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Vol. 17, No 1, 2018
Contents
Gordana Đigić
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL
AND PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHERS.................................... 1 FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Vladimir Hedrih, Iva Šverko, Ivana Pedović Series
STRUCTURE OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS IN MACEDONIA AND CROATIA – Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History
EVALUATION OF THE SPHERICAL MODEL............................................................19
Vol. 17, No 1, 2018
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS • Series Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History Vol. 17, No 1, 2018
Ivana Stamenković, Miljana Nikolić, Dušan Aleksić
ONLINE MEDIA AS CONFLICT GENERATORS ....................................................... 37
Jelena Dinić, Irena Tasković

THE CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY AND A BRIEF
OVERVIEW OF THE ATTEMPTS OF ITS IMPLEMENTATION IN SERBIA............55
Maroje Višić
TECHNOAESTHETICS: SOME REMARKS ON THE COVERGENCE
OF AESTHETICS AND TECHNOLOGY......................................................................71
Nenad Cekić
LIMITS OF SEXUAL FREEDOM AND THE NOTION OF PERVERSION:
IS SEXUAL ETHICS “APPLIED”?................................................................................ 89
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FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Series: Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History Vol. 17, No 1, 2018, pp. 1 - 18
https://doi.org/10.22190/FUPSPH1801001D
Original Scientific Paper
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL AND

PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHERS
UDC 159.923:371.135
Gordana Đigić
University of Niš, Serbia, Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology
Abstract. Numerous research projects show that teachers’ professional behavior is one
of the key factors in the effectiveness of teaching and students’ educational
achievements. Also, modern trends in education put more and more complex demands
on teachers. Therefore, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to the
success of teachers’ work with students. In the study presented in this paper, conducted
on a sample of 148 teachers from elementary and secondary schools in Serbia, the
relationship between teachers’ personal and professional characteristics was
examined, i.e. the possibility of predicting teachers’ classroom management styles and
self-efficacy by the measures of personality dimensions from the Big Five model,
empathy and locus of control was investigated. As important predictors of teachers’
classroom management styles, some personality dimensions were highlighted
(Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness as important predictors of the
Interactionist style, with the greatest particular contribution of the Openness
dimension), as well as the locus of control (the external locus of control predicting a
more pronounced Intervening and Non-intervening style). Lower Empathic Concern
has a significant particular contribution to the prediction of the Noninterventionist style
as well. Important predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy are mostly some personality
traits (the most often higher Extraversion and lower Neuroticism) and empathy
dimensions (mostly Perspective Taking and Personal distress). It could be concluded
that all investigated teachers’ personal characteristics provide a significant
contribution to their important professional features. The obtained results could be
useful in creating ways to support teachers’ professional development.
Key words: personality traits, empathy, locus of control, classroom management
styles, teachers’ self-efficacy
Received March 27, 2018 / Accepted May 27, 2018

Corresponding author: Gordana Đigić
University of Niš, Faculty of Philosophy, Ćirila i Metodija 2, 18000 Niš, Serbia
E-mail: gordana.djigic@filfak.ni.ac.rs
© 2018 by University of Niš, Serbia | Creative Commons License: CC BY-NC-ND

