted nature of the ceramic assemblage,
the remarkable density of faunal remains, and the high frequencies
of decorated arbialos are inconsistent with a domestic kitchen
context, even one in a household of elite standing.
These deposits were recovered in two of the four structures that
were excavated, as well as on the floors of the narrow corridors that
ran between the structures. A refit study found sherds from the
same serving vessels present in deposits inside the structure and in
the corridor. This finding strongly suggests that serving vessels
were used near these structures but not actually in them. After their
use and breakage, the serving vessels were redeposited as refuse in
this area. The discovery of intact fish skeletons in these same
deposits suggests that the materials were not transposed signifi-
cantly from their point of initial discard. The presence of some
deposits in high-traffic corridors suggests that these deposits were
not the result of a prolonged, gradual accumulation of refuse, but
rather represent one or perhaps a few depositional events that
happened near the end of the use-life of these structures, as they
were never cleaned up for final discard in less obtrusive spaces. The
adjacent plaza is the most likely candidate for the inferred feasting
that produced these materials, as it is the most suitable space for
large public events and the closest to the deposits. It was nearly
devoid of cultural materials in the areas we excavated, however, as
is often the case in ceremonial plazas.
There are obvious limitations to knowing the full diversity of
activities that might have occurred in the aforementioned plaza. The
deposits just mentioned, however, strongly suggest the consump-
tion of food and chicha in feasts was one such activity. As discussed
earlier, state-sponsored feasts were integral to Inka imperial ideol-
ogy and political economy. These events incorporated Andean
“luxury foods” such as chicha and camelid meat (Bray, 2003a,
2003b; Hastorf, 2003; Jennings, 2004; Jennings et al., 2005). As
Dietler and Hayden (2001) and others have argued, foods consumed
in feasts are often luxury foods, which can include non-local foods.
Biogeochemical study of camelid remains from the Pumapunku can
identify the presence and frequency of non-local camelids in these
deposits. This, in turn, will elucidate the consumption of non-local
foods in Inka feasts at the Pumapunku and the circulation patterns
of camelids in the Inka Empire.
4. Paleomobility and paleodiet through biogeochemistry: an
introduction
4.1. Radiogenic strontium isotope analysis
Biogeochemical techniques are a powerful tool for archeologists
interested in identifying geographic origins and paleomobility in
past populations. Radiogenic strontium isotope analysis is the most
widely-applied technique for paleomobility studies of both humans
and animals (see Bentley, 2006). Variability in 87Sr/86Sr values is
based largely on bedrock age and initial composition (Faure, 1986)
and can be used to determine the geologic region or regions in
which an individual lived during enamel and bone formation
(Ericson, 1985; Price et al., 1994a, 1994b). This is possible because
the 87Sr/86Sr values in bedrock will largely be reflected in the soils,
481
plants, and animals in a given ecosystem (see Bentley, 2006). In the
Andes, radiogenic strontium isotope analysis has been used in
a number of studies of archaeological human mobility, largely in
the Middle Horizon (Knudson, 2007, 2008; Knudson and Blom,
2009; Knudson et al., 2004, 2005; Knudson and Tung, 2011,
Slovak, et al., 2009; Tung and Knudson, 2008, 2010, 2011). A
smaller number of studies have successfully examined human
paleomobility in the Late Horizon Inka Empire (Andrushko et al.,
2009; Knudson et al., 2006; Turner et al., 2009) and camelid
mobility and origins in southern Peru (Thornton et al., 2011).
4.2. Stable oxygen isotope analysis
In contrast to radiogenic strontium isotope studies, stable
oxygen isotope analysis is used in archaeological mobility studies
because oxygen isotope values in water sources vary according to
a number of different environmental conditions. More specifically,
oxygen isotope signatures in water sources vary according to
a number of environmental factors including altitude, precipitation
patterns, latitude, and temperature (e.g. Bowen and Wilkinson,
2002; Bryant and Froelich, 1996; Craig, 1961a; Fricke, et al., 1995;
Ghosh et al., 2006; Gonfiantini et al., 2001; Koch, 1998; Kohn
et al., 1998; Levinson et al., 1987; Longinelli, 1984; Luz and
Kolodny, 1985; Luz et al., 1984; Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp, 1999;
Stuart-Williams and Schwarcz, 1997; White et al., 2004a). Although
variation in stable oxygen isotope values in meteoric water
(d18Omw) is well-established, stable oxygen isotope analysis in
archeology can be complicated by movement and treatment of
water in the past (Knudson, 2009) as well as sample pretreatment
(e.g., Munro, et al., 2008; Weidemann-Bidlack et al., 2008; Yoder
and Bartelink, 2010). Despite these issues, stable oxygen isotope
analysis has been used to investigate archaeological paleomobility
in a number of different regions (e.g., Buzon, et al., 2010; Knudson
et al., 2009; Prowse et al., 2007; Turner et al., 2009; White et al.,
2007, White et al., 2004b).
4.3. Stable carbon isotope analysis
While radiogenic strontium and stable oxygen isotope analyses
are used in archeology to determine paleomobility, stable carbon
isotope analysis can determine paleodiet. Stable carbon isotope
variability in plants derives from differences between C3, or Calvin,
and C4, or Hatch-Slack, photosynthetic pathways (Calvin, 1962;
Calvin and Benson, 1948; Hatch and Slack, 1966; Kortshack et al.,
1965). While tropical grasses, including maize generally use the C4
photosynthetic pathway, most terrestrial plants utilize the C3
photosynthetic pathway. A third photosynthetic pathway, the CAM,
or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism, pathway characterizes succulents
and cacti (Ranson and Thomas, 1960). In hydroxyapatite carbonate,
analyzed here, stable carbon isotope values (d13Ccarbonate) largely
reflect the carbon sources in the whole diet (Ambrose and Norr,
1993; Jim et al., 2004; Kellner and Schoeninger, 2007). Stable
carbon isotope analysis has a long history in paleodietary analyses in
archeology, and studies on faunal remains are becoming more
common (e.g., Finucane, et al., 2006; Izeta et al., 2009; Rawlings and
Driver, 2010; Schulting and Richards, 2002; Thornton et al., 2011;
White, 2004; White et al., 2001).
5. Expected strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotopic
signatures in the Andes
5.1. Bedrock geology and radiogenic strontium isotope signatures
The first radiogenic strontium isotope studies in the Andes were
focused on the South Central Andes (Knudson, 2008; Knudson
482 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491
et al., 2004, 2005), whose geologic variability is ideally suited for
paleomobility studies. In the Lake Titicaca Basin, where Tiwanaku is
located, igneous andesites and basalts are overlain by 10e20 m of
Quaternary fluvial and lacustrine sediments (Argollo et al., 1996).
Although radiogenic strontium isotope data do not yet exist for
bedrock in the Lake Titicaca Basin, 20 samples from four sediment
cores taken from Lake Titicaca were characterized by
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7083e0.7087 and surface water from Lake Titicaca
was characterized by 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7082e0.7085 (Grove et al.,
2003). In the altiplano, or high plain, south of the site of Tiwa-
naku, higher radiogenic strontium isotope values have been ob-
tained from surface waters in rivers near Lake Poopó, where
