Staude and Barton

Jurassic to Holocene tectonics, magmatism, and metallogeny
of northwestern Mexico
John-Mark G. Staude*
Mark D. Barton
Center for Mineral Resources, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
ABSTRACT cidental metallogenic province, thus ex- merous published and unpublished geologic
panding the previously recognized extent of studies in the past two decades provide the
The present metallic distribution in this province’s mineralization. (3) Late opportunity for a new synthesis and interpre-
northwestern Mexico is the culmination of Cretaceous–early Tertiary porphyry cop- tation of Mexican metallogeny in the frame-
superposed magmatism, tectonism, erosion, per deposits and intrusive centers form a work of the current tectonic thinking. This pa-
and burial over more than 150 m.y. De- narrower belt than previously noted and per presents a time-space synthesis for these
tailed palinspastic reconstructions of preex- are traceable for over 400 km, with parts data in northwestern Mexico (Staude, 1995),
tensional configurations—the first study of of the belt buried beneath the younger Si- generated as part of an integrated project on
its kind for this region—clarify the inter- erra Madre Occidental volcanic fields. (4) Mexican mineral deposits and geology involv-
play among these features on the present Interpreted alignments of older geologic ing collaboration among the University of Ar-
distribution and character of mineralized features, including lineaments of ore depos- izona, the U.S. Geological Survey, and mining
geologic systems. This new synthesis goes its, are displaced in the reconstructions. (5) companies. The results show that mineraliza-
beyond previous metallogenic investiga- Sedimentary-rock–hosted gold deposits and tion is not individual mineral belts, but rather
tions of northwestern Mexico by separating low-angle-detachment gold systems are a dynamic interplay of magmatism, tectonism,
events into specific timing and structural closely related and occur around core erosion, and preservation.
relationships, and by restoring the geology complexes. This study focuses on a 0.5 3 106 km2 area
to its preextensional configuration. Metal- By using structurally restored time slices, in northwestern Mexico that has complex ge-
logenic factors such as enrichment, preser- it becomes clear that older deposit types ology and many mineral deposits (Fig. 1).
vation, and erosion play major roles in the tend to be those formed at greater depths Prominent mineral deposits in this region in-
present distributions and for the first time and more proximal to intrusions, whereas clude the major porphyry copper deposits of
are related to the overall metallogenic younger deposits formed at shallower Cananea and La Caridad, Sonora; large, vol-
framework of northwestern Mexico. The depths are less eroded and are more com- canic-rock–hosted precious-metal deposits
analysis concludes that modern metallogen- monly volcanic-rock hosted. These charac- throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental; and
ic patterns are the result of the complex su- teristics express themselves in the regional a number of other igneous-related and basin-
perposition and subsequent redistribution distribution of deposit types. Second, min- related deposit types (e.g., Salas, 1975, 1994;
of geologic systems in a way that is related eralization of widely differing ages is spa- Wisser, 1966). The large area permits broad
directly to the regional history, rather than tially superposed, commonly associated regional comparisons to address the concepts
simply metallic belts or interpreted angle of with coeval magmatic and tectonic events. of metal belts, preservation, and superposition
a subducting slab. The structural and magmatic events togeth- of mineralizing events. Likewise, the complex
Three main extensional events in the Ol- er with paleodistribution of ore deposits de- magmatic and deformational history of this re-
igocene–Holocene have been restored, and fine a new framework to interpret the me- gion since the Early Jurassic allows evaluation
the palinspastic distributions have been an- tallogenic history of northwestern Mexico. of metallogenic controls after appropriate re-
alyzed. Reconstructions reveal the follow- constructions are made of distinctive time slic-
ing: (1) Mineralization events, igneous cen- Keywords: metallogeny, Mexico, ore depos- es. Well-defined reconstructions are possible
ters, and sedimentary sequences are its, reconstruction, Sonora, tectonics. with the many new geochronometric, structur-
continuous across the Gulf of California al, and petrologic data generated in the past
and other areas with large amounts of ex- INTRODUCTION decade (e.g., Henry, 1989; Pérez-Segura and
tension. (2) Middle Tertiary gold-silver Jacques-Ayala, 1991; Aguirre-Dı́az and Mc-
mineralization in Baja California may be Although there has been considerable inter- Dowell, 1993; Aranda-Gómez et al., 1997;
the western part of the Sierra Madre Oc- est in the tectonic evolution of Mexico (e.g., McDowell et al., 1997; Stewart et al., 1998;
Sedlock et al., 1993), the region has received Henry and Aranda-Gómez, 2001). We synthe-
*Present address: BHP Billiton., Avenida Amer-
ica Vespucio Sur 100, 8th floor, Las Condes, San-
comparatively little attention in syntheses of size the characteristics, distribution, and tim-
tiago, Chile; e-mail: John-Mark.G.Staude@ the metallogenic formation (Gonzalez-Reyna, ing of mineralization and tectonism that are
BHPBilliton.com. 1956; Salas, 1975; Clark et al., 1982). Nu- based on new age, geologic, and palinspastic
GSA Bulletin; October 2001; v. 113; no. 10; p. 1357–1374; 12 figures.
For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org

q 2001 Geological Society of America 1357
STAUDE and BARTON
Figure 1. Location map of study area with larger symbols corresponding to deposits referred to in the text. Symbol shape and shading
indicate deposit type and mineralization age with sources for districts in Staude (1995). Larger symbols are labeled districts and are
referred to in text.
compilations and new field work. We use the sional tectonism was followed by several magmatic and structural style rather than on
results to interpret metallogenic controls. The styles of extensional tectonism beginning in basement and stratigraphic sequence. Meso-
controls can be compared to other regions, and the middle Tertiary. These events generated zoic and Cenozoic magmatic and tectonic fea-
the approach illustrates some of the complex- distinctive lithologic sequences and expose di- tures (which overlap the stratigraphic assem-
ities of mineralization in a long-lived conti- verse crustal levels across the region. Al- blages of terrane terminology) help define
nental margin with multiple magmatic arcs. though terranes have been defined on base- these domains but typically cut terrane bound-
ment (pre-Jurassic) stratigraphy (Campa and aries. Because mineralization commonly is the
GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK Coney, 1983; Sedlock et al., 1993), an alter- product of magmatism and tectonism, the do-
native division simply considers the combi- mains help unify metallogenic observations.
Northwest Mexico consists of translated nation of crustal structure, type, and level.
and accreted terranes along the southwestern Three distinctive geologic domains (western, Lithologic Framework
margin of the North American craton, which central, and eastern), compared to the nine ter-
have been intruded and covered by coeval and ranes defined by Campa and Coney (1983), The western domain (Fig. 2) consists of ac-
younger igneous rocks since the middle Me- provide a simple basis for comparison across creted marine sedimentary and volcanic rocks
sozoic. Mesozoic and early Tertiary compres- the region (Fig. 2). The domains are based on and minor mafic intrusions (Sedlock et al.,
1358 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

