114 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 17
INCOMPLETE INDEPENDENT ClAUSES

The structures practiced in this lesson are the ones that are most often tested in the Structure
section. About 20% of all problems in the section (usually three or four per test) involve incomplete
independent clauses.

A) Clauses

All sentences consist of one or more clauses. A simple sentence consists of one clause.
People need vitamins.
The man took a vitamin pill.
Judy lives in northern California.
In the summer, Tom walks to his office.
A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
(such as and and but).
The man took a vitamin pill, and he drank a glass of orange juice.
Judy lives in northern California now, but she was raised in Ohio.
A complex sentence consists of an independent clause (called the main clause) and a dependent
(subordinate) clause. Subordinate clauses may be adverb clauses, noun clauses, or adjective clauses.
In the sentences below, the independent clauses are italicized.
The man took a vitamin pill because he had a cold.
(independent clause + adverb clause)
I didn't realize that Nancy was here.
(independent clause + noun clause)
Tom walks to his office, which is located on Broadway, every day during the summer.
(independent clause + adjective clause)
All three types of subordinate clauses are commonly seen in the Structure part of the test, and each is
considered in separate lessons (Lessons 18, 21, and 22). The emphasis in this chapter, however, is
on the basic components of independent clauses.

B) Missing Subjects, Verbs, Objects, and Complements

All clauses have a subject and a verb. Clauses with an action verb often take a direct object as well.
Subject Verb Object
People need vitamins.
The verb missing from an independent clause may be a single-word verb (need, was, took, had,
walked) or a verb phrase consisting of one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb (will need, has
been, should take, would have had, had walked). The verbs may be active (need, take) or passive
(was needed, is taken).
The missing subject and direct object may be a noun (people, vitamins, Tom) a noun phrase
(some famous people, a vitamin pill, my friend Tom) or a pronoun. (He, she, it, and they are
subject pronouns; him, her, it and them are object pronouns.)
After the verb to be and certain other non-action verbs, a subject complement is used rather
than a direct object. (Subject complements are also known as predicate nominatives and predicate
adjectives.)
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 115

Subject Verb Complement

She is an architect.
The teacher seemed upset.
In the Structure section of TOEFL, it is common for any of these elements or a combination of two or
more of these elements to be missing from the stem. The most common problem in Structure
involves a missing verb. A missing subject and a missing subject-verb combination are common as
well. The missing element may also be part of rather than all of the verb or noun phrase.

T Sample Items
The art of storytelling _ _ _~ almost as old as humanity.
(A) that is
(B) is
(C) it is
(D) being

The correct answer supplies the missing verb. Choice (A) is incorrect because the
word that is used to connect a relative clause to a main clause; in this sentence,
there is only one verb, so there can only be one clause. Choice (C) is incorrect
because there is an unnecessary repetition of the subject (The art of storytelling
it ...). Choice (D) is not correct because an -ing form (being) cannot be the main
verb of a clause.
_ _ _~ a few of the sounds produced by insects can be heard by humans.
(A) Only
(B) There are only
(C) That only
(D) With only

The correct answer completes the noun phrase that is the subject of the sentence.
The expletive There in choice (B) is incorrectly used. In (C), the word That creates a
noun clause, but each clause must have its own verb. (Produced is used as a participle,
not a main verb, in this sentence.) Choice (D) is incorrect because a preposition may
not be used directly before the subject.
____ when lava cools very rapidly.
(A) Because pumice is formed
(B) To form pumice
(C) Pumice is formed
(D) Forming pumice

The best answer supplies an independent clause to join to the adverb clause when
lava cools very rapidly. Choice (A) consists of an adverb clause; two adverb clauses
cannot be joined to form a complete sentence. Choices (B) and (D) are incorrect
because they do not contain main verbs, and an independent clause must contain a
main verb. (To form andforming are not main verbs.) Only choice (C) could serve as
an independent clause because it contains a subject (Pumice) and a full verb, the
passive verb is formed.
116 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

Duke Ellington wrote ____ during his career.

(A) that over a thousand songs
(B) over a thousand songs
(C) over a thousand songs were
(D) there were over a thousand songs

The direct object is missing from this sentence. In choice (A), the connecting word
that is used unnecessarily. In (C), the verb were is used unnecessarily because there
is only one clause and it has a verb (wrote). In choice (D) the phrase there were is
not needed between a verb and its direct object. Choice (B) correctly supplies a
noun phrase that serves as the direct object.
Before the invention of the printing press, books _ _ __
(A) that were very rare
(B) were very rarely
(C) were very rare
(D) as very rare

Choice (A) incorrectly forms an adjective clause; an adjective must be joined to a

main clause. Choice (B) contains an adverb; after the verb to be, an adjective is
required. Choice (D) lacks a verb. Choice (C) correctly supplies a verb (were). ...