2 G. ĐIGIĆ
1. INTRODUCTION
Numerous research projects confirm the importance of teachers’ professional acting as one
of the main factors of effective teaching and students’ school achievement, especially taking
into account factors from the school environment (Marzano and Marzano 2003). Also, a
teacher is a factor which could be influenced and changed more easily and to a greater extent
than other factors of school achievements, like students’ abilities, school programs,
educational policies etc. (Đigić 2017). For this reason, the investigation of teachers’
professional characteristics and factors related to their professional roles performance is of
great value.
Classroom management is a modern concept that represents a holistic approach to teacher
psychology, linking together different aspects of teachers’ acting aimed to create a stimulating
learning environment, as well as teachers’ personality characteristics, their competences,
beliefs, with processes in the classroom and their effects. Classroom management is related to
the use of teaching methods, working forms, teaching material and equipment, time and space
management, organization of learning activities, as well as to the management of students’
behavior and the contribution to students’ personal growth (Đigić 2017; Marzano and
Marzano 2003; Wang, Haertel and Walberg 1993).
Different aspects of classroom management could be observed through three broad
dimensions (Martin and Baldwin 1993a, 1993b): personality (teacher’s beliefs about students’
personality and behavior aimed at students’ personal growth and building a good
psychological classroom climate), instruction (teacher’s behavior aimed to initiate and
maintain the learning activities of students) and discipline (the teacher’s behavior that
contributes to establishing positive discipline in the classroom). In each of these three
domains, it is possible to recognize consistent patterns of the teacher’s behavior that represent
different classroom management styles. Also, three classroom management styles could be
distinguished. These styles are arranged along the continuum which represents different
modes of distribution of power and control over the situation in the classroom between the
teacher and students. Also, the styles could be linked to teachers’ beliefs corresponding to
different psychological theories (Walfgang and Glickman 1980). At one end of the
continuum, there is the intervening style that characterizes teachers who believe that the
external environment has a crucial influence on the development of a human being and, in
order to realize that influence, they hold all the power and control in their hands (behavioristic
conception). The non-intervening style is at the opposite end of the continuum. It is based on a
teacher’s belief that students have their own internal drives, so the teacher leaves control over
the situation to the students (humanistic conception). The Interactionist style is in the middle
part of the continuum. It is characterized by the distribution of power and control between the
teacher and students (the point of view of social and developmental psychologists).
Performing their professional tasks, teachers manifest the features of all three classroom
management styles in different situations; however, each teacher uses one most dominant and
consistent set of behaviors (Martin and Baldwin 1993a, 1993b).
Successful classroom management reduces undesirable students’ behaviors, ensures a
quality teaching process and has significant effects on students’ achievements (Marzano,
Marzano and Pickering 2003; Oliver and Reschly 2007; Wang, Haertel and Walberg 1993).
Existing research results show that the interactionist style is the most effective, it leads to
students’ better school achievement and positively affects the quality of the classroom climate
(Djigić and Stojiljković 2011; Đigić 2017).
The Relationship between Personal and Professional Characteristics of Teachers 3
Teachers’ self-efficacy (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2007) is the second teachers’ characteristic
related to their efficient professional work which is investigated through this study. The
concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Albert Bandura (1977). It is defined as the belief in
someone’s own ability to organize and execute the actions needed to achieve a particular goal.
Thereby, it does not refer to the real skills that one possesses, it is a self-estimation of what
someone is able to do, regardless of the real skills that the individual has (Ivanov and Penezić
2001). Self-efficacy determines someone’s behavior aimed at achieving a certain goal because
it launches into action, it determines the amount of effort being invested, as well as the
perseverance in dealing with obstacles and flexibility in adverse situations.
There are several factors that contribute to forming an individual’s beliefs in self-efficacy
(Bandura 1997), including: 1) previous achievements, i.e. the personal history of successes
and failures that a person has experienced in similar situations; 2) indirect experience based on
observation of other people’s experiences in similar situations and on social comparison;
3) verbal persuasion by others that a person has the capacity to successfully face a problem;
and 4) psychological reactions or emotional excitement in dealing with stressful situations.
Some authors also add to these basic sources of self-efficacy the imaginary experiences
acquired in hypothetical situations (Maddux and Gosselin 2003, according to Milanović
Dobrota and Radić Šestić 2012).
On the basis of Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy, Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2008) defined
the concept of teachers’ self-efficacy. It refers to the teacher’s beliefs in his/her own ability to
plan, organize and perform activities needed to achieve educational goals, i.e. to influence
students’ learning outcomes and progress. These teachers’ beliefs affect the quality of
teaching and the teachers’ overall behavior in the classroom. Teachers with strong self-
efficacy express a higher level of skills and commitment to planning and organizing
instruction, they are more engaged in school tasks and more open to cooperation with
colleagues, they are more willing to experiment with new ideas and to engage in dealing with
the different needs of their students. In contrast to these teachers, teachers with low self-
efficacy are less engaged, they are less satisfied with their job and more vulnerable to
occupational stress (Skaalvik and Skaalvik 2009; Betoret 2006; Caprara, Barbaranelli, Steca
and Malone 2006).
Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) distinguish six dimensions of teachers’ self-efficacy which
represent their beliefs related to their own capacities to be successful in the following
domains: 1. instruction, 2. adapting instruction to individual student’s needs, 3. motivating
students, 4. maintaining positive discipline in the classroom, 5. cooperation with colleagues
and parents, and 6. coping with changes.
In other words, teacher’s self-efficacy could be understood as the teacher’s self-estimation
of his/her capacities to successfully perform key professional roles.
In addition to these teachers’ characteristics that are directly related to their professional
performance (classroom management styles and teachers’ self-efficacy), some personal
characteristics are also highlighted as the features of successful teachers (Bjekić 2000; Đigić
2017; Morgan 1977; Stojiljković 2014; Tatalović Vorkapić 2012). In this study, a set of
personal characteristics that can be assumed to provide a significant contribution to
classroom management styles and teachers’ self-efficacy that are seen as determinants of
their professional performance will be examined.
One group of teachers’ personal characteristics analyzed in this study consists of Big Five
personality dimensions. They refer to basic personality dimensions defined through
research based on the lexical approach (Larsen and Buss 2008; Smederevac and Mitrović
4 G. ĐIGIĆ
2009; Pervin, Cervone and John 2008). Namely, reviewing numerous research results,
Goldberg (1981, according to Pervin, Cervone and John 2008) concluded that all existing
studies consistently point to the existence of the same five personality dimensions. Thus,
the theoretical model of the Big Five was formulated, according to which these dimensions