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7164e0.7178 in river water that drains from Lake
Poopó (Grove et al., 2003).
Outside of the altiplano, late Cenozoic volcanic rocks, such as
andesites, dominate much of the Andean region. In southern Peru,
late Cenozoic volcanic rocks near Arequipa, Peru exhibited a range
of 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7067e0.7079 (n ¼ 16) (James, 1982). In northern
Chile, exposed bedrock samples from late Cenozoic volcanic rocks
exhibit mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70646  0.00020 (1s, n ¼ 8) (Rogers and
Hawkesworth, 1989). The Inka heartland in the Cuzco region of the
southern highlands of Peru also contains late Cenozoic volcanic
rocks (Bellido et al., 1956). However, this geologically diverse area
also contains Tertiary continental, Cretaceous and Paleozoic sedi-
mentary and Upper Permian volcanic rocks (Bellido et al., 1956;
Chepstow-Lusty et al., 2003; Gregory, 1916).
The coastal areas of Peru and Chile contain large amounts of
Quaternary sedimentary geologic formations (e.g., Bellido et al.,
1956). In addition, coastal areas have riverine and alluvial soils
that are derived from the adjacent highlands (e.g., Bellido et al.,
1956). Finally, seawater exhibits 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7092 (Veizer, 1989),
so coastal areas may have marine inputs from sea spray (Whipkey
et al., 2000).
5.2. Bioavailable strontium isotope signatures in the Inka Empire
Rather than relying solely on expected and observed radiogenic
strontium isotope values in bedrock, we also present bioavailable
strontium isotope signatures in the Andes based on modern and
archaeological fauna (Evans and Tatham, 2004; Price et al., 2002). In
the Lake Titicaca Basin, mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70963  0.00028 (1s,
n ¼ 5) in modern guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) from the Tiwanaku
Valley (Knudson, 2008; Knudson and Price, 2007; Knudson and
Torres-Rouff, 2009); these radiogenic strontium isotope values in
modern faunal samples from the region are similar to observed
sediment and water values. In the southern altiplano near Potosí,
radiogenic strontium isotope values in modern guinea pigs were
much higher (Knudson et al., 2005).
The Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the Andes exhibit lower radiogenic
strontium isotope values when compared to the Lake Titicaca Basin
and altiplano. In the Moquegua Valley of southern Peru, modern
small mammals exhibited mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70625  0.00018 (1s,
n ¼ 3) (Knudson et al., 2004). Farther south, modern and archeo-
logical faunal samples from San Pedro de Atacama in northern Chile
exhibited mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70764  0.00013 (1s, n ¼ 3) (Knudson
and Price, 2007).
In the Inka heartland near Cusco, Peru, archaeological guinea
pigs from the site of Chokepukio yielded mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70
793  0.00013 (1s, n ¼ 4) while modern guinea pigs from the near
the site of Tipón yielded mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70826  0.00027 (1s,
n ¼ 4) (Andrushko et al., 2009). Modern small mammal specimens
(Lepidium sp., Agouti sp., Lagostomus sp.) from the site of Machu
Picchu ranged from 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.709728 to 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.715241
(Turner et al., 2009). In general, these bioavailable strontium
isotope values reflect the Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the Andes as
well as the older Paleozoic bedrock east of Cuzco (see discussions in
Andrushko et al., 2009; Turner et al., 2009).
On the central Peruvian coast, modern and archeological guinea
pigs from near the archeological site of Ancón exhibited mean
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70654  0.00012 (1s, n ¼ 5) (Slovak et al., 2009). In
addition, modern and archeological small mammals from the Nazca
Drainage of southern Peru exhibited mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.706
319  0.000439 (1s, n ¼ 15) (Conlee et al., 2009), while archaeo-
logical humans from the northern Nazca Drainage who were
interpreted as “local” exhibited mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.706673 
0.000477 (1s, n ¼ 13) (Knudson et al., 2009). Finally, camelid wool
from the Ica, Palpa and Nazca Valleys exhibited mean
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70736  0.00005 (1s, n ¼ 28) and faunal enamel from
the same region exhibited mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70669  0.00026 (1s,
n ¼ 14) (Horn et al., 2009).
5.3. Environmental variability and expected stable oxygen isotope
values
In contrast to the geologic variability observed through radio-
genic strontium isotope values, oxygen isotope values vary
according to a number of environmental factors. The variability in
reflected in the stable oxygen isotope values in meteoric water
(d18Omw) in the Andes. For example, oxygen isotopes in ground-
water and surface water, including rivers, wells and springs, in the
Lake Titicaca Basin where Tiwanaku is located exhibit a range of
d18Omw(VSMOW) ¼ 17.6& to d18Omw(VSMOW) ¼ 12.6& (IAEA/
WMO, 2004). In addition, precipitation in the La Paz, Bolivia,
between 1996 and 2001 exhibited d18Omw(VSMOW) ¼ 13.3& to
d18Omw(VSMOW) ¼ 10.8& (IAEA/WMO, 2004). In contrast, precip-
itation on the coast exhibits much higher oxygen isotope values
when compared with the altiplano; for example, observed oxygen
isotope values in precipitation near the coastal city of La Serena,
Chile, exhibited mean d18Omw(VSMOW) ¼ 5.6&  2.3& between
1988 and 2002 (IAEA/WMO, 2004).
However, there are complex relationships between observed
oxygen isotope values in precipitation and the incorporation of
water from different environmental zones through mixing with
river water or glacial melt water, as well as human practices of
managing water through irrigation systems or covered water
storage (see discussion in Knudson, 2009). In other words, the
oxygen isotope values in precipitation may not reflect the oxygen
isotope values in drinking water. As the first dataset that includes
oxygen isotope data on archaeological camelid bone samples in the
Andes, to our knowledge, we use the published oxygen isotope
values in archaeological camelid wool and enamel (Horn et al.,
2009) as well as water sources and humans in the Andes for
comparative purposes, but note the need for more work on oxygen
isotope variability in Andean water sources and camelids.
5.4. Paleodiet and expected carbon oxygen isotope values
In the Andes, both C4 and C3 plants are present, and a number of
paleodietary studies have been completed in the region (e.g.,
Falabella, et al., 2008; Finucane, 2009; Hastorf, 1990, Kellner and
Schoeninger, 2008; Tykot and Staller, 2002; White et al., 2009).
Maize, which is the most common domesticated C4 plant in the
Andes, exhibits a range of light stable carbon isotope values
between d13C(VPDB) ¼ 10& and d13C(VPDB) ¼ 14& in both modern
and archaeological samples (DeNiro and Hastorf, 1985; Horn et al.,
2009; Tieszen and Chapman, 1992). It is possible that the camelids
consumed at Tiwanaku were maize foddered at lower elevations
where the crop can be easily grown.
There are also a number of wild C4 plants that may have been
consumed by camelids in the past, including grasses such as saltgrass
 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491
(Distichlis spicata), dropseed grass (Sporobolus sp.), and lovegrass
(Eragrostis nigricans) (Fernández and Panarello, 1999e2001;
Shimada and Shimada, 1985; Thornton et al., 2011). Importantly,
high-altitude environments over 4000 m above sea level are domi-