TECTONICS AND METALLOGENY OF NORTHWESTERN MEXICO
Figure 2. Geologic domains of northwestern Mexico with the schematic stratigraphic columns for each domain. These domains cross
terrane boundaries and define packages based largely on distinctions in Cenozoic superimposed effects. SMO—Sierra Madre Occidental.
1993; Morán-Zenteno, 1994) cut by numerous Barranca Group overlie Paleozoic rocks in leozoic rocks record the transition from
pre-Cenozoic thrust faults and younger strike- central Sonora, whereas to the north, Jurassic marine to subaerial environments. Local Tri-
slip shear zones. The western half of Baja Cal- pyroclastic flows and volcanogenic sediments assic and Jurassic volcano-sedimentary basins
ifornia contains various accreted units ranging were deposited in basins that parallel the Ju- resemble those of the central domain. Volca-
from continental-margin to ophiolitic rocks, rassic continental margin (Tosdal et al., 1989; nic-rock–free Lower Cretaceous sequences re-
most of which have been intruded by multiple Riggs and Blakey, 1993). Widespread but cord the transition from the vast carbonate
plutonic events and partly covered by Ceno- poorly dated mixed andesitic and clastic sed- platform sequences of northeastern Mexico to
zoic volcanic rocks and conglomerates (Fig. imentary sequences have been assigned to clastic nearshore facies in central Sonora.
2; Abbott and Gastil, 1979). Jurassic–Creta- both the Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary, Younger limestone conglomerates, thin dis-
ceous clastic sedimentary rocks and volcanic largely on the basis of stratigraphic correla- continuous sandstone beds, and volcanogenic
rocks of the Alisitos Formation form an inte- tions and crosscutting relationships. These se- materials record transition to continental con-
rior belt over much of western Baja Califor- quences are intruded and metamorphosed by ditions and impingement of the late Mesozoic
nia. Rocks of the Alisitos Formation under- Cretaceous (in the west) to early Tertiary (in arc. Locally, Laramide volcanic rocks are
went metamorphism during accretion and the east) metaluminous granitoids (Damon et common and are overlain by abundant Oli-
subsequent contact metamorphism by the Pen- al., 1983b; Gastil, 1993). Abundant middle gocene–Miocene calc-alkaline to bimodal vol-
insular Ranges batholith (Gastil et al., 1975). Tertiary calc-alkaline volcanic rocks are over- canic rocks (Ortega-Gutierrez et al., 1992;
No pre-Mesozoic units are reported in this do- lain by Neogene coarse clastic sequences and McDowell and Roldán-Quintana, 1993; Nieto-
main, and all but the widespread Neogene basalts. Samaniego et al., 1999) and minor upper Ce-
conglomerate and bimodal volcanic rocks are The eastern domain (Fig. 2) contains ex- nozoic syntectonic clastic rocks (McDowell et
metamorphosed. posed Proterozoic basement overlain by mio- al., 1997).
The central domain (Fig. 2) contains Cre- geoclinal sedimentary rocks, which are intrud-
taceous tonalitic and dioritic batholithic rocks ed and overlain by Mesozoic and Cenozoic Magmatic and Tectonic Framework
intruding Paleozoic to middle Mesozoic car- igneous rocks and continental sedimentary
bonate, clastic, and minor volcanic sequences rocks (Roldán-Quintana and Clark, 1992; Broadly continuous magmatism and tecto-
of eugeoclinal affinity (Gastil et al., 1981). Gonzalez-León and Lawton, 1995). Laramide nism over the past 150 m.y. have been docu-
This domain exhibits Mesozoic shortening compression was followed by highly variable mented across northwestern Mexico (Damon
and later normal faulting. Highly deformed amounts of Cenozoic extension. This domain et al., 1981; Pérez-Segura, 1985; Sedlock et
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks extend through- is the southwestern margin of the North al., 1993). Although earlier work demonstrates
out the region, the oldest recognized being Or- American craton (Stewart, 1988). Eocambrian that overall patterns in Mexico parallel pat-
dovician (Poole et al., 1991; Ortega-Gutierrez and lower Paleozoic miogeoclinal sedimenta- terns in the southwestern United States (e.g.,
et al., 1992). Continent-derived volcano-sedi- ry rocks are overlain by middle Paleozoic car- Dickinson, 1981), the characteristics of pet-
mentary rocks of the Late Triassic–Jurassic bonate reef and platform deposits. Upper Pa- rogenetic and tectonic events in northwestern
Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1359

STAUDE and BARTON
Some of these structures host mineralization.

Later events reactivated the Jurassic structures
and used them as conduits for hydrothermal
fluid flow, as at the San Francisco mine in
Sonora (Pérez-Segura et al., 1996).
Cretaceous (120–80 Ma)

Cretaceous magmatism formed the batho-
lithic terranes of Baja California and Sinaloa.
The calcic to calc-alkaline Peninsular Ranges
batholith in Baja California formed from 120
to 90 Ma (Walawander et al., 1990), with
equivalents in Sinaloa (Henry and Fredrikson,
1987). Exposure levels of the batholith shal-
low southward, reaching subvolcanic levels
near lat 288N, where numerous pendants con-
tain volcanic rocks (e.g., at El Arco, Baja Cal-
ifornia Norte; Fig. 4B). The west-to-east in-
crease in silica in the intrusive suites is
paralleled by a temporal progression to more
felsic compositions during the Cretaceous.
Oxygen, Pb, and Sr isotope ratios indicate
greater crustal contents of younger and far-
ther-east–emplaced magmas in Baja California
and Sonora (Taylor, 1986). Isotope ages and
Pb isotope contours match across pre-Miocene
Figure 3. Temporal distribution of igneous and deformational events in northwestern Mex-
restorations of the Gulf of California (Silver
ico, denoted as the numbers of outcrops per mountain range. (A) Abundance of exposed
et al., 1993).
plutonic and volcanic rocks. Younger rocks are more extrusive-dominated, and magma-
Cretaceous thrusts verge both to the east
tism has been active in different parts of the region for most of the past 110 m.y. (B)
and west (King, 1939; Drewes, 1978; Roldán-
Relative abundance of deformational features. Son—Sonora, Sin—Sinaloa, BC—Baja Cal-
Quintana and Gonzalez-León, 1979; Jacques-
ifornia, Chih—Chihuahua, Dgo—Durango.
Ayala et al., 1990). They both cut and locally
are cut by Cretaceous intrusions, yet the vol-
Mexico have not been well resolved. On the coastal belt consists of Jurassic–Early Creta- canic rocks commonly show extensional faults
basis of previous studies and our new work ceous mafic to intermediate-composition vol- that apparently formed synchronously (e.g., El
(Staude, 1995), we divide the history into five canic rocks, sparse intrusions, and ophiolitic Arco; Barthelmy, 1979). Cretaceous brittle
distinguishable petrogenetic and tectonic epi- suites (Sedlock et al., 1993). These rocks are and ductile faults host precious and base-metal
sodes (Figs. 3 and 4; these occurred during the typically metamorphosed to greenschist facies mineralization. Rangin (1986) attributed these
Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous, Cretaceous, and deformed. The interior belt, which is sole- structures to the accretion of Baja California
Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary, middle Tertia- ly Jurassic in age, contains intermediate to fel- to mainland North America.
ry, and late Tertiary. Distinguishing features sic calc-alkaline to alkaline volcano-plutonic
include magmatic compositions, tectonic complexes that are interpreted to have formed Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary (80–40
styles, and levels of exposure. in an extensional arc setting (Busby-Spera, Ma)
1988; Saleeby et al., 1992; Tosdal et al., Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary (80–40 Ma,
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (ca. 150–120 1989). ‘‘Laramide’’) igneous rocks parallel the in-
Ma) Jurassic–Early Cretaceous structure is com- ferred subducting arc along a south-southeast
The Jurassic–Early Cretaceous episode plex and obscured by superposed events. Both trend through most of the eastern half of the
marks the beginning of magmatism that has thrust and strike-slip structures in northwest- study area, extending from southern Arizona
associated metallic mineralization in northern Mexico have been identified as Jurassic and New Mexico into Durango and Sinaloa.
western Mexico. Sparse plutonic and wide- (Anderson et al., 1980; de Cserna, 1989). This calc-alkaline granodioritic to granitic
spread volcanic rocks occur in all three geo- Widely distributed left-lateral, northwest-strik- batholithic belt intrudes voluminous, coeval
logic domains; they are concentrated along the ing shear zones in Sonora appear to be part of volcano-sedimentary rocks in western Mexico
coast in Baja California and across the interior the megashear, which likely ceased activity (Henry, 1975; Damon, 1978; Roldán-Quin-
of Sonora, extending southeastward into Sin- prior to 150 Ma (Anderson and Silver, 1979). tana, 1991; Cochemé and Demant, 1991; Gon-
aloa and Durango (Fig. 4A; Dickinson, 1981; Deformation in the Jurassic Parral Formation zalez-Léon et al., 2000). Outcrop patterns and
Stewart et al., 1986). The deposition of vol- of Chihuahua and Durango could be the radiometric dates illustrate the general distri-
canic rocks correlates in time with the trans- southeastern extension of this shearing. Thrust bution of Laramide magmatism, even though
lational tectonics of the Jurassic, which and strike-slip faults in Sinaloa and Baja Cal- the volcanic sequences are poorly character-
evolved into the Mojave-Sonora megashear ifornia juxtapose Mesozoic and Paleozoic ized because of pervasive hydrothermal alter-
(Dickinson, 1981; Anderson et al., 1982). The rocks and are cut by Cretaceous batholiths. ation and stratigraphic complexity (Fig. 4C).