are not only a suitable means for describing personality, but they are also real factors that
make up the structure of personality. The position of this personality model has been also
strengthened by many intercultural research projects which confirmed that these dimensions
are universal (Kaprara and Ćervone 2003; Pervin, Cervone and John 2008).
The Big Five dimensions, defined on the basis of this Goldberg’s study, are (Smederevac
and Mitrović 2009):
1) Extraversion represents an individual’s orientation towards an outside environment
and towards other people; it is characterized by a tendency to action and a positive
mood, as opposed to introversion that is characterized by closing into the person’s
inner world and low social engagement of the individual;
2) Agreeableness represents a dimension differing people in relation to cooperativeness,
tendency to maintaining harmonious relationships with others, beliefs about positive
human nature and interest for the well-being of other people;
3) Conscientiousness includes traits referring to the control of one’s own impulses, or to
the reliability and responsibility in fulfillment of obligations and performing tasks;
4) Neuroticism is a tendency of being in a bad mood and of experiencing negative
emotions such as anxiety, fear and depression, in contrast to emotional stability that
implies adequate regulation of one’s own emotions.
5) Openness to experience is a dimension which refers to the intellectual functioning of
an individual and differentiates between imaginative and independent mind, creativity
and intellectual curiosity in opposition to conventionality and conformity.
The results of research conducted in Serbia point to the connection of the personality
traits and teachers’ professional characteristics that are discussed in this paper. There are
some findings (Đigić 2017) that show a positive correlation between the interactionist style
and extraversion, as well as that the interventionist style is in positive correlation with
neuroticism and are in a negative correlation with extraversion and openness to experience.
Also, conscientiousness and openness are identified as significant predictors of teachers’
self-efficacy (Djigić, Stojiljković and Dosković 2014).
There is much research that stresses empathy as an important trait of successful teachers.
Empathy helps teachers understand the way of thinking and emotional states of their
students. Teachers’ empathy is distinguished as a factor of the success in different aspects of
their professional performance (Morgan 1977): higher teacher empathy contributes to
reducing students’ absence from school and problematic behavior; on the other hand, it
contributes to students’ better school achievement and higher learning motivation. Also, there
are numerous researches conducted in Serbia that confirm the importance of empathy in many
particular domains of teachers’ professional engagement (Stojiljković, Stojanović and
Dosković 2012), as well as its role in the context of inclusive education (Stanković Đorđević
2012; Todorović, Stojiljković, Ristanić and Đigić 2011).
The simplest way to define empathy is to say that it means the enjoyment in emotional
states of another person and understanding his/her position on the basis of the perceived or
imagined situation the person is involved in (Petz 1992). Some authors (Davis 1980;
Hofman 2003) stress that empathic behavior is to be considered both emotional and
cognitive acting. They point out that the empathic process is mostly of a cognitive nature,
but the empathic content is mostly of an affective nature. According to this model (Davis
1980, 1983), empathy is seen as a complex cognitive and affective reaction on the
experience of another person, which has four dimensions (the first two are related to the
cognitive and the second two to affective aspect of empathy):
1) Fantasy (FS) is a dimension which refers to a person’s tendency to enjoy the feelings
and behavior of imagined characters from a movie or literature in certain
circumstances;
2) Role taking (RT) involves the ability of taking a flexible position in social
communication and the tendency to spontaneously taking a point of view of another
person;
3) Emphatic concern (EC) is a dimension related to individual differences in affective
reactions (concern, emotional warmth) on perceived emotional expressions of other
people and it represents feelings oriented towards others;
4) Personal distress (PD) refers to feelings directed towards someone’s own self, even
though they are caused by the perception of somebody else’s emotional experiences
(fear, anxiety).
Having in mind the described structure of empathy, it could be expected that teachers
with a higher capacity for understanding feelings and the students’ ways of thinking,
simultaneously being led by their own affective experience based on their interaction with
students, will be more inclined to professional behavior which represents an appropriate
answer to recognized students’ needs and feelings. It means that it could be expected for
empathy to contribute to the teachers’ choice of classroom management styles as well as to
their experience of self-efficacy.
Finally, in addition to personality dimensions and empathy, the locus of control is
involved in this research as a possible predictor of classroom management styles and self-
efficacy that are seen as the predispositions for teachers’ professional performance. This
concept, based on the theory of social learning (Rotter 1975), refers to a person’s beliefs
that all that happens to him/her is caused by external factors out of his/her own control or,
on the other hand, that he/she is responsible for what happens to him/her (Crnjaković,
Stojiljković and Todorović 2008). It means that the locus of control could be represented as
a continuum. People who believe they influence happenings and the outcomes of their
actions (internal locus of control) occupy one end of the continuum. At the opposite end of
the continuum, there are people who believe that some external circumstances and factors
define what will happen to them (external locus of control).
Numerous studies (Duke and Lancaster 1976, Johnson and Kilmann 1975, Hetherington
1972, Davis and Phares 1969, Goldsmith, Veum and Darity 1996, according to Panić 2011)
point out that the locus of control is formed during childhood. Namely, based on concrete
experience, a child builds expectations that he/she or some external circumstances control
his/her destiny. Even though it was originally thought that these expectations become a
stable personality characteristic, the locus of control is, however, variable to a certain extent
on the basis of new and different experiences (Goldsmith, Veum and Darity 1996, Oberle,
1991, according to Panić 2011).
Research results suggest that internally-oriented individuals have a greater confidence in
their ability to solve problems than individuals with an external locus of control (Hjelle and
Ziegler 1992). Generally, it could be said that internally-oriented individuals are better
suited and more successful in solving life’s problems. In that sense, it can also be expected
that internally-oriented teachers have more confidence in their own efficiency in performing
6 G. ĐIGIĆ
their professional tasks, they are more willing to engage in solving the problems they face
in their work and, as a result of this engagement, they use a more effective classroom
management style.
2. METHOD
2.1. Research problem and objectives of the study
Taking into account numerous research findings that highlight the importance of teachers’
personality characteristic for their effective professional performance (Đigić 2017;
Stojiljković 2014), this study is aimed at examining the relations between particular personal
and professional characteristics of teachers. More precisely, the research was aimed at
investigating if it is possible to predict teachers’ classroom management styles and teachers’
self-efficacy (as variables that refer to teachers’ professional acting) by the measures of their
personal characteristics (personality dimensions defined by the Big Five Model, empathy and
the locus of control). Before testing these prediction models, the expression level of measured
variables in the teachers’ sample as well as the intercorrelations among variables will be
examined.
2.2. Research sample