C) Clauses with There and It

Some clauses begin with the introductory words there or it rather than with the subject of the
sentence. These introductory words are sometimes called expletives.
The expletive there shows that someone or something exists, usually at a particular time or place.
These sentences generally follow the pattern there + verb to be + subject:
There are many skyscrapers in New York City.
There was a good movie on television last night.
The expletive it is used in a number of different situations and patterns:
It is important to be punctual for appointments.
(with the verb to be + adjective + infinitive)
It was in 1959 that Alaska became a state.
(with the verb to be + adverbial + noun clause)
It takes a long time to learn a language.
(with the verb to take + time phrase + infinitive) -
It was David who did most of the work.
(with the verb to be + noun + relative clause)
It and there, along with the verb and other sentence elements, may be missing from the stem.
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 121

LESSON 18
INCOMPLETE ADJECTIVE ClAUSES

As mentioned in the previous lesson, there are three types of dependent clauses, all of which are
tested in Structure. Adjective clauses-also called relative clauses-are the most commonly tested
of the three. You will see one or two items involving adjective clauses on most tests.
Adjective clauses are a way of joining two sentences. In the joined sentence, the adjective clause
modifies (describes) a noun (called the head noun) in another clause of the sentence. It begins with
an adjective clause marker.
I wanted the book. The book had already been checked out.
The book which I wanted had already been checked out.
The adjective clause in this example begins with the marker which and modifies the head noun book.
Adjective clause markers are relative pronouns such as who, that, or which or the relative
adverbs when or where.

. Ad~
:.;~~.c,
........ Use
who Subject A neurologist is a doctor who specializes in the
(people) nervous system.
whom Object This is the patient whom the doctor treated.
(people)
whose Possessive Mr. Collins is the man whose house I rented.
(people)
which Subject/Object That is a topic which interests me. (which as subject)
(things)
That is the topic on which I will write. (which as object of
preposition)
that Subject/Object Art that is in public places can be enjoyed by everyone.
(peop le/things) (that as subject)
The painting that Ms. Wallace bought was very expensive.
(that as object)
where Adverb Here is the site where the bank plans to build its new
(place) headquarters.
when Adverb This is the hour when the children usually go to bed.
(time)

Like all clauses, adjective clauses must have a subject and a verb. In some cases the adjective-clause
marker itself is the subject; in some cases, there is another subject.
The painting was very expensive. Ms. Wallace bought it.
The painting which Ms. Wallace bought was very expensive.
The adjective-clause marker in the joined sentence replaces it, the object of the verb bought. In the
joined sentence, the adjective clause keeps the subject-Ms. Wallace-that it had in the original
sentence.
122 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

This is a topic. It interests me.

This is a topic that interests me.
The adjective-clause marker in the joined sentence replaces it, the subject of the second original
sentence. In the joined sentence, the marker itself is the subject of the adjective clause. Notice that
the inclusion of the pronoun it in the joined sentences above would be an error.
Incorrect: *The painting which Ms. Wallace bought it was very expensive.
*This is a topic which it interests me.
This type of mistake is sometimes seen in distractors.
When the markers which, that, and whom are used as objects in relative clauses, they can
correctly be omitted.
The painting Ms. Wallace bought is very expensive. (which omitted)
The adjective-clause markers which and whom can also be used as objects of prepositions:
That is the topic. I will write on it.
That is the topic on which I will write.
You may also see sentences with adjective clauses used in this pattern:
quantity word + of + relative clause
He met with two advisors. He had known both of them for years.
He met with two advisors, both of whom he had known for years.
I read a number of articles. Most of them were very useful.
I read a number of articles, most of which were very useful.
Any part of a relative clause can be missing from the stem of Structure items, but most often, the
marker and the subject (if there is one) and the verb are missing. Any word or phrase from another
clause-usually the head noun-may also be missing from the stem.

T Sample Items
Cable cars are moved by cables ____ underground and are powered by a
stationary engine.
(A) they run
(B) that they run
(C) run
(D) that run

Choice (A) is incorrect because the pronoun they cannot be used to join two clauses.
Choice (B) is not appropriate because the subject they is not needed in the adjective
clause; the marker that serves as the subject of the clause. Choice (C) is incorrect
because there is no marker to join the adjective clause to the main clause.
The melting point is the temperature ____ a solid changes to a liquid.
(A) which
(B) at which
(C) which at
(D) at
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 123

Choice (A) is incorrect because a preposition is needed before the adjective clause.
Choice (C) is incorrect because the relative pronoun comes before the preposition.
Choice (D) is incorrect because the relative pronoun has been omitted.
There are six types of flamingos, all ____ have long legs, long necks,
and beaks that curve sharply downward.
(A) of them
(B) that
(C) of which
(D) they

Choices (A) and (D) do not contain connecting words needed to join clauses. Choice
(B) does not follow the correct pattern of relative clauses after a quantity word (all).
The correct pattern needed to complete this sentence is quantity word + of + marker.
Only (C) follows this pattern. ...

Exercise 18

Focus: Answering structure problems involving incomplete adjective clauses. (Note: One or two
items in this exercise do not focus on adjective clauses; these items are marked in the answer key
with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Most folk songs are ballads ______ have simple words and tell simple stories.
_ _ (A) what
_ _ (B) although
_ _ (C)when
~ (D) that

2. After its introduction in 1969, the float process ______ the world's principal method of
manufacturing flat sheets of glass.
___ (A) by which it became
_ _ _ (B) it became
_ _ (C) became
___ (D) which became
3. In 1850, Yale University established Sheffield Scientific School, _ _ _ _ __
___ (A) engineers were educated there
_ _ _ (B) where engineers were educated
_ _ _ (C) in which were engineers educated
___ (D) where were engineers educated
4. Many of Louise Nevelson's sculptures consisted of a number of large wooden structures
______ in complex patterns.
___ (A) which she arranged
_ _ _ (B) she arranged them
___ (C) which arranged
___ (D) arranged them