These rocks appear discontinuously through

the Oligocene–Miocene Sierra Madre Occi-
dental volcanic province, emerging in central
Chihuahua (McDowell and Mauger, 1994). Sr
isotope ratios in igneous rocks increase from
values of ,0.706 in western (older) rocks to
.0.708 in eastern (younger) rocks (Damon et
al., 1983a; Mead et al., 1988; Roldán-Quin-
tana, 1991). Eocene intrusions have 87Sr/86Sr
ratios as high as 0.714 in two-mica granites
(Mead et al., 1988). Andesitic volcanic rocks
generally have associated porphyritic intru-
sions that commonly localize mineralization
(e.g., Bockoven, 1980).
Laramide thrusting is prominent in the
northeastern part of the region, although ex-
tension and basin-bounding structures of prob-
able Laramide age occur throughout the re-
gion (Drewes, 1978; de Cserna, 1989).
Transport directions and amounts of crustal
shortening in Sonora vary greatly (Jacques-
Ayala et al., 1990). In some areas in northern
Sonora, 20%–40% shortening can be docu-
mented (Merriam and Eells, 1978), but insuf-
ficient data exist to quantify the shortening
across the Laramide orogen. Thrusting in So-
nora apparently ended prior to early Tertiary
plutonism, as Laramide plutons in this area
intrude but apparently are not cut by thrust
faults (Staude, 1995).
Middle Tertiary (40–20 Ma)

Calc-alkaline volcanism and associated
hypabyssal intrusions of the Sierra Madre Oc-
cidental and nearby areas formed through
much of western Mexico from the late Eocene
through the late Oligocene (McDowell and
Clabaugh, 1979). These are the southern con-
tinuation of the better-studied Oligocene vol-
canic fields of the southern United States Figure 4. Time slices showing locations of
(Christiansen and Lipman, 1972; McIntosh et isotope ages and correlative magmatic
al., 1992; Spencer et al., 1995). Compared to units. Ages compiled from .100 sources
Laramide rocks, the mid-Tertiary rocks are are reconstructed to their pre-Miocene ex-
more felsic and less altered. They form a 0.5– tension in Figure 10. Outcrop locations
2-km-thick veneer across large parts of the modified from Ortega et al. (1992) and age
Laramide arc. sources.
The transition from mainly andesitic, hy-
drothermally altered rocks to dominantly dac-
itic and rhyolitic, less altered rocks provides a
useful demarcation between the older and
younger suites (Wisser, 1966; McDowell and
Clabaugh, 1981). The age of this transition re-
mains to be well defined in most areas, al-
though it is mostly Eocene. From central So-
nora to the east, there appears to be little if in earlier periods (e.g., eNd of22.3 to25.2; reflects an underlying coeval granitic batholith
any hiatus in magmatism during the transition, 87
Sr/86Sri of .0.709 in western Chihuahua; Al- (Aiken et al., 1988).
whereas in the west, a temporal break is well brecht, 1990). A regionally extensive gravity The mid-Tertiary marks the beginning of
established (Fig. 4D; Clark et al., 1982). Geo- low along the eastern margin of Sonora into orogenic collapse in northwestern Mexico.
chemical data indicate as much or more crust- western Durango roughly corresponds with Major extension with concomitant core-com-
al component in the mid-Tertiary magmas as the axis of mid-Tertiary volcanism and likely plex formation began in the middle Oligocene

STAUDE and BARTON
(Nourse et al., 1994). Across northern and

western Sonora, Tertiary extension unroofed
rocks formed at mid-crustal levels (Figs. 5 and
6). Extension of lower magnitude continued
south and east into central Mexico (Henry et
al., 1991). The zone of major extension fades
into the more coherent, but still disrupted, Si-
erra Madre Occidental structural province
(Gans, 1997; Stewart et al., 1998). Faults
within the Sierra Madre Occidental structural
province localize some volcanic centers (Stau-
de, 1995). Certain normal faults predate Oli-
gocene ignimbrites and create a structurally
disrupted topography beneath the ignimbrite
tuffs, such as at Santa Ana (Gans, 1997) and
Mulatos (Staude, 2001) in Sonora. The main
extension, however, took place farther west,
where there are large half grabens and major,
basin-bounding faults (McDowell et al.,
1997). Where most pervasive, the postignim-
brite faulting tilted mid-Tertiary volcano-sed-
imentary sections by .308. Later faults typi-
cally trend northwest, are high angle, and
commonly host middle Tertiary mineralization
(Drier, 1984; Staude, 1994).
Late Cenozoic (20 Ma–Holocene)

Figure 5. Cross sections from Jurassic to present, showing major fault systems during
Magmatism became more heterogeneous
each period at the latitude of Hermosillo, Sonora. Section not restored so as to more clearly
and dispersed beginning in the early Miocene.
represent superimposed features. Structures are generalized and represent major fault
Early phases of this volcanism were felsic
sets. A—Away, T—Toward, SMO—Sierra Madre Occidental.
tuffs and minor basaltic lavas that contain
strong crustal signatures. Volcanism evolved
in the Miocene to bimodal volcanism associ-
ated with normal faulting, ultimately devel-
Figure 6. Map A. Location of core-complex, basin and range, and Gulf of California structural features. Directions of extension and
broad time spans are given for each style on inset Map B. The three structural styles are largely superimposed and must be unraveled
in order to restore the geology to its preextensional configuration. Map sources include Davis (1980), DeJong et al. (1988), Jacques-
Ayala et al. (1990), Nourse (1989), Staude (1993a), Stewart and Roldán-Quintana (1994), and Staude (unpublished mapping).

oping the mafic-dominated, rift-type volca-

nism associated with generation of the Gulf of
California. Basaltic andesites and high-K ba-
saltic centers around the Gulf of California are
variably tilted and were locally erupted syn-
chronously with active high-angle extension
and sedimentation (McDowell et al., 1997).
Volcanism occurred throughout northwestern
Mexico in the early Miocene, but became con-
centrated around the Gulf of California in the
late Miocene (Fig. 4E). These younger lavas
have either alkaline or MORB-like character- Figure 7. Three-step reconstruction to the . 26 Ma (late Oligocene) preextension geography
istics (MORB is mid-oceanic-ridge basalt) and of northwestern Mexico. Dark lines plot younger position; dashed line indicates older, re-
occur in areas that are still tectonically active stored position. Shading delineates area of greatest extension between Pacific Ocean and
(Donnelly, 1974; Neally and Sheridan, 1989). Sierra Madre Occidental structural province. Circle is schematic restored strain ellipse.
The younger lavas include the modern basaltic
centers around the margins of the Gulf of Cal-
ifornia and sparse centers throughout northern and Roldán-Quintana, 1994; Stewart et al.,
Mexico (Sawlan, 1991; Fig. 4E). 1998; Staude, 1995). Minor extension, prob-
Northwest-striking, high-angle normal and ably ,5%, occurred throughout westernmost
strike-slip faults characterized crustal attenu- Chihuahua and Durango; these areas are here
ation during the late Cenozoic (Stock and treated as a fixed block east of the extended
Hodges, 1989; Staude, 1993a; Lee et al., domains. Strike-slip motion in these areas
1996). The faulting was synchronous and may have been significant during the time of
postdated the southwest-directed core-com- Basin and Range extension in areas to the
plex extension. This post–core-complex fault- west, but few faults have been identified with
ing can be divided into two groups: Miocene– substantial strike-slip translation.
Pliocene high-angle extensional faults (King, The third step involved restoration of the
1939; Henry and Aranda-Gómez, 1992) and core complexes and related extension. This
late Miocene–Holocene normal and strike-slip step is the most difficult to carry out because
(transtensional) faults associated with rifting few piercing points exist across the complexes
(Moore and Buffington, 1968; Atwater, 1970; and because of the compartmentalized nature
Lonsdale, 1989; Stock and Hodges, 1989; At- of this extension (Nourse, 1992). This resto-
water and Stock, 1998). High-angle normal ration results in 50% lineation-parallel short-
faults are widely distributed. They trend north ening in the core-complex region of central
in the north (INEGI, 1981; Stewart et al., and northern Sonora, diminishing to nothing
1998) and north-northwest in the south (Henry on the margins of the mid-Tertiary extensional
and Fredrikson, 1987). Younger strike-slip and regime to the south and east (cf. Fig. 6). Pre-
normal faulting is oblique (north-northwest vious studies of extension in the southwest Figure 8. Histogram of deposit types plot-
trending) to the gulf and accommodates both Cordillera give comparable estimates for high ting the number of Au, Cu, W, Pb-Zn dis-
extension and translation (Lonsdale, 1989). extension (Davis et al., 1981; Wust, 1986; tricts versus time period. Compiled data
Dickinson, 1991; Richard, 1994), although no are available in the U.S. Geological Survey,
Tectonic Reconstruction detailed reconstruction for Mexico has been Mineral Resource Data System, computer
published previously. databank. Mineralization associated with
Figure 7 shows a three-step palinspastic re- Although simplified in nature, this model SZ—shear zone, Ign—igneous, Adul—ad-
construction for northwestern Mexico based enables an improved evaluation of the Paleo- ularia-quartz epithermal, Sed—sedimenta-
on the information we have outlined. First, the gene distribution of rocks and mineral depos- ry, Acid—acid sulfate epithermal, Repl—
Gulf of California was closed by restoring the its. Ideally, one would like to carry the recon- replacement, Porp—porphyry.
likely protogulf configuration (Stock and struction farther back in time; however, as
Hodges, 1989). This step involves both mov- noted earlier, the lack of constraints on Lar-
ing the Baja California Peninsula ;350 km amide and older structures precludes meaning- metal occurrences distributed throughout most
southeastward along the San Andreas fault ful quantitative reconstructions of earlier de- of the region. The types include deposits as-
system and restoring the east-northeast exten- formation. These earlier deformation events sociated with magmatic (intrusion- and extru-
sion relative to mainland Mexico. are schematically illustrated in the time-space sion-related), metamorphic, and sedimentary
Second, ;10% extension attributed to high- reconstruction that we describe next. rocks that formed over much of the past ;150
angle normal faulting was removed block-by- m.y. The main metals and the associated de-
block across the states of Sonora and Sinaloa. MINERALIZATION posit types with their ages of formation are
This step was based on tilt-direction maps summarized in Figure 8. Abundances for each
showing fault orientation, block rotations, and Metallic mineralization is abundant in deposit type are tabulated from a computer-
areas of higher degrees of extension (Stewart northwestern Mexico, with .2500 known ized database we developed for this study