The research sample consists of 148 teachers, 110 (74.3%) females and 38 (25.7%) males,
109 (73.6%) of them working in primary schools (38 classroom teachers and 71 subject
teachers) and 39 (26.4%) of them working in secondary schools in Serbia.
2.3. Variables and instruments

The first group of criterion variables belonging to professional teachers’ characteristics,
classroom management styles, was measured by the Inventory for Teachers’ Self-assessment
in Classroom Management Styles ITSCMS (Đigić and Stojiljković 2014). The Inventory is
based on a model of classroom management (Martin and Baldwin 1993a, 1993b) which
distinguishes three styles: Interventionist, Interactionist and Non-interventionist. The
Inventory consists of 30 items which describe teacher’s behavior in everyday classroom
situations, in the form of a five-level scale. Inventory items are related to ten particular
situations covering three dimensions of classroom management (Personality, Instruction and
Discipline). For each of ten situations, there are three descriptions of different teacher’s
behavior that refer to three classroom management styles. The measure of each style is
expressed by the average score on items referring to this style. A higher score means a more
expressed style. The reliability of the Inventory is quite satisfactory. Cronbach’s Alpha
coefficients range from .723 for the Interactionist style scale, over .790 for the Non-
interventionist style scale, to .795 for the Interventionist style scale (Cronbach Alpha for the
whole Inventory is .777).
The second investigated aspect of the professional teachers’ profile is their self-efficacy.
It was measured by the Norwegian Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scale NTSEF (Skaalvik and
Skaalvik 2007) which includes 24 items in the form of a seven-level scale. The instrument
has six subscales (referring to teacher’s self-efficacy dimensions: Instruction, Adapting
instruction to individual needs of students, Motivating students, Maintaining discipline in
the classroom, Cooperation with colleagues and parents and Coping with changes), each
consisting of four items. The average score on items belonging to one subscale represents
the measure of a particular self-efficacy dimension (a higher score means higher self-
efficacy). The reliability measures (Cronbach Alpha coefficients) obtained in our research
sample are: .931 for the whole scale, .704 for the Instruction dimension, .784 for Adapting
instruction to individual students’ needs, .744 for the Motivating students scale, .768 for
Maintaining discipline, .716 for dimension related to Cooperation with colleagues and
parents, and the lowest Cronbach Alpha is .678 for the scale of Coping with changes.
Personality traits based on the Big Five model, empathy and locus of control, are
examined as the predictors of classroom management styles and teacher self-efficacy.
Personality traits were measured by the Big Five Inventory BFI (John and Srivastava
1999), based on the personality model bearing the same name. The Inventory consists of 44
items – short descriptions of personality traits that represent the key attributes of dimensions
from the Big Five model (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and
Openness) with a five-point scale which shows how much the statement refers to the
participant. The measures of dimensions are expressed as the average scores on the subscales.
A higher score means a more expressed dimension. The reliability coefficients of the
Inventory subscales obtained on our sample range from .740 to .811, except for the
agreeableness scale (α=.608).
Empathy was examined by using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index IRI (Davis 1983). The
scale has 28 items classified into four subscales (each consisted of seven items in the form of a
five-level scale) measuring four empathy dimensions. Fantasy (FS) and Perspective Taking
(PT) dimensions refer to the socio-cognitive aspects of empathy; Empathic Concern (EC) and
Personal Distress (PD) dimensions refer to the emotional aspect of empathy. As the average
score on the subscale is higher, the dimension of empathy is more expressed. Our results show
a good reliability for the entire scale (α=.733), for the FS (α=.767) and PD scale (α=.762),
while PT (α=.602) and EC (α=.574) scales showed reliability under the acceptance limit.
The locus of control is measured by the Rotter’s Externality Scale, adapted by Beznović
(Bezinović 1988), which consists of ten items in the form of a five-level scale. Items describe
beliefs that exclusively external factors (like good or bad luck and destiny) are responsible for
the outcomes of our behavior. It means that a person with high Externality (external locus of
control) believes that he/she does not control any consequences of his/her own acts and cannot
do anything to stop something that has to happen. A higher average score on the Externality
scale refers to the external locus of control and a lower average score indicates the internal
locus of control. The scale achieved high reliability on our sample (α=.891).
2.4. Research procedure

Teachers involved in this research were examined by prepared instruments during their
attendance of professional training programs. Training groups were composed of teachers
from different schools and different cities and regions of Serbia. All participants were
informed about the aims of the study and then invited to fulfill questionnaires anonymously.
It was explained that the test results will be used exclusively for research purposes.
2.5. Data processing

The obtained data were processed in the statistical package SPSS 21. Cronbach Alpha
coefficient of internal consistency is used as a measure of the reliability of instruments.
Descriptive measures are used to establish the level of expression of the examined
8 G. ĐIGIĆ
variables. Correlations among variables related to personal and professional teachers’

characteristics are computed using Pearson’s r coefficient. Predicting models were tested by
the hierarchical regression analysis (enter procedure).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Descriptive measures of examined variables
First of all, average values of the examined variables obtained on the sample are
presented (Table 1).
Table 1 Descriptive measures of the examined variables