nated by C3 plants (see discussions in Izeta et al., 2009; Thornton
et al., 2011). Therefore, while camelids grazing at lower elevations
would have access to some wild C4 plants, camelids grazing in
pasturelands near the site of Tiwanaku, or at higher altitudes, would
have greater access to C3 plants. In the Andes, C3 plants exhibit much
lower carbon isotope values of d13C(VPDB) ¼ 22& to
d13C(VPDB) ¼ 29& when compared to C4 plants (DeNiro and Hastorf,
1985; Horn et al., 2009; Panarello and Fernández, 2002; Tieszen and
Chapman, 1992).
While it is most likely that the camelids included in this study
consumed terrestrial C3 and/or C4 plants, depending on foddering
practices and grazing locations, it is possible that marine resources
were also consumed. If camelids living on the coast consumed
seaweed (e.g., Yesner, et al., 2003), the observed carbon isotope
values would reflect consumption of marine resources (see marine
data in Keegan and DeNiro, 1988; Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984;
Walker and DeNiro, 1986). In camelids consuming marine prod-
ucts, d13C(VPDB) values would be intermediate between the expected
C4 and C3 d13C(VPDB) values, while the 87Sr/86Sr values would reflect
seawater, in which 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7092 (Veizer, 1989).
There is a growing body of literature on carbon isotope values in
Andean camelids (see excellent overview in Thornton et al., 2011).
In the altiplano and other high-altitude zones in the Andes, modern
and archeological camelids such as llamas (Lama glama) and
alpacas (Lama alpaca) generally rely on C3 plant sources. For
example, modern camelid samples from high-altitude zones in
central Peru exhibited mean d13Ccollagen (VPDB) ¼ 19.0&  0.2&
(1s, n ¼ 6) (Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1982). In the highlands of
southern Peru, modern alpacas (Lama pacos) exhibited mean
d13Ccollagen (VPDB) ¼ 19.2&  0.2& (1s, n ¼ 5) (Thornton et al.,
2011). Similar d13Ccollagen (VPDB) values were obtained from
modern Peruvian and Chilean camelids (Panarello and Fernández,
2002; Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984; Tieszen and Chapman,
1992). At lower altitudes, modern and archeological camelids
feeding in pasturelands with a mixture of C3 and C4 plant resources
exhibited higher d13Ccollagen (VPDB) values compared to camelids
from higher altitudes (Fernández and Panarello, 1999e2001;
Thornton et al., 2011; Yacobaccio, et al., 2009). Finally, on the
coast, wool samples from the Ica, Palpa and Nazca Valleys exhibited
mean d13Ckeratin (VPDB) ¼ 17.3&  2.0& (1s, n ¼ 28) (Horn et al.,
2009).
Despite the general reliance on C3 plants in camelid diets in the
Andes, some archeological camelid populations consumed more C4
or even marine resources (see examples in Burger and van der
Merwe, 1990; Finucane et al., 2006; Izeta et al., 2009; McCorkle,
1987; Mengoni Gonalons, 1996; Shimada and Shimada, 1985;
Thornton et al., 2011). For example, a sub-group of camelids at
the Middle Horizon Wari-affiliated site of Conchopata exhibited
d13Ckeratin (VPDB) ¼ 10.0& (1s, n ¼ 11), indicating a reliance on
maize foddering (Finucane et al., 2006). Finally, we note that the
previously discussed d13C(VPDB) values in Andean camelids were all
generated from collagen or keratin, which generally reflects dietary
protein. Here, we present hydroxyapatite carbonate values, which
generally reflect whole diet carbon sources (Ambrose and Norr,
1993; Jim et al., 2004; Kellner and Schoeninger, 2007).
6. Materials
Yaeger (Yaeger and López Bejarano, 2004) directed excavations
of the Late Horizon Inka component at Tiwanaku. Faunal analysis
was completed by Gardella. Camelid enamel and bone samples for
483
biogeochemical analysis were collected using a sampling strategy
that reflected the composition of the camelid population and
minimized the possibility that skeletal and dental elements from
the same individuals were collected (Table 1).
7. Methods
All camelid enamel and bone samples were prepared under the
direction of Knudson at Arizona State University in the Archaeo-
logical Chemistry Laboratory using established procedures
(Knudson and Price, 2007). For radiogenic strontium isotope anal-
ysis, enamel was collected using a Dremel Mini-Mite equipped with
a carbide burr while all bone samples were first mechanically
cleaned with a Dremel Mini-Mite equipped with a carbide burr and
then chemically cleaned with weak acetic acid washes (Knudson
and Price, 2007; Sillen and LeGros, 1991). For stable oxygen and
carbon isotope analysis, a sub-set of samples was prepared
according to established methodologies (Koch et al., 1997; Lee-
Thorp et al., 1989). Approximately 10 mg of tooth enamel powder
or 0.5 g of bone power was treated with 2% NaOCl to remove
organic materials and then treated with 0.1 M CH3COOH to remove
diagenetic carbonates.
All samples were analyzed at the W.M. Keck Foundation Labo-
ratory for Environmental Biogeochemistry at Arizona State
University. Radiogenic strontium isotope ratios were obtained after
strontium was separated from the sample matrix with EiChrom
SrSpec resin (50e100 mm in diameter). Radiogenic and stable
strontium isotopes were measured on a Neptune multi-collector
inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS),
where SRM-987 exhibited 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.710265  0.000010 (2s,
n ¼ 25), compared to 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.710263  0.000016 (2s) in
analyses of international standard SRM-987 (Stein et al., 1997).
Major, minor and trace elemental concentrations, including
calcium (Ca) and uranium (U), were measured on a quadrupole
inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer (Q-ICP-MS). Stable
oxygen and carbon isotope data in archaeological hydroxyapatite
carbonate (d18Ocarbonate (VPDB), d13Ccarboante (VPDB)) were measured
using a Thermo-Finnigan MAT 253 stable isotope ratio mass spec-
trometer equipped with a Thermo-Finnigan GasBench II. Replicates
of NBS-19 resulted in a reproducibility of 0.2& for d18O and
0.2& for d13C. Oxygen and carbon isotope ratios (d18Ocarbonate
13
(VPDB), d Ccarboante (VPDB)) are reported relative to the VPDB (Vienna
PeeDee belemnite) carbonate standard and are expressed in per mil
(&) using the following standard formula: d18O ¼ (((18O/16Osample)/
(18O/16Ostandard))1)  1000 (Coplen, 1994; Craig, 1961b).
8. Results
Results of biogeochemical analysis of archaeological camelid
tooth enamel and bone samples are shown in Table 1. Trace element
concentration data were analyzed for archaeological bone samples
from Tiwanaku as well as some archaeological enamel samples.
Mean U/Ca ¼ 1.05  1008  9.39  1009 (1s, n ¼ 26) in a sub-set of
archaeological camelid enamel and bone samples. This argues for at
least some retention of biogenic strontium, since low uranium
concentrations in this environment imply that there was little
diagenetic uptake of elements like uranium and strontium that can
substitute for calcium in hydroxyapatite. Mean radiogenic stron-
tium isotope values from all archaeological camelid enamel and
bone samples is 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70998  0.00179 (1s, n ¼ 48) and
radiogenic strontium isotope values range from 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70699
to 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.71555 (Figs. 1 and 2). Mean stable oxygen isotope
values from a sub-set of archaeological camelid enamel and bone
samples is d18Ocarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 10.0&  2.6& (1s, n ¼ 18) and
stable oxygen isotope data range from d18Ocarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 12.5&
484 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491