STAUDE and BARTON
adularia-sericite Ag-Au, and high-silica rhyo-

lite volcanic centers with F 6 Mo. Low-sul-
fide Au-bearing quartz veins are the main
metamorphic type. Metallic ores associated
with sedimentary rocks include stratiform and
strata-bound Cu deposits. Pb-Zn, F, and U de-
posits related to diagenetic processes occur to
the east of the Sierra Madre Occidental and
are not a focus of this paper; yet they do relate
to the overall metallogenic evolution as they
formed to the east, possibly driven in part by
the thermal and tectonic events to the west
(Salas, 1975; Kesler, 1997).
Nonmetallic mineral deposits, although not
discussed in detail in this study, make up a
significant number of deposits in the region,
and many appear to be related to synchronous
magmatic and tectonic events. Mesozoic and
Cenozoic intrusions generated wollastonite
and garnet skarns (Pérez-Segura, 1985). Late
Cretaceous–early Tertiary intrusions raised the
geothermal gradient in central Sonora, result-
ing in the formation of the numerous graphite
deposits in carbonaceous sedimentary units.
Evaporite-bearing basins developed during the
middle Cenozoic extension and contain bo-
rate, zeolite, and halite beds (Aiken and Kis-
tler, 1992). Volcanism around the western
edge of the Gulf of California during the late
Tertiary formed sulfur, perlite, and opal
deposits.
Age, Characteristics, and Distribution of

Mineralization
Although relatively few metallic deposits

have been dated, it is possible to estimate the
age of nearly 500 of the .1000 districts for
Figure 9. Present distribution of major met- which geologic data have been compiled
al districts and their related stratigraphy (Leonard, 1989; Staude, 1995). Few, if any,
for major time intervals. Lithologic distri- metallic deposits of pre-Jurassic age are
butions are compiled from Gastil et al. known in northwestern Mexico; thus, we be-
(1975), Gastil and Krummenacher (1977), gin with the Late Jurassic.
Bockoven (1980), Anderson and Silver
(1979), INEGI (1981), Swanson and Mc- Jurassic–Early Cretaceous
Dowell (1985), Cochemé (1985), Rangin The four main deposit types of Jurassic–
(1986), Henry and Fredrikson (1987), de Early Cretaceous age are porphyry Cu, shear-
Cserna (1989), Lonsdale (1989), Staude zone Au-bearing quartz veins, skarn, and vol-
(1991), Ortega-Gutierrez et al. (1992), and canogenic Fe deposits (Fig. 9A). Early
Roldán-Quintana and Clark (1992). Cretaceous porphyry Cu mineralization is as-
sociated with intermediate-composition intru-
sive centers in central Baja California in the
San Fernando–El Rosario areas. Early to Mid-
dle Jurassic porphyry Cu mineralization is as-
sociated with felsic magmatism in northern
Sonora, extending into Arizona (e.g., Bisbee).
(available through the U.S. Geological Sur- Ag-Zn-Pb skarns, W greisen deposits, Au-Ag Mesothermal Au-bearing quartz veins occur in
vey, Mineral Resource Data System, and veins, and Ag-Pb-Zn replacement ores. Vol- thrust and strike-slip fault zones and are com-
Leonard, 1989). Intrusion-related deposit canic deposit types include epithermal Au-Ag- mon in Jurassic clastic and metavolcanic rocks
types include Cu 6 (Mo, W), Fe-W-Cu and (Pb-Zn-Cu) veins, advanced argillic Au-Cu, along a northwest trend paralleling the Juras-