Std.
Min. Max. Mean
Deviation
ITSCMS_interventionist 1.00 4.50 2.64 .678
ITSCMS_interactionist 3.30 5.00 4.49 .376
ITSCMS_noninterventionist 1.10 4.50 1.92 .599
NTSEF_instruction 4.00 7.00 5.85 .789
NTSEF_individual students’ needs 3.00 7.00 5.53 .933
NTSEF_motivativating students 2.33 7.00 5.47 .906
NTSEF_discipline 3.50 7.00 5.57 .963
NTSEF_cooperation 3.00 7.00 5.63 .878
NTSEF_coping with changes 4.00 7.00 5.54 .841
NTSEF_total 3.91 7.00 5.60 .738
BFI_N 1.00 4.13 2.39 .667
BFI_E 2.50 5.00 3.79 .559
BFI_O 2.20 5.00 4.01 .545
BFI_A 2.67 5.00 3.92 .453
BFI_C 2.33 5.00 4.19 .518
IRI_PTscale 2.57 5.00 3.70 .490
IRI_FSscale 1.43 5.00 3.46 .701
IRI_ECscale 2.29 5.00 3.77 .526
IRI_PDscale 1.00 4.71 2.66 .683
IRI_total 2.43 4.43 3.40 .359
Locus of control 1.00 4.00 2.32 .725
Among three classroom management styles, the interactionist style is most expressed
in our teachers’ sample, the second one is the interventionist style and the lowest measure
is obtained for the noninterventionist style. On the basis of the obtained results, it could
be said that teachers from the research sample predominantly use the most effective
classroom management style. These results are quite similar to previous research conducted
in Serbia (Djigic and Stojiljkovic 2011, 2014).
Teachers from the sample also showed high self-efficacy in all dimensions. They self-
estimated their self-efficacy in the instruction dimension as the highest and the dimension
related to motivating students as the lowest. These measures are also in accordance with
previous research results (Djigić, Stojiljković and Dosković 2014) that mean that our
teachers perceive their capacities for performing professional roles as very high.
When it comes to personality dimensions, the obtained measures could be compared with
the measures of five basic personality dimensions from the normative study conducted in
Serbia, using NEO PI-R inventory (Đurić Jočić, Džamonja Ignjatović and Knežević 2004,
Knežević, Džamonja Ignjatović and Đurić Jočić 2004). All the measures obtained in our
research sample are higher in comparison with the measures obtained by NEO PI-R in the
Serbian normative sample. Similar results were found in prior research involving teachers in
Serbia (Đigić 2017). Despite using different instruments, these differences between our
teachers’ sample and the Serbian normative sample could be explained by a different structure
of the samples (the normative sample refers to the whole population and our sample is related
to a particular profession which requires higher Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness). Higher Neuroticism could be explained by the general social transition
and intensive educational reform processes in Serbia, which produce the experience of
insecurity, fears and anxiety in teachers required to perform a more and more complex
working role.
The examined teachers show a moderate level of empathy, which is similar to other results
obtained in previous research in Serbia (Bjekić 2000; Stanković Đorđević 2012; Stojiljković,
Stojanović and Dosković 2012). The most expressed empathy dimensions are Empathic
Concern and Perspective Taking. Both dimensions are important for the teachers’ work with
students. Perspective Taking helps teachers to better understand the way of thinking of their
students and to conduct the teaching process in the appropriate manner. Empathic concern
could stimulate teachers to help students who need a kind of support.
Finally, the average score on the Externality scale shows that the examined teachers are a
little bit closer to the internal than to the external locus of control, even though the obtained
measure is almost equal for both the internal and external locus of control. For teachers as
professionals, it is desirable to be more internally controlled, but a possible reason that could
explain the obtained results is teachers’ dissatisfaction with their economic status which
contributes to the development of the external locus of control, as it is found in some previous
researches (Bezinović 1988).
3.2. Intercorrelations among examined variables

Before testing the possibility of predicting classroom management styles and teachers’
self-efficacy by their personality traits, correlations among these variables were calculated
(Table 2).
It is clear that all personality dimensions from the Big Five model have significant
correlations of an expected direction with almost all dimensions of two variables related to the
professional acting of teachers. Among personality dimensions, Extraversion and Openness
are in the most consistent correlations with classroom management styles and self-efficacy
dimensions. Conscientiousness achieves the highest significant correlation coefficients with
dimensions of variables referring to the teaching profession, except with the Interventionist
classroom management style. As expected, Neuroticism is in a negative correlation with all
dimensions of self-efficacy and in a positive correlation with the Interventionist style, but
there is no significant correlation with the Interactionist and Noninterventionist style.
Agreeableness has the highest correlation with the Interactionist classroom management style,
its correlations with other two styles and self-efficacy dimensions are significant, except for
the self-efficacy dimension Instruction.
10 G. ĐIGIĆ
Table 2 Intercorrelations among examined personal and professional