Table 1
Biogeochemical data from archaeological camelid (Lama sp.) samples collected from Tiwanaku, Bolivia.
87
Laboratory number Specimen number Material U/Ca Sr/86Sr d13Ccarbonate (VPDB) d18Ocarbonate (VPDB)
a a
ACL-1621 AK-0001 Rib 8.70E-09 0.70890 9.4 11.7
ACL-1622a AK-0002a Rib 3.70E-09 0.70927 8.7 10.5
ACL-1600 PUMA-C4715 Rib 2.20E-08 0.70867 11.1 12.4
ACL-1601 PUMA-C2552 Rib 1.70E-08 0.70945 9.3 12.0
ACL-1602 PUMA-C3516 Molar NA 0.70795 NA NA
ACL-1603 PUMA-C3903 Canine NA 0.70967 NA NA
ACL-1604 PUMA-C4006 Incisor NA 0.70912 NA NA
ACL-1606 PUMA-C4003 Incisor NA 0.70995 NA NA
ACL-1607 PUMA-C2515 Molar NA 0.70928 NA NA
ACL-1608 PUMA-C3905 Canine 1.50E-10 0.70726 NA NA
ACL-1609 PUMA-C4004 Incisor 3.90E-10 0.71534 3.7 4.1
ACL-1610 PUMA-C4108 Incisor NA 0.71124 NA NA
ACL-1611 PUMA-C4607 Mandible 9.00E-09 0.71058 NA NA
ACL-1612 PUMA-C2562 Molar NA 0.71141 NA NA
ACL-1613 PUMA-C2605 Molar NA 0.71096 NA NA
ACL-1614 PUMA-C3515 Molar NA 0.70991 NA NA
ACL-1615 PUMA-C3515 Mandible 1.20E-08 0.70980 7.8 11.7
ACL-1616 PUMA-C4109 Molar NA 0.70951 NA NA
ACL-1617 PUMA-C4247 Rib 1.20E-08 0.70938 9.8 10.8
ACL-1619 PUMA-C2604 Molar 1.50E-09 0.71313 NA NA
ACL-1887 PUMA-C4819 Mandible 1.40E-08 0.70948 NA NA
ACL-1888 PUMA-C6208 Molar NA 0.70905 NA NA
ACL-1889 PUMA-C6208 Mandible 1.60E-08 0.70918 NA NA
ACL-1890 PUMA-C2912 Molar NA 0.70933 NA NA
ACL-1891 PUMA-C2912 Mandible 2.70E-08 0.70929 10.0 10.1
ACL-1893 PUMA-C3704 Mandible 3.50E-09 0.71482 NA NA
ACL-1895 PUMA-C4817 Mandible 1.60E-08 0.70951 9.9 10.6
ACL-1897 PUMA-C3628 Mandible 1.30E-08 0.70892 8.9 12.4
ACL-1899 PUMA-C4519 Mandible 1.30E-08 0.70979 10.7 11.7
ACL-1901 PUMA-C3625 Mandible 3.50E-08 0.71089 NA NA
ACL-1902 PUMA-C3620 Molar NA 0.71235 NA NA
ACL-1903 PUMA-C3630 Mandible 2.30E-08 0.71048 8.3 10.4
ACL-1905 PUMA-C3629 Mandible 1.50E-08 0.70935 7.9 12.5
ACL-1907 PUMA-C5422 Molar NA 0.71555 NA NA
ACL-1909 PUMA-C2803 Molar NA 0.70790 NA NA
ACL-1910 PUMA-C2931 Incisor NA 0.71142 NA NA
ACL-1911 PUMA-C2934 Molar NA 0.70872 NA NA
ACL-1912 PUMA-C4005 Molar 1.50E-10 0.70920 8.9 6.7
ACL-1913 PUMA-C4004 Molar 2.40E-10 0.70972 NA NA
ACL-1914 PUMA-C3605 Molar NA 0.70934 NA NA
ACL-1915 PUMA-C6210 Incisor NA 0.70924 NA NA
ACL-1916 PUMA-C6208 Incisor 1.20E-10 0.71033 11.4 7.1
ACL-1917 PUMA-C6209 Rib 8.60E-09 0.71101 NA NA
ACL-1918 PUMA-C4816 Molar 2.80E-10 0.70960 NA NA
ACL-1919 PUMA-C4812 Molar NA 0.70931 8.7 8.7
ACL-1920 PUMA-C4821 Molar NA 0.70801 8.4 5.1
ACL-1922 PUMA-C4728 Rib 2.00E-09 0.70946 8.5 11.4
ACL-1923 PUMA-M0305 Molar NA 0.70699 NA NA
a
These two samples are from Middle Horizon contexts in the Akapana pyramid at Tiwanaku, and are included for comparative purposes.