sic arc (Fig. 9A). The shear-zone–hosted veins additional associated mineralization. The de- tends many kilometers away from known de-
may be related to motion along the Arizona- posits are small, rarely exceeding 2 3 106 posits (Sillitoe, 1976). These form part of the
Sonora megashear (Silberman et al., 1988) or tonnes of ore, and were mostly mined during world-class porphyry Cu (6Mo) province that
to forearc deformation related to arc accretion. World War II (Fries and Schmitter, 1945). extends from northwestern Arizona through
Ages of deposits are uncertain because few The best-known middle Cretaceous porphy- Sonora into Sinaloa and Durango (Fig. 9B).
dates on veins have been published for either ry Cu (6Au) deposit is at El Arco in central Within this belt, the porphyry Cu–related in-
the mainland or peninsular localities (Men- Baja California (Barthelmy, 1979). Others oc- trusions are older to the south and west. Cu
chaca, 1985). cur in Sinaloa and northern Baja California and Pb-Zn skarns are widespread where cal-
Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous marine, arc- and correlate with 120–80 Ma magmatic careous host rocks are present (Pérez-Segura,
related volcanic and sedimentary rocks host events (cf. Fig. 4B). The Cu porphyry systems 1985; Consejo de Recursos Minerales, 1992,
Fe-Cu (6Au) deposits along the western mar- have lower initial 87Sr/86Sr values, are more 1993; Valencia-Moreno, 1998). In western So-
gin of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Sinaloa dioritic, and have higher Au/Cu ratios than nora, Cu skarn occurrences are common, as
(continuing south into Nayarit) and along their younger Laramide counterparts. Creta- are equigranular intrusions and regionally
western and central parts of the Baja Penin- ceous porphyries are preserved in areas that metamorphosed rocks, whereas porphyry-
sula. These hydrothermal Fe deposits and Fe have been less deeply eroded, particularly in style mineralization and volcanic rocks are un-
(6Cu, Au) skarns are penecontemporaneous central Baja California, where volcanic rocks common. Cu-bearing porphyry-style mineral-
with mafic and intermediate-composition of similar age surround the porphyry deposits ization is associated with intrusive centers
magmatic centers (Zurcher, 1994). Hydrother- (Echavarri-Pérez and Rangin, 1978). In north- older than 60 Ma in central Chihuahua (Mc-
mal magnetite-hematite vein occurrences cut ern Baja California, Cretaceous rocks are Dowell and Mauger, 1994) and northern Du-
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous basaltic flows in more deeply eroded. Equigranular, coarse- rango (Aguirre-Dı́az and McDowell, 1991).
Baja California, particularly between Santa grained, intermediate-composition batholithic These occurrences and others in deep canyons
Rosalı́a and El Rosario (Menchaca, 1985). complexes contain W skarn and greisen min- within the Sierra Madre Occidental (Barton et
These deposits are typically metamorphosed eralization rather than porphyry centers. al., 1995) suggest that the Laramide porphyry
to lower greenschist grade by the Cretaceous Two other deposit types that likely formed province extends beneath much of the younger
Baja California batholith. Cu staining and tur- during the middle Cretaceous are intrusion- Sierra Madre Occidental ignimbrite sequence.
quoise are found in at least four of the Fe dis- hosted bonanza Au-Ag quartz veins and me- Tungsten and Mo become more important
tricts. These deposits appear to belong to a sothermal Au-bearing quartz veins in shear commodities in more felsic intrusive systems,
middle Mesozoic belt of Fe-oxide (6Cu, Au) zones cutting greenschist-facies rocks (Mother which overlap with, but in general are younger
occurrences along the Cordillera (Barton and Lode–type deposits). Intrusion-hosted quartz than, the Cu-rich centers. Transitional Mo-W
Johnson, 1996). Ni, Co, and Cr deposits host- veins in Baja California are as long as several (6Cu) porphyry, breccia-pipe, and skarn de-
ed in accreted marine sedimentary and vol- kilometers and locally blossom into .50-m- posits (e.g., Cumobabi and Santa Ana, Sonora)
canic-intrusive (ophiolitic) rocks on the Viz- wide stockworks (Menchaca, 1985). In Sonora occur with metaluminous quartz-feldspar por-
caino Peninsula and other parts of and Sinaloa, similar veins occur, but their ages phyries of early Tertiary age. Tungsten-domi-
westernmost Baja California are associated are difficult to determine because of plutonic nated deposits are best developed in central So-
with mafic igneous units, are strongly serpen- overprinting. Mesothermal Au-Ag quartz nora and extend southeastward into
tinized, and are highly disrupted by multiple veins are common along the western margin northwestern Durango. The largest tungsten
stages of postmineralization faulting. Associ- and within roof pendants of the Peninsular districts are in the largest intrusive massif of
ated intrusions have Early Cretaceous U-Pb Ranges batholith. The veins form anastomos- Sonora, the Aconchi batholith (e.g., El Jaralito
ages (Sedlock et al., 1993). ing stockworks of quartz, carbonate, and chlo- district). Most W-rich systems are associated
rite with small, high-grade bonanza Au shoots with peraluminous granitoids (Roldán-Quin-
Cretaceous (Wisser, 1954). tana, 1991), unlike the Cretaceous tungsten dis-
During the mid-Cretaceous, economically tricts of Baja California and transitional Mo-W
significant Cu (6Au) porphyries, W skarns, Laramide (6Cu) deposits that are associated with metal-
and mesothermal Au-bearing quartz veins Diverse and abundant mineral deposits uminous granitoids. Tungsten deposits young
formed in the western half of the region (Fig. formed during the Laramide (Late Creta- from west to east and change from granodio-
9A). These deposits form belts that parallel ceous–early Tertiary) in northwestern Mexico. rite-associated skarns in the west to granite-as-
the Cretaceous arc. Few locations other than Cu (6Mo) porphyries and skarns, W and Pb- sociated greisen deposits in the east (Weise,
intrusive centers have been directly dated, and Zn skarns, and Au-Ag quartz veins are the 1945; Mead et al., 1988). This control may be
the ages of the remaining deposits are inferred most economically significant. These deposits the effect of level of exposure, because deeper
from field relationships. The most abundant are east of the middle Cretaceous ones, found carbonate rocks are exposed in the west, and
types of mineralization are W skarn and grei- mainly in Sinaloa and Sonora. Mineralization younger, shallower clastic sedimentary and vol-
sen deposits, followed by Au-bearing quartz is related to calc-alkaline magmatism and was canic rocks are preserved in the east.
veins and porphyry Cu deposits (Fig. 8). emplaced in volcanic to fairly deep plutonic Numerous crustiform, low-sulfidation Au-
Tungsten skarns become increasingly common environments with a range of styles of hydro- Ag quartz veins are widespread throughout the
northward from central Baja California. They thermal alteration, brecciation, and deposition central and eastern parts of the study area.
are most common in Paleozoic carbonate (e.g., Bushnell, 1988; Wilkerson et al., 1988; Many of these are inferred to be Laramide on
rocks intruded by tonalitic and granodioritic Barton et al., 1995). the basis of truncation of veins and alteration
intrusions (Weise, 1945; Menchaca, 1985). Porphyry Cu (6Mo) deposits are wide- zones prior to mid-Tertiary volcanic units
Tungsten most commonly occurs in scheelite, spread in areas containing Laramide volcanic (Staude, 1995). Precise ages are available for
both in skarn and quartz veinlets with little rocks; hydrothermal alteration commonly ex- only a few deposits (e.g., Tayoltita; Henry,

STAUDE and BARTON
1975; Clarke and Titley, 1988). Some of the gocene to early Miocene, cut or cap these sys- Over a dozen hot-spring Au occurrences have
larger districts are plotted in Figure 9B to in- tems (Bockoven, 1980; Duex, 1983; Cameron been identified around the gulf. Most deposits
dicate their general distribution. These veins are et al., 1989). lie along the western edge of the gulf, where
hosted in granodiorite intrusions, metamor- Carbonate- and volcanic-rock–hosted min- transform faults and fault splays extend onto
phosed sedimentary rocks, and andesitic-dacitic eralization on the eastern flank of the Sierra land along the eastern parts of the Baja Cali-
flows and tuffs. They have Ag/Au ratios of Madre Occidental is best known for large Ag- fornia peninsula (Staude, 1992). The hot-
.100 (commonly .1000), and minor Zn, Pb, Pb-Zn deposits and also includes many Hg, spring deposits are hosted in units as old as
and Cu sulfide minerals (Wisser, 1966; Clark et As, Sb, Mn, Sn, and U occurrences. Sparse Miocene (Santa Lucı́a) and as young as Ho-
al., 1979). They can exceed several kilometers geochronometry and regional correlations in- locene beach sands (Puertocitos).
in length and commonly show systematic zo- dicate that many carbonate-hosted deposits are
nation, in some cases around intrusive centers, Oligocene (Megaw et al., 1988). However, the TIME-SPACE DISTRIBUTION OF
such as at Alamos and Batopilas (Loucks and fact that similar systems formed during the MAGMATISM AND MINERALIZATION
Petersen, 1988; Wilkerson et al., 1988). Laramide (Piedras Verdes [Chihuahua], La
Shear zones hosting Au mineralization, Reforma, Oposura-Moctezuma) demonstrates Preextension Events
such as at La Choya and Quitovac in western that repeated skarn- and replacement-style
Sonora, have white mica that crystallized dur- mineralization occurred in areas where mag- The geology of northwestern Mexico is
ing Laramide time (80–50 Ma) (Durgin and matism overlaps the carbonate-rich eastern do- complex, with superposed magmatic and me-
Terán, 1996; Alex Iriondo, 1999, personal main (Figs. 2 and 9C). tallogenic events that have in many cases been
commun.). These shear-zone deposits are Sedimentary-rock–hosted and low-angle- translated from their location of formation by
complex; Jurassic and older host rocks are shear-zone Au deposits found to the west of later events. Previous metallogenic summa-
covered by extensionally faulted Miocene vol- the Sierra Madre Occidental volcanic province ries, based on collaboration among the Uni-
canic rocks. The precise age of mineralization may be broadly coeval with volcanic-rock– versity of Arizona, the U.S. Geological Sur-
is poorly determined. hosted deposits in the Sierra Madre Occidental vey, and mining companies, have defined belts
but are not necessarily directly related to according to present-day configurations (Sa-
Middle Tertiary magmatism. K-Ar ages on postmineralization las, 1975). Clark et al. (1982) accounted for
Like the Laramide, the late Eocene–Oligo- basaltic dikes and prealteration two-mica some of the translation associated with the
cene was a major period of metallic mineral- granites restrict Au mineralization in the San- most recent Gulf of California rifting but did
ization in western Mexico, with the formation ta Teresa district to 36–28 Ma (Bennett and not take into account earlier extension or dis-
of diverse types and a large number of ore Atkinson, 1993), which is consistent with ev- placements inland of the gulf. By using the
deposits, most of which are associated with idence from other districts where minerali- tectonic reconstruction already presented, the
volcanic rocks of the Sierra Madre Occidental. zation is associated with low-angle (exten- metallogeny of northwestern Mexico can be
The principal types are low-sulfidation Ag-Au sional?) faults and is cut by high-angle reevaluated, starting with the Late Jurassic.
(6Pb-Zn-Cu) veins, high-sulfidation Au-(Cu) (Neogene) faults (Fig. 9D). Deposit character- The preextension restoration allows tracing
deposits, and high-temperature carbonate- istics include strong stratigraphic control by of the outcrops of Jurassic volcanic and vol-
hosted deposits (Fig. 9C). Other probable mid- favorable beds and jasperoidal Au-Hg-As cano-sedimentary rocks with sparse intrusive
Tertiary mineralization includes sedimentary- mineralization (Bennett, 1993), which resem- centers from southern Arizona through north-
rock–hosted and low-angle-fault-zone Au bles that of Carlin-like deposits (Vikre et al., ern Sonora and southeastward into Mexico.
deposits. These two may be directly related to 1997). Deposit distribution corresponds with This restoration of the Jurassic arc shows a
mid-Tertiary extension (Fig. 9D). that of major extension areas containing abun- trend similar to those presented by Dickinson
Of the .800 middle Tertiary volcanic- dant sedimentary rocks (Fig. 9D). A less (1981) and Tosdal et al. (1989). The three
rock–hosted epithermal precious-metal occur- clearly defined group of Au-bearing quartz de- main groups of Jurassic rocks (Fig. 10A) form
rences known in northwestern Mexico (Fig. posits occurs in low- and high-angle shear a belt of volcanic and minor intrusive rocks
9C; Leonard, 1989; Orris et al., 1993; Staude, zones west of the sedimentary-rock–hosted with scattered clastic sequences. The units of
1993b), the majority are quartz 6 calcite veins deposits (e.g., La Herradura, Chinate). These eastern Baja California and Sonora appear to
with chlorite 1 adularia 1 sericite alteration have conflicting data indicating both Laramide join with Jurassic rocks of the Parral Forma-
halos. These deposits, such as at Ocampo and mid-Tertiary ages (Leonard, 1989; Alex tion in southern Chihuahua and thus link the
(Knowling, 1977) and Maguarichic (Staude, Iriondo, 1999, personal commun.). geology beneath the Sierra Madre Occidental.
1995), are Ag dominated with spotty Au and Mineral deposits of possible Jurassic age re-
base-metal pockets. Advanced argillic Au Late Tertiary–Holocene store to closer proximity, and similar deposits
(6Cu) districts, such as Mulatos (Staude, Sedimentary-rock–hosted stratiform Cu de- become grouped once extension is taken into
2001), are scarcer but number in the tens. Dis- posits and hot-spring Au deposits are associ- account.
seminated (Moris), hot-spring (Pinos Altos), ated with opening of the Gulf of California By using this same preextension reconstruc-
and polymetallic vein districts (Uruachic) are (Fig. 9E). The Boleo district contains Cu-Co- tion, the Cretaceous intrusive rocks in western
also present. Most districts lack precise dates Ag and manganese oxide deposits in upper Sonora can be traced to the restored Baja Pen-
but can be assigned an Oligocene age by re- Miocene clastic rocks and tuffs related to early insula; the Cretaceous W deposits can be
gional correlation to basal rhyolitic ignim- stages of Gulf of California opening (Wilson linked between northern Baja California and
brites that host mineralization or underlie ore- and Rocha, 1955; Schmidt, 1975; Ochoa-Lan- Sonora; Mesozoic accretionary sedimentary
hosting volcanic rocks (Swanson and dı́n, 1998). Sedimentary-rock–hosted Cu pros- rocks can be restored between central Baja
McDowell, 1985; Wark et al., 1990). Mafic pects extend several hundred kilometers along California and southern Sonora; and the por-
dikes and flows, regionally dated at late Oli- the western edge of the gulf (Staude, 1992). phyry Cu district of El Arco correlates with