teachers’ characteristics (Pearson’s r coefficients)
interventionist
interventionist
ITSCMS_non
interactionist
ind. needs of
coping with
cooperation
motivating
instruction
ITSCMS_
ITSCMS_
discipline
NTSEF_
NTSEF_
NTSEF_
NTSEF_
NTSEF_
NTSEF_
NTSEF_
students
students
changes
total
-
BFI_N r .197* -.024 .108 -.171* -.313** -.183* -.262** -.354** -.272** -.314**
p .017 .778 .194 .040 .000 .028 .002 .000 .001 .000
BFI_E r -.275** .246** -.259** .364** .364** .294** .327** .348** .387** .417**
p .001 .003 .002 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
BFI_O r -.270** .441** -.253** .334** .383** .296** .222** .300** .296** .368**
p .001 .000 .002 .000 .000 .000 .007 .000 .000 .000
BFI_A r -.205* .380** -.201* .162 .345** .212* .216** .351** .189* .299**
p .013 .000 .015 .052 .000 .011 .009 .000 .023 .000
BFI_C r -.127 .378** -.258** .257** .346** .273** .429** .420** .289** .409**
p .125 .000 .002 .002 .000 .001 .000 .000 .000 .000
IRI_PT r -.198* .251** -.259** .269** .366** .219** .198* .347** .167* .314**
p .016 .002 .002 .001 .000 .008 .017 .000 .046 .000
IRI_FS r -.114 .204* -.120 .217** .199* .139 .100 .193* .121 .194*
p .169 .013 .150 .009 .017 .097 .231 .020 .148 .020
IRI_EC r -.156 .281** -.315** .204* .149 .108 .147 .082 .140 .166*
p .061 .001 .000 .014 .075 .197 .078 .331 .095 .046
IRI_PD r .189* .012 .162 -.136 -.084 -.019 -.167* -.100 -.071 -.116
p .022 .887 .051 .105 .319 .822 .046 .234 .399 .166
IRI_total r -.092 .293** -.191* .209* .231** .168* .081 .187* .130 .201*
p .271 .000 .021 .012 .005 .044 .336 .025 .120 .016
Locus of r .323** -.088 .404** -.210* -.108 -.053 -.163* -.143 -.116 -156
control p .000 .289 .000 .011 .196 .529 .049 .086 .164 .060
*correlations significant at the level of 0.05
**correlations significant at the level of 0.01
Among empathy dimensions, Perspective Taking is in the highest and most consistent
significant correlation with all classroom management styles and self-efficacy dimensions.
The most empathy-related measures are in a significant correlation with the Interactionist
classroom management style and with the self-efficacy dimension Instruction. The least
significant are the correlations between Personal distress and dimensions of teachers’
professional acting. These correlations could mean that teachers’ empathy is mostly in the
function of the instruction: the capacity of teachers to understand their students’ states helps
them conduct the teaching process in accordance with the students’ way of thinking and
their educational needs. The absence of significant correlations between Personal distress
and teachers’ professional characteristics might be interpreted by teachers’ attempts to
establish professional distance in relation to affective processes obtained in the classroom
and to protect themselves from intensive personal emotional investment into professional
relations with students.
The measures of Externality (locus of control) are in a significant positive correlation
with the Interventionist and Noninterventionist style. When it comes to the relationship
between Externality and the Interventionist style, it could be said that the external locus of
control is in accordance with the teachers’ belief that some external factors are responsible
for students’ growth and behavior, which is the basis of the interventionist approach to
classroom management. On the other hand, the Noninterventionist style is characterized by
leaving control over the situation in the classroom to students, i.e. the control is out of the
teacher’s him/her self and this makes sense of the connection between such classroom
management approach and Externality. A negative correlation of Externality with only two
self-efficacy dimensions (Instruction and Discipline) is also found. The finding of only
sporadic correlations between the locus of control and teachers’ self-efficacy is in accordance
with some previous research results that deny significant connection between these variables
(Toussi and Ghanizadeh 2012).
The conducted correlation analysis confirmed that examined personality variables could
be significant predictors of classroom management styles and teachers’ self-efficacy. The
most consistent and the highest correlations were found between personality dimensions
(among investigated personality features of teachers) and variables related to teachers’
professional acting. So, the next step was the regression analysis aimed to test the set of
predictive models.
3.3. Prediction of teachers’ classroom management styles

by the measures of personal characteristics
Prediction models were tested by the procedure of hierarchical regression analysis. The
criterion variables were particular classroom management styles. For each style, there were
particular prediction models organized in three steps which were tested. The first step
involved five personality dimensions as predictors of classroom management styles. The
second step involved personality and empathy dimensions as predictors and, in the third
step, the locus of control was added to the previous list of predictors. Every time, predictive
models were statistically significant in all three steps, but the third step gave the highest
variance percent explained by the set of predictors. Also, from one step to the next one,
there were no significant changes in the particular contribution of predictors. From these
reasons, only the results of the third step of hierarchical regression analysis will be
presented for each criterion variable (Table 3).
The conducted regression analysis confirmed the possibility of prediction of teachers’
classroom management styles by the Big Five personality traits, empathy dimensions and
locus of control. Externality is a significant particular predictor of the Interventionist and
Noninterventionist style, i.e. as the locus of control is more external, the teacher is more
inclined to show the Interventionist or Noninterventionist style. The Noninterventionist style
is partly predicted by lower Empathic concern, as well. Also, the analysis showed that higher
measures of personality dimensions Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predict
a more expressed Interactionist style.
12 G. ĐIGIĆ
Table 3 Regression of Big Five personality dimensions, empathy dimensions

and locus of control with regard to teachers’ classroom management styles
Criterion variable Significant predictors Beta t p Model
summary
Externality .222 2.463 .015 R=.440
Interventionist style (locus of control) R2=.194
p<.001
BFI Openness .309 3.552 .001 R=.586
Interactionist style BFI Agreeableness .221 2.479 .014 R2=.344
BFI Conscientiousness .209 2.327 .021 p<.000
IRI Empathic concern -.257 -2.807 .006 R=.524
Noninterventionist
Externality (locus of control) .304 3.576 .000 R2=.275
style
p<.000
Predictors included in presented predictive models:
BFI_N, BFI_E, BFI_O, BFI_A, BFI_C, IRI_PT, IRI_FS, IRI_EC, IRI_PD, Externality
The regression analysis confirmed expectations based on the previously presented

correlation analysis. When talking about the most effective classroom management style
(Interactionist), it might be concluded that differences in its expression among teachers
could be partly (34.4% of variance) explained by the level of the teachers’ creativity and
intellectual curiosity, by their cooperativeness, tendency to maintain harmonious
relationships with others, beliefs about positive human nature and interest for the well-being
of other people and by teachers’ responsibility in the fulfillment of obligations and
performing of tasks.
There are previous research results (Đigić 2017) showing that basic personality
dimensions from the Five-factor model are significant predictors of classroom management
styles, but with different particular contributions of dimensions, which could be understood
having in mind that the combination of other predictors involved was different.
In the case of other two classroom management styles, the best particular predictor of
their higher representation is higher Externality, which is associated with lower Empathic
concern as one additional particular predictor of the nonintervening approach.
3.4. Prediction of teachers’ self-efficacy by the measures of personal characteristics