to d18Ocarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 4.1&. Mean stable carbon isotope values
from a sub-set of archaeological camelid enamel and bone samples
is d13Ccarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 9.0&  1.7& (1s, n ¼ 18) and stable carbon
isotope data range from d13Ccarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 11.4& to d13Ccarbonate
(VPDB) ¼ 3.7&.
9. Discussion: geographic origins of camelids consumed at
Tiwanaku
9.1. Identification of “local” and “non-local” radiogenic strontium
isotope signatures
One established method of defining the “local” radiogenic
strontium isotope signature of a specific region is to define it as the
mean and two standard deviations of the radiogenic strontium
isotope values of modern and/or archeological small mammals
from the region (Evans and Tatham, 2004; Price et al., 2002). Using
this definition, the “local” range of the southeastern Lake Titicaca
Basin, where Tiwanaku is located, is 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7087e0.7105
(Knudson, 2008). According to this definition of a “local” range, 17
out of 48 camelid samples are identified as “non-local” based on
radiogenic strontium isotope data (Table 1).
In addition to defining a “local” range based on faunal radiogenic
strontium isotope data, descriptive statistics can be used to define
a “local” range (Knudson, 2011; Wright, 2005). When the 17 “non-
local” camelid samples are removed to create a trimmed dataset,
mean 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70943  0.00041 (1s, n ¼ 31) and the mean and
median are more similar than in the complete dataset (Table 2). The
trimmed dataset also exhibits a smaller standard deviation, stan-
dard error, and variance, and is normally distributed. However,
a second trimmed dataset was also created in order to explore the
most appropriate “local” range for the Tiwanaku camelids. When all
samples that ranged from 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.708e0.710 were defined as
“local”, focusing on variability in the third decimal place,
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.70950  0.00061 (1s, n ¼ 35) (Table 2). Comparing
both trimmed datasets, it is clear that the smallest standard devi-
ation, standard error, variance, and differences between mean and
median are found in the first trimmed dataset (Table 2). This
 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491 485