Figure 10. Restored positions of mineralization and major lithologic units restored to the appropriate preextensional configuration.

STAUDE and BARTON
Figure 10. (Continued.)
Cu-bearing parts of the Sinaloa batholith (Fig. continues northward into the reconstructed po- continue the younging trend that has been
10B). When the abundance of Cretaceous in- sition of southern California. The abundance documented between Ensenada and Mexicali
trusive outcrop area is contoured, one can see of Cretaceous intrusions appears to decrease (Ortega-Rivera et al., 1994); however, more
how the batholith restores across the gulf and to the east. Also to the east, the intrusions may data are needed. To the west along the Pacific

coastal edge of Baja California, accretion of superposed metal associations—not as separate volcanism (Fig. 10E) and contour the restored
forearc sedimentary rocks and ophiolites con- metallic belts. The clusters correspond with geography on the basis of the thicknesses and
tributed to the metallogeny during Cretaceous many of the exposed Laramide igneous rocks extents of tuffs older than 27 Ma. Radiometric
time, although their precise locations during (Fig. 10D). This finding could be quite signif- dating in Baja California indicates that the
the Cretaceous is uncertain (Hagstrum et al., icant, because it suggests that much of the Lar- earliest middle Tertiary volcanism began at ca.
1985). The Cr, Co, and Ni deposits formed amide is mineralized. Moreover, if more Lar- 30 Ma (Gastil et al., 1975), and the volume
with mafic magmatism during Late Jurassic amide rock areas are discovered, they might increased as time progressed. In Baja and in
and Early Cretaceous time and were accreted have substantial mineralization. Exposure plays westernmost Sonora, the few locations of rhy-
to Baja California prior to the Cenozoic (Ab- a vital role in controlling the present-day ap- olitic volcanism link these regions to the more
bott and Gastil, 1979). Since Oligocene time, pearance of the metal distribution, and it is pos- coherent and extensive Sierra Madre Occiden-
the western part of Baja California has not un- sible that prior to erosion and Cenozoic vol- tal volcanic province to the east.
dergone tremendous extension; however, canic superposition, there could have been an
translation along faults parallel to the San An- even larger extent of exposed rocks and min- Synextension and Postextension Events
dreas and Agua Blanca fault systems has eralization. Looking at the present-day abun-
caused right-lateral movement, for which the dance of deposits in southern Arizona and Two major periods of mineralization in
reconstruction accounts. northern Sonora, there are potentially hundreds northwestern Mexico may be restored approx-
For the Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary, the of deposits that were covered by younger vol- imately to their synextension configurations.
reconstruction proves useful for interpreting the canic rocks of the Sierra Madre Occidental The ca. 27–20 Ma extensional faulting wid-
batholiths in Sonora and Sinaloa and their re- from central Sonora to southern Durango. Lar- ened Sonora (Gans, 1997), possibly forming
lationship to rocks of similar age in southern amide igneous rocks crop out in most canyons sedimentary-rock–hosted Au systems in the
Arizona. Once restored, mineralized systems that expose pre–middle Tertiary rocks through- east and shear-zone Au deposits in the west
form a narrow belt trending southeast along the out the Sierra Madre Occidental. These out- (Fig. 10E). The mid-Tertiary, post–core-com-
western edge of Mexico rather than a wide crops help define the contours of the abundance plex reconstruction mainly affects the northern
bulge as one sees today in the Sonora-Arizona of magmatic rocks. and central parts of Sonora; the dotted line
region. The bulge narrows by as much as 50% Loops in Figure 10C delineate Cu districts surrounding much of Sonora in Figure 10F re-
once postmineralization extension is removed, that are the most widely distributed (they are constructs the approximate boundary of .308
and the width becomes more typical of other outlined by the light-weight dashes). Tungsten Tertiary tilting and areas of low-angle (,258)
porphyry Cu belts throughout the world (e.g., deposits are inside the area defined by the out- normal faults (modified from Stewart and Rol-
central Andes [Sillitoe, 1988], British Colum- line enclosing the Cu districts. Tungsten de- dán-Quintana, 1994). During the core-com-
bia [McMillan et al., 1995]). By contouring the posits are recognized by our study much far- plex extensional event, northern Sonora may
extent of 80–40 Ma intrusive centers and the ther east and over a larger area than in have extended as much as 30%, and some ar-
restored present-day outcrop areas (Fig. 10C), previous metallogenic summaries for Mexico eas had .100% extension (Nourse, 1989;
the abundance of plutonic rocks is found to be (Clark et al., 1982). In the reconstruction, Pb- Nourse et al., 1994); these are restored to their
high beneath the Sierra Madre Occidental. Zn, W, Au-Ag, and Cu districts occur in the pre–Basin and Range extension position in
Without the cover of the volcanic rocks, both same areas, showing their superposition prior black. The region of low-angle-shear-zone Au
undated Laramide and younger, the abundance to extension. deposits is within the area of middle Tertiary
of Laramide intrusions would be larger. Por- Late Eocene–Oligocene mineralization and extension; many deposits occur around and to
phyry systems, exposed in windows through magmatism can be restored to approximate the west of restored core complexes. The Ja-
the younger ignimbrites of the Sierra Madre their distribution prior to extension, although joba district may have been faulted off the top
Occidental, aid in tracing the batholith and sug- some of this mineralization is likely related to of the Magdalena core complex. Sedimentary-
gest a high probability for other deposits be- the onset of extension and may have formed rock–hosted Au districts restore to the eastern
neath the younger volcanic rocks. Study of pre- as extension was underway. Au deposits are edge of core complexes but reside within the
sent lineaments and position of porphyry Cu most abundant in the Sierra Madre Occidental area extended during middle Tertiary time.
deposits do not take into account the tripartite volcanic province along the Sinaloa-Durango One hypothesis for this association is that the
deformation. Once the deformation is restored, and Sonora-Chihuahua state borders; however, deposits are related to extensional phenomena,
many of the lineaments no longer appear as a few Au-Ag deposits of Oligocene age are as has been suggested for middle Tertiary sed-
prevalent. Lineaments, if they do exist, become found farther west in northern Sonora. The Au imentary-rock–hosted mineralization in cen-
rotated from their present orientations, and if (6Cu) districts within the Sierra Madre Oc- tral Nevada (Seedorff, 1991). The Sonoran de-
lineaments are used for interpretations, they cidental are at present recognized in only a posits have had far less study than
need to be corrected for the substantial dis- few areas; thus, their extent of distribution is sedimentary-rock–hosted deposits in central
placements of the past 30 m.y. Some deposits, preliminarily drawn as a smaller region within Nevada, and interpretations of the genesis for
such as Cananea (Wodzicki, 1995) are moder- the larger Au-Ag districts of the Sierra Madre Sonoran deposits are speculative.
ately tilted, whereas others are strongly extend- Occidental (Fig. 10E). Carbonate-hosted Pb- The late Tertiary reconstruction shows the
ed and dissected as at Piedras Verdes, Sonora Zn-Ag deposits occur to the east and along the distribution of volcanic-rock– and sedimentary-
(Drier and Braun, 1995). western edge of the Sierra Madre Occidental. rock–hosted hot-spring Au districts and the Bo-
Outlines of regions with porphyry Cu, Au- The full extent of volcanism during the mid- leo stratiform Cu district (Fig. 10G). These de-
Ag, W, and Pb-Zn deposits indicate that the Tertiary ignimbrite period is not known; yet, posits are associated with the rift opening of
mineral deposits follow the same south-south- by restoring the deformation and using the the Gulf of California and restore to the general
east trend as the magmatic arc (Fig. 10C). currently exposed and dated outcrops, it is boundary of the protogulf region. The recon-
Moreover, mineralization clusters in areas with possible to estimate the extent of Oligocene struction reveals that the region is encompassed