A similar procedure was used with the aim to test the prediction of teachers’ self-
efficacy by the measures of the examined personal characteristics. The hierarchical
regression analysis was conducted through three steps in the same way as previously
described. The prediction models involved personality traits in the first step, personality and
empathy dimensions in the second step, and these two groups of dimensions with the locus
of control in the third step. All prediction models were statistically significant, but every
time the amount of explained variance of the self-efficacy dimensions was the highest in the
third step. Also, there were no important changes in the particular contribution of predictors
from one step to the other. So, only the third step of each predictive model is presented,
including only statistically significant particular predictors (Table 4). The exception is the
prediction model related to the dimension Motivating students. In this case, the second step,
including personality and empathy dimensions as predictors, was the only model with a
significant particular predictor.
Table 4 Regression of Big Five personality dimensions, empathy dimensions and

externality (locus of control) with regard to teachers’ self-efficacy and its dimensions
Criterion Significant predictors Beta t p Model
variable summary
BFI Neuroticism -.226 -2.178 .031 R=.569
NTSEF - total BFI Extraversion .260 2.817 .006 R2=.324
IRI Perspective taking .187 2.054 .042 p<.000
R=.454
NTSEF - R2=.206
BFI Extraversion .239 2.391 .018
Instruction p<.001
BFI Neuroticism -.255 -2.465 .015
NTSEF – BFI Extraversion .230 2.495 .014 R=.573
Individual BFI Openness .198 2.227 .028 R2=.329
students’ needs IRI Perspective taking .258 2.849 .005 p<.000
IRI Personal distress .234 2.317 .022
NTSEF – R=.414
motivating IRI Personal distress .223 2.063 .041 R2=.172
students* p<.002
R=.488
NTSEF –
BFI Conscientiousness .311 3.195 .002 R2=.238
Discipline
p<.000
BFI Neuroticism -.268 -2.596 .011
BFI Extraversion .202 2.198 .030 R=.576
NTSEF –
BFI Conscientiousness .190 2.078 .005 R2=.332
Cooperation
IRI Perspective taking .257 2.848 .005 p<.000
IRI Personal distress .238 2.364 .020
BFI Neuroticism -.287 -2.595 .011 R=.423
NTSEF – Coping
R2=.234
with changes BFI Extraversion .272 2.766 .006
p<.000
Predictors included in presented predictive models:
BFI_N, BFI_E, BFI_O, BFI_A, BFI_C, IRI_PT, IRI_FS, IRI_EC, IRI_PD, Externality
*Predictors included in presented predictive model:
BFI_N, BFI_E, BFI_O, BFI_A, BFI_C, IRI_PT, IRI_FS, IRI_EC, IRI_PD (here the second step
of hierarchical regression analysis is the only one model with significant particular predictor)
The regression analysis used to test the prediction of teachers’ self-efficacy showed
that particular personality and empathy dimensions are significant predictors of the
measures of self-efficacy. The locus of control is not shown as a significant particular
predictor of any aspect of teachers’ self-efficacy. Teachers with higher Extraversion tend
to express higher self-efficacy in general and they believe that they are more efficient in
instruction, in adapting instruction to individual students’ needs, in cooperation with
colleagues and students’ parents, as well as in coping with changes. Lower Neuroticism is
related to higher teachers’ self-efficacy, especially in the domain of adapting instruction to
individual students’ needs, in cooperation with others and in coping with changes.
Openness is a significant predictor of teachers’ self-efficacy in adapting instruction to
individual students’ needs, and Conscientiousness contributes to self-efficacy in
cooperation with colleagues and parents.
14 G. ĐIGIĆ
Among empathy dimensions, Perspective taking and Personal distress are significant
particular predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy. Both dimensions contribute to the prediction
of teachers’ efficacy in adapting instruction to individual students’ needs and in cooperation
with others. Personal distress is related to teachers’ beliefs in their own efficacy in
motivating students, as well as in general self-efficacy.
Externality is not shown as a significant predictor of any dimension of teachers’ self-
efficacy.
These results are similar (but not equal) to the findings of previous research (Djigić,
Stojiljković and Dosković 2014) which show that there are correlations between all five
basic personality dimensions and almost all teachers’ self-efficacy dimensions. This
research tested the prediction of teachers’ self-efficacy on the basis of personality traits, also
including empathy and the locus of control, so this time only some of personality
dimensions achieved significant particular contribution to the prediction of several teachers’
self-efficacy dimensions.
3. CONCLUSION
The study presented in this paper deals with teachers as one of the key actors in the
educational process, who have a great influence on the quality of education and students’
educational achievements. The relationship between classroom management styles and
self-efficacy as teachers’ features that determine their professional behavior in the classroom
and some personality traits was investigated. The main goal of the study was to investigate
the possibility to predict the mentioned teachers’ professional characteristics by the set of
variables that involve the Big Five personality dimensions, empathy and the locus of control.
The results show that the interactionist approach to classroom management is the most
expressed in the sample of studied teachers. The measures of this style are much higher than
the measures of the other two styles. Also, the teachers from our sample gave high marks to
their self-efficacy in all dimensions related to different aspects of teachers’ professional
work (the highest assessed dimension is Instruction and the lowest, but still with a high
score, is dimension Motivating students). These results are encouraging because they point
to teachers’ high capacities for quality performing of their professional roles, but they
should be taken with a certain reserve. On the one hand, it could be said that teachers
involved in this research are dedicated to their professional development. Namely, they
were examined while attending a professional training aimed at the development of
teachers’ competences needed for the quality education of all children. When introducing
themselves, they reported that they regularly attend professional trainings. Also, they
exchanged practical experiences that indicate their high capacities to resolve different
practical problems in everyday teaching work. Nevertheless, the obtained measures are
similar to previous research results, so they could be taken as a real picture describing
teachers in Serbia. Another reason that requires caution is the nature of the instruments
themselves. These two variables were examined using the inventory and self-assessment
questionnaire, which always raises the question of objectivity of the assessment due to the
tendency of giving the desired answers and self-representation in the best light.
When it comes to the relationship between the studied teachers’ professional and
personal characteristics, the research results confirmed the expectation that personal
characteristics were significant predictors of professional ones. Personality dimensions
based on the Big Five model have the most significant particular contribution to the tested
prediction models, although all tested variables are involved in the prediction. The only
dimension that has not proven to be an important single predictor in any model is the
empathy dimension Fantasy, which is understandable if we take into account that it refers to
the ability to enjoy the state of imaginary characters (not real persons) under certain
circumstances. The greatest predictive power of basic personality dimensions in relation to
teachers’ professional features is quite a logical result because it is about permanent and
stable characteristics that have the power to initiate and maintain consistent patterns of
individual’s behavior in different situations.
Practical implications of this research could be related to the process of professional
orientation of young people and the selection for the teaching profession, which should be
based on the knowledge about personal characteristics that are important for the successful
performance of teaching roles. The results of this research also highlight the importance of
supporting the development of personal characteristics of future and current teachers, such
as empathy and the internal locus of control. It can be partially achieved during initial (pre-
service) teachers’ education which should be clearly aimed at achieving teachers’
professional competences, especially those related to teaching and learning, supporting
students’ personal growth and development, as well as to communication and cooperation
(Rules on competency standards for the teaching profession and its professional
development 2011). Learning activities conducted through formal teachers’ education
which involve problem solving tasks, various practical performance, simulations of real
classroom situations and other procedures of active learning, have capacities to develop
students’ openness for new experiences, their curiosity, flexibility and creativity, ability to
undertake different perspectives, to take an active role in interpersonal situations, as well as
to develop skills for effective management of their own personal resources for effective
professional acting. In other words, initial teachers’ education could support their openness,
empathy, internal locus of control and other personal characteristics shown as significant
predictors of effective classroom management styles and high self-efficacy of future
teachers. Of course, the same kind of support should be offered to teachers through
appropriate in-service training programs aimed to professional development during their
working career.
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POVEZANOST LIČNIH I PROFESIONALNIH