Fig. 1. Map of the Lake Titicaca Basin with sites discussed in the text.

implies that the outliers defined as “non-local” based on the
bioavailable strontium isotope values in small mammals are truly
outliers (Wright, 2005).
9.2. Geographic origins of Tiwanaku camelids using radiogenic
strontium isotope signatures
The majority (31/48, or 65%) of the camelids included in this
study exhibit radiogenic strontium isotope values that are consis-
tent with the consumption of strontium from the Lake Titicaca
Basin (see values in Knudson, 2008; Knudson and Price, 2007;
Knudson and Torres-Rouff, 2009). This implies that most of the
camelids consumed during the Inka occupation of Tiwanaku were
pastured in the Lake Titicaca Basin, rather than brought in from
distant geologic zones. Interestingly, the “non-local” camelids, as
defined through radiogenic strontium isotope values, are both
below and above the “local” range for the southwestern Lake Titi-
caca Basin, suggesting that camelids originated in at least two
geologically distinct zones outside of the Lake Titicaca Basin. There
are five camelid samples that exhibit radiogenic strontium isotope
values that are less than 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7087 (Table 2, Fig. 2). These
values are consistent with the consumption of strontium sources in
the Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the Andes. For example, the
observed radiogenic strontium isotope values in these camelid
samples (ACL-1602, ACL-1608, ACL-1909, ACL-1920, ACL-1923)
could derive from the consumption of strontium in San Pedro de
486 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491