STAUDE and BARTON
volcanic rock types are preserved, whereas in

the compressional periods, one finds intru-
sions. The deposit types plotted in Figure 11B
show this association. There is an overall in-
crease in the ratio of abundance of volcanic
rocks to plutonic rocks beginning in the Cre-
taceous, which appears to be a preservation
phenomenon in that the older rocks are more
deeply eroded and thus expose more deeply
formed deposit types. An additional associa-
tion is that in single areas, the magmatic com-
positions vary over the 10–25 m.y. periods of
activity; crustal (felsic) contents increase dur-
ing compressional events (Cretaceous–Oligo-
cene), whereas compositions are heteroge-
neous or have increasing mantle (mafic)
content during extensional and rifting events
(Oligocene–Holocene; cf. Barton, 1996).
Trends in the diverse styles of mineraliza-
tion parallel tectonic and magmatic events
(Fig. 11B). The abundance of known deposits
increases with time through the Paleogene and
then declines in the Neogene. Intrusion-asso-
Figure 11. Time-space synthesis of magmatism, deformation, and mineralization across ciated deposits such as skarn and porphyry
Baja California through Sonora to western Chihuahua at latitude of Hermosillo. The systems are most common in the older rocks,
present 500 km width has changed due to older compression and younger extension, whereas epithermal systems are most common
in the mid-Tertiary (cf. Fig. 8). Compositional
creating an hourglass shape. Right diagram summarizes mineralization with font sizes
variations in igneous-associated deposits cor-
corresponding to the relative abundance of metallic ore-deposit types. The position of the
relate with variations in magmas (Barton et
Gulf of California is marked by the dashed black line. Chih—Chihuahua.
al., 1995), whereas deposits of questionable or
non–igneous-related origin correlate with par-
by late Tertiary mafic igneous rocks and the tion, and mineralization in northwestern Mex- ticular types of tectonism (e.g., shear-zone and
generalized location of the restored, pre–gulf- ico. Although the observations summarized sedimentary-rock–hosted Au deposits in
opening geography (modified from Atwater, are not exhaustive, general patterns are clear northern Sonora with core complexes). East-
1970; Lonsdale, 1989; Stock and Hodges, and provide the basis for broad interpretation. west variations in deposit types at a given age
1989). The reconstruction indicates that open- Overall, magmatism was largely continuous are common, such as Cu skarns to the west
ing of the gulf during the past 6 m.y. yielded while systematically changing location and and Cu porphyries to the east during early Ter-
greater extension in the southern part of the composition with time. One or more ill-de- tiary time. Although deposit types peak in
gulf, which necessitates more closure to restore fined Jurassic arcs in the eastern and western abundance during particular periods, few com-
than points farther north (cf. Henry and Aran- domains were superseded in the Cretaceous by modities are restricted to single metallogenic
da-Gómez, 2001). Rift-related Miocene Cu a well-developed coastal batholith that was episodes (Figs. 8 and 11). For example, Au
mineralization restores to the latitude of Culia- occurs in economic deposits spanning 150
built mainly across the continental-margin–ac-
cán, Sinaloa (Schmidt, 1975; Guilbert and Da- m.y. Deposit types cross time and space
creted metasedimentary package of the west-
mon, 1977). Hot-spring Au districts ring the boundaries and commonly correlate with ex-
Gulf of California, with a larger abundance of ern domain. Gradual and then more rapid east- posed igneous rocks. The volcanic-rock–host-
deposits on its western margin. This asymme- ward migration of magmatism began in the ed deposits are in either young volcanic rocks
try may be due to the proximity of spreading late Mesozoic through the mid-Tertiary (Fig. or volcanic rocks that are preserved in ex-
and rift centers along the eastern coast of north- 11A). These changes correlate with compres- tended areas, such as the Jurassic arc of north-
ern Baja California over the past 12 m.y., in sional deformation, indicated in Figure 11 by central Sonora. Batholith-hosted deposits such
addition to preservation and covering by youn- the shortening of the width from Pacific Ocean as W skarn deposits occur in older igneous
ger Pliocene and Quaternary clastic sedimen- to the Chihuahua-Sonora border. Subsequent rocks (Baja California) or in the deeper zones
tary units around the gulf (Staude, 1993a). retreat of magmatism toward the coast in the of extended terranes (east-central Sonora).
The three-step reconstruction can be sum- early Cenozoic was followed by the change Ore-deposit types found in deeper environ-
marized in a time-space model linking tecto- from subduction-related to rift-related mag- ments are generally older, such as skarn and
nism, magmatism, and mineralization, thereby matism during the Miocene; these magmatic greisen deposits, whereas shallower environ-
providing a basis for interpreting the distri- patterns correlate with a shift to neutral, then ments have younger deposit types like hot-
bution of mineralization through time. transtensional tectonics, shown in Figure 11 spring Au and sandstone-hosted Cu deposits.
by the width’s expanding and by the preva-
Synthesis METALLOGENIC CONTROLS
lence of volcanic rocks, unlike the older pe-
Figure 11 summarizes the temporal and riod with more intrusion-dominated rock Metallogenic patterns in northwestern Mex-
spatial relationships of magmatism, deforma- types. In general, it is in the rift periods that ico were influenced by spatial, temporal, or

process-related factors. No single set of fac-

tors can (or should) explain these variations;
rather, they reflect a combination of influences
(cf. Barton, 1996). Regional and temporal dif-
ferences in the composition, thickness, ther-
mal structure, and state of stress of the crust
affect the source of materials, nature of ma-
terial transport, and depositional environ-
ments. Nonmagmatic fluids also reflect cli-
mate and tectonic regime. Finally, observed
patterns reflect exposure levels; preservation
or exhumation become key for interpreting
process and provincial patterns.
Spatial Controls
The provinciality of metal assemblages