KARAKTERISTIKA NASTAVNIKA
Brojna istraživanja pokazuju da je profesionalno ponašanje nastavnika jedan od ključnih faktora
efikasnosti nastave i obrazovnih postignuća učenika. Takođe, savremeni tokovi u obrazovanju
postavljaju pred nastavnike sve složenije zahteve. Stoga je važno razumevanje faktora koji doprinose
uspešnosti nastavnika u radu sa učenicima. U istraživanju predstavljenom u ovom radu, sprovedenom
na uzorku od 148 nastavnika iz osnovnih i srednjih škola u Srbiji, ispitivan je odnos između ličnih i
profesionalnih karakteristika nastavnika, odnosno ispitivana je mogućnost predviđanja stilova
nastavnika u upravljanju razredom i njihovog doživljaja samoefikasnosti na osnovu mera dimenzija
ličnosti iz modela Velikih pet, empatičnosti i lokusa kontrole. Kao značajni prediktori stilova
18 G. ĐIGIĆ
nastavnika u upravljanju razredom izdvajaju se neke dimenzije ličnosti (otvorenost, prijatnost i

savesnost kao značajni prediktori interakcionističkog stila, pri čemu najveći pojedinačni doprinos ima
dimenzija otvorenosti) i lokus kontrole (spoljašnji lokus kontrole predviđa izraženiji intervenišući i
neintervenišući stil). Niža empatijska brižnost takođe ima značajan pojedinačni doprinos predviđanju
neintervenišućeg stila. Kao značajni prediktori samoefikasnosti nastavnika uglavnom se izdvajaju
neke osobine ličnosti (najčešće izraženija ekstraverzija i manje izraženi neuroticizam) i dimenzije
empatije (uglavnom zauzimanje tuđe perspektive i lična nelagoda). Može se zaključiti da sve
ispitivane lične karakteristike nastavnika značajno doprinose njihovim važnim profesionalnim
svojstvima. Dobijeni rezultati mogu biti korisni u kreiranju podrške profesionalnom razvoju
nastavnika.
Ključne reči: osobine ličnosti, empatija, lokus kontrole, stilovi upravljanja razredom,
samoefikasnost nastavnika
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
https://doi.org/10.22190/FUPSPH1801019H
Original Scientific Paper
STRUCTURE OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS IN MACEDONIA

AND CROATIA – EVALUATION OF THE SPHERICAL MODEL
UDC 159.9.072:331.54(497.17+497.13)
Vladimir Hedrih1, Iva Šverko2, Ivana Pedović1

1
University of Niš, Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, Serbia
2
Institute of Social Sciences "Ivo Pilar", Zagreb, Croatia
Abstract. The goal of the current paper was to explore the construct validity of the
spherical and the hexagonal models of vocational interests by exploring the extent to
which these models fit the data obtained on samples of Macedonian and Croatian
university students. Croatian and Macedonian versions of the Personal Globe
Inventory (PGI) were administered to a sample of 1367 student of various faculties in
Croatia and Macedonia (737 participants from the Republic of Macedonia and 630
from Croatia). Results showed that the spherical and hexagonal models fit the data
better than chance, and that these models explain substantial proportions of variance of
vocational interest measures. Exploration of the factor structure of the obtained