87
Fig. 2. Radiogenic strontium isotope data from archaeological camelid samples collected from Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Light grey band indicates local Sr/86Sr range.

Atacama, Chile (Knudson and Price, 2007) or the Cuzco Valley, Peru
(Andrushko et al., 2009). In addition to camelids from lower-
altitude zones, camelids consumed during the Inka occupation of
Tiwanaku also derived from other parts of the altiplano. The highest
radiogenic strontium isotope values range between
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.713 to 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.715 (ACL-1609, ACL-1619, ACL-
1893, ACL-1907) (Table 2, Fig. 2). These values are consistent with
the consumption of strontium from parts of the southern altiplano.
For example, these radiogenic strontium isotope values are similar
to bioavailable strontium isotope values observed near Potosí,
Bolivia (Knudson et al., 2005).
However, it is possible that radiogenic strontium values from
a number of different geologic zones are averaged in one individual
camelid that moved through a number of different geologic zones.
For example, camelids moving between the mid-altitude Moque-
gua Valley (Knudson and Price, 2007) or coastal areas in central and
southern Peru (Conlee et al., 2009; Horn et al., 2009; Knudson et al.,
2009; Slovak et al., 2009) and the Lake Titicaca Basin would also
exhibit the radiogenic strontium isotope values observed in the five
camelid samples that exhibit radiogenic strontium isotope values
that are less than 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.7087 (ACL-1602, ACL-1608, ACL-
1909, ACL-1920, ACL-1923) (Table 2, Fig. 2). This is, however, less
likely for the highest radiogenic strontium isotope values observed
(ACL-1609, ACL-1619, ACL-1893, ACL-1907) (Table 2, Fig. 2), simply
because of the relative rarity of geologic zones with extremely high
87
Sr/86Sr values in the Andes.
Finally, for three individual camelids (PUMA-C3515 (ACL-1614,
ACL-1615), PUMA-C6208 (ACL-1888, ACL-1889), and PUMA-C2912
(ACL-1890, ACL-1891)), enamel and bone samples were collected
from the same individual. This allowed a comparison of geographic
mobility at different times in the camelids’ lifetimes, since sampling
dental and skeletal elements that formed at different times of an
individual animal’s lifetime, as well as intra-tooth sampling to
examine seasonal mobility, shows great promise (e.g., Balasse,
2002, 2003; Balasse et al., 2002, 2001, 2003, 2009; Stevens et al.,
2011; Zazzo et al., 2002). Interestingly, in all three individuals,
both enamel and mandibular bone samples were within the “local”
range of the Lake Titicaca Basin (Table 2). For these three camelids,
it appears that much of their lives were spent in the Lake Titicaca
Basin, rather than in different geologic zones.

Table 2
Descriptive statistics for radiogenic strontium isotope data from camelid samples
9.3. Geographic origins of Tiwanaku camelids using stable oxygen
from Tiwanaku, Bolivia. isotope signatures

Complete Trimmed Trimmed

dataset dataseta datasetb
A sub-set of camelid samples were also analyzed for light
87 86 stable isotopes of oxygen, and exhibited mean d18Ocarbonate
Mean Sr/ Sr 0.70998 0.70943 0.70950
Standard deviation 0.00179 0.00041 0.00061 (VPDB) ¼ 10.0&  2.6& (1s, n ¼ 18). In this dataset, samples that
Standard error 0.00026 0.00007 0.00010 exhibit “local” radiogenic strontium isotope values also exhibit
Count 48 31 35 variability in oxygen isotope values (Table 1, Fig. 3). This likely
Minimum 0.70699 0.70867 0.70801 corresponds to seasonal and annual variability of oxygen isotope
Maximum 0.71555 0.71048 0.71096
values in drinking water sources in the Lake Titicaca Basin.
Sample variance 3.21E-06 1.66E-07 3.71E-07
Kurtosis 3.08988 0.84859 1.09730 However, the camelid sample with the highest stable oxygen
Skewness 1.58981 0.59105 0.49647 isotope signature is also an outlier according to radiogenic
Median 87Sr/86Sr 0.70947 0.70935 0.70938 strontium isotope analysis (ACL-1609, d18Ocarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 4.1,
Mode 0.70951 0.70951 0.70951 87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.71534).
Range 0.00856 0.00181 0.00295
a
This dataset was trimmed by excluding all sample values that fell outside of the 9.4. Paleodiet and geographic origins of Tiwanaku camelids
“local” range at Tiwanaku as defined by modern faunal samples.
b
This dataset was trimmed by excluding all sample values that were between
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.708 and87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.710, focusing on variability in the third decimal The same samples analyzed for light stable oxygen isotopes
place rather than the fourth or fifth decimal place. were also analyzed for light stable carbon isotopes. Mean stable
 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491 487

-2

O carbonate(V-PDB) -4

-6

-8
delta

-10

-12

-14
0.700 0.705 0.710 0.715 0.720
Sr/ Sr
Fig. 3. Radiogenic strontium isotope and stable oxygen data from archaeological camelid samples collected from Tiwanaku, Bolivia.