(Fig. 11) has been interpreted as reflecting dif-
ferences in crustal composition (e.g., Titley,
1991), but could also be influenced by differ-
ences in host rocks, available fluids, or shift-
ing locus of magmatism. The eastward in-
crease in Pb and Ag relative to Cu and Au
thus may reflect the increasingly felsic, Pb-
rich, Cu-poor crust with the transition from
crust formed in the western-domain continen-
tal volcanic margin to crust formed in the east-
ern-domain Precambrian basement and plat- Figure 12. Estimated exposure depths for igneous rocks and principal deposit types in a cross-
form carbonates (Fig. 9). Alternatively, more sectional composite of northwestern Mexico. (A) Typical surface-exposed emplacement depths,
abundant carbonate rocks to the east may have (B) environment for preserved mineralization, (C) types of deposits presently exposed.
enhanced this trend by providing favorable
traps for Pb (and Ag). Metal and alteration
suites correlate with igneous compositions, extensional tectonics in the Jurassic and mid- deep plutonic through porphyritic to epithermal
which in turn reflect crustal composition. Cu dle to late Cenozoic, heterogeneous magma- environments reflect preservation and erosion—
contents of intrusion-hosted mineralization de- tism, commonly bimodal, is typical. Deposits not simply process and spatial controls. Differ-
cline from west to east, whereas Pb and Ag not only reflect magmatic variability during ences in exposure levels help rationalize regional
contents of carbonate-hosted systems increase. these times, but also may result from fluid cir- metal-zoning patterns, which need not reflect
A further regional pattern might reflect differ- culation directly related to extension and basin purely spatial or process controls. Uplift and/or
ences in surface-derived fluids. Rifting in the formation (cf. Seedorff, 1991; Ilchik and Bar- erosion expose deeper geologic areas, typically
gulf may circulate seawater or evaporitic ton, 1997). In contrast to compression, exten- uncovering magmatic sources and root zones to
brines, leading to preferential transport of Cu sion creates widespread permeability. Saline hydrothermal systems. Crustal extension lowers
1 Fe 6 Mn, whereas dilute meteoric fluids in waters generated from marine incursions dur- base levels, preserving near-surface environ-
continental basins may be more suited for pre- ing rifting or in closed basins may account for ments. Burial, for example by younger volcanic
cious-metal transport alone. some of the Fe-Cu-Mn-Au mineralization and rocks, also helps preserve shallow levels. Both
perhaps some base-metal mineralization not extension and burial can be used to rationalize
Temporal Controls directly related to magmatism. the distribution of porphyry Cu occurrences in
northwestern Mexico (Barton et al., 1995). Pro-
Temporal variations in the physical state of Preservation and Exposure longed weathering favors oxidation and super-
the crust, in magmas, and in surface fluids in- gene enrichment. These factors often govern the
fluenced metallogenic patterns. Compressional The distribution of deposits through time in economics of Cu and Au deposits and thus their
and extensional tectonic regimes produced northwestern Mexico reflects erosion and cover apparent distribution.
differences in the locus and character of mag- (Fig. 12). Progressive exposure of deeper parts In conclusion, northwestern Mexico exhibits
matism and mineral deposits (Fig. 11). Com- of the crust by uplift and erosion or by tectonic superimposed metallogenic suites that correlate
pressional regimes during the Cretaceous and denudation generates a progression from older, with progressive magmatic and tectonic evolu-
Laramide produced systematic increases in deeper exposures to younger, shallower deposition in the past 150 m.y. across a complex con-
crustal contents of magmas through coupling tional environments. The pattern of older bath- tinental margin. Metallogenic associations over-
of magmatic evolution with thickening and olithic to younger volcanic-rock–dominated ter- lap and do not form restricted metallic belts.
warming crust (Barton, 1996). Thus, metallo- ranes from west to east corresponds to Palinspastic reconstruction back through mid-
genic characteristics follow magmatic patterns shallowing exposures. The complementary me- Tertiary extension aids evaluation of the time-
in time as well as in space. During neutral to tallogenic signatures from weakly mineralized space history of mineralization. The reconstruct-

STAUDE and BARTON
ed distributions show that metallogenic zones Society of America, Guidebook for Field Trip 7, An- canism and plate-tectonic evolution of the western
nual Meeting, p. 59–68. United States: II. Late Cenozoic: Royal Society of
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time. Metallogenic patterns cannot be rational- bution and U-Pb isotope ages of some lineated plu- p. 249–284.
tons, northwestern Mexico, in Crittenden, M.D., Co- Clark, K.F., Damon, P.E., Shutter, S.R., and Shafiqullah, M.,
ized in terms of single parameters; rather, they ney, P.J., and Davis, G.H., eds., Cordilleran 1979, Magmatismo en el norte de Mexico en relación a
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Aranda-Gómez, J.J., Henry, C.D., Luhr, J.F., and McDow- in the formation of silver-gold veins in the Tayoltita
ell, F.W., 1997, Cenozoic volcanism and tectonics in mine, San Dimas district, Mexico: Economic Geology,
NW Mexico—A transect across the Sierra Madre Oc- v. 83, p. 1830–1840.
This paper has evolved from . 10 years of field cidental volcanic field and observations on extension Cochemé, J.J., 1985, Le magmatisme Cenozoique dans le
work with numerous contributing field visits, discus- related magmatism in the southern Basin and Range nord-ouest du Mexique: Cartographic de la región de
sions, and reviews of manuscript versions from Eric and Gulf of California tectonic provinces, in Aguirre- Yecora-Maicoba-Mulatos illustration magmatique de
Seedorff, Fred McDowell, Jaime Roldán-Quintana, Dı́az, G.J., Aranda-Gómez, J.J., Carrasco-Nunez, G., la fin d’un regime en subduction et du passage a un
Ricardo Amaya, John Stewart, Norman Page, Wo- and Ferrari, L., eds., Magmatism and tectonics in the regime distensif [Doctoral Thesis]: Universite de
jteck Wodzicki, Jose Perello, Suzanne Baldwin, central and northwestern Mexico—A selection of the Droit, France, 280 p.
DeVerle Harris, Spencer Titley, and Robert Ilchik. 1997 IAVECI General Assembly excursions: Univer- Cochemé, J.J., and Demant, A., 1991, Geology of the Ye-
sidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico, D.F., cora area, northern Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico,
Peter Coney, Ricardo Torres, Pedro Restrepo, and
Excursion 11, p. 41–84. in Pérez-Segura, E., and Jacques-Ayala, C., eds., Stud-
Joaquin Ruiz assisted in stratigraphic analysis. Lukas Atwater, T., 1970, Implications of plate tectonics for the ies in Sonoran geology: Boulder, Colorado, Geologi-
Zurcher, Lance Miller, Karen Bolm, and Wodzicki Cenozoic tectonic evolution of western North Amer- cal Society of America Special Paper 254, p. 81–94.
aided in acquisition of data on mineralization. Steve ica: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, Consejo de Recursos Minerales, 1992, Monografı́a geolo-
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MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED BY THE SOCIETY JUNE 2, 1999
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Jurassic to Holocene tectonics, magmatism, and metallogeny

GSA Bulletin; October 2001; v. 113; no. 10; p. 1357–1374; 12 figures.

For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org

1358 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1359

Some of these structures host mineralization.

Cretaceous (120–80 Ma)

1360 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

These rocks appear discontinuously through

Middle Tertiary (40–20 Ma)

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1361

(Nourse et al., 1994). Across northern and

Late Cenozoic (20 Ma–Holocene)

1362 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

oping the mafic-dominated, rift-type volca-

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1363

adularia-sericite Ag-Au, and high-silica rhyo-

Age, Characteristics, and Distribution of

Although relatively few metallic deposits

1364 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1365

1366 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1367

Figure 10. (Continued.)

1368 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1369

volcanic rock types are preserved, whereas in

1370 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

process-related factors. No single set of fac-

The provinciality of metal assemblages

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1371

1372 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001 1373

1374 Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2001

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