carbon isotope values from a sub-set of archaeological camelid
enamel and bone samples are d13Ccarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 9.0&  1.7&
(1s, n ¼ 18). On average, bone carbonate will reflect the isotopic
composition of the diet, plus 9.4&, although we note that this can
vary with species (Ambrose and Norr, 1993). Therefore, subtracting
9.4& from the measured archaeological camelid enamel and bone
values provides mean d13Ccarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 18.4&  1.7& (1s,
n ¼ 18). This demonstrates that variability in dietary carbon
sources is not high in the camelid sampled from Tiwanaku, and
that these animals consumed both C4 and C3 sources. However, the
same outlier in the plot of radiogenic strontium and light stable
oxygen isotope values (ACL-1609, d18Ocarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 4.1,
87
Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.71534) was also an outlier in a plot of radiogenic
strontium and light stable carbon isotope values (ACL-1609,
d13Ccarbonate (VPDB) ¼ 3.7, 87Sr/86Sr ¼ 0.71534) (Figs. 3 and 4). The
high carbon isotope value in this camelid incisor sample indicates
a greater reliance on wild or domesticated C4 plants compared to
the other camelids included in this study.
9.5. Provisioning Inka feasts and the geographic origins of
Tiwanaku camelids
Feasts, particularly those of greater importance, often entail
consumption of prized and special foods, including foods that are
salient for their elaborate preparation and/or their use of non-local
ingredients (Dietler and Hayden, 2001). Although we cannot
reconstruct the recipes by which camelids were prepared at the
Pumapunku, the data presented here demonstrate that most did
not come from distant regions. Non-local individuals were
consumed at the Pumapunku feasts, but it cannot be determined as

-2
C carbonate(V-PDB)

-4

-6
delta

-8

-10

-12
0.700 0.705 0.710 0.715 0.720
Sr/ Sr
Fig. 4. Radiogenic strontium isotope and stable carbon data from archaeological camelid samples collected from Tiwanaku, Bolivia.
488 K.J. Knudson et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 479e491
to whether those animals were brought to Tiwanaku specifically to
be consumed at the Pumapunku, nor whether the consumers were
aware of their non-local origins.
Late Horizon feasts at the Pumapunku did include some salient
consumables, such as chicha, made with maize that could only grow
in the Titicaca Basin in raised fields along the lake’s fringes, but
camelids were not notable for their origin, despite their being the
main faunal component of the Pumapunku feasting assemblages.
Given that camelids thrive in the altiplano, the relatively low
frequency of non-local camelids should not surprise us, as there
would have been nothing inherent about a piece of stewed llama or
alpaca that necessarily indexed exotic locales.
The presence of non-local camelids at Tiwanaku is an interesting
fact, however, and it is suggestive of a high degree of Late Horizon
camelid mobility, a phenomenon that probably extends back
millennia into the Precolumbian past. Pastoralists raising llamas
and other camelids often practice transhumance, moving their
herds seasonally between higher and lower grazing lands
(Westreicher et al., 2007), zones that can have distinct strontium
isotope signatures. Furthermore, the llama trading caravans that
crisscrossed the Andes in Precolumbian and more recent times
resulted in relocation of animals over long and short distances
(Nielsen, 2000).
10. Conclusion
In conclusion, biogeochemical analyses of radiogenic strontium
and stable oxygen and carbon isotopes in archaeological camelid
samples from Late Horizon Tiwanaku, Bolivia, has demonstrated
that camelids used in state-sponsored feasts came from a variety of
different geologic and environmental zones. While many camelids
exhibited isotopic values consistent with the Lake Titicaca Basin, as
expected, other camelids were likely from Cenozoic volcanic
regions and the southern altiplano. As they incorporated the
abandoned ceremonial and political center of Tiwanaku into their
vast empire, the Inka utilized state-sponsored feasts that incorpo-
rated camelids from a variety of different geological zones. While
we cannot rule out the possibility that some camelids were
considered “luxury foods” based on their non-local provenience,
a more parsimonious interpretation is that the camelids consumed
in Inka feasting events at the Pumapunku at Tiwanaku were ob-
tained from local herds, which in turn consisted of animals with
diverse origins and isotopic signatures, the result of transhumance,
llama trading, and long-distance trade caravans. and that.
Acknowledgments
This project would not have been possible without generous
funding from grants to Kelly J. Knudson (the Institute for Social
Science Research at Arizona State University, and the School of
Human Evolution and Social Change at Arizona State University) and
Jason Yaeger (H. John Heinz III Fund for Latin American Archaeology,
National Geographic Society (CRE 7310-02), and the Vilas Founda-
tion and the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin at
Madison). The data that form the basis of this study were collected
as part of the Proyecto Arqueológico Pumapunku-Akapana, and we
gratefully acknowledge the enduring support of its director, Alexei
Vranich. We would also like to recognize the efforts of the project’s
co-director, José María Lopez Bejarano, excavation supervisors, and
excellent field staff from the Asociación de Trabajadores en
Arqueología de Tiwanaku (ASTAT). We also are grateful to Bolivia’s
Dirección Nacional de Arqueología (DINAR), and especially its
director during our fieldwork, Javier Escalante M., for their support
of our investigations. In the Archaeological Chemistry Laboratory at
Arizona State University, we are grateful for the laboratory
assistance of Marta Díaz-Zorita Bonilla, John Hoffman, Sara Mars-
teller, and Andrew Somerville. We also thank Drs. Ariel Anbar and
Gwyneth Gordon of the W.M. Keck Foundation for Environmental
Biogeochemistry for laboratory access and expertise.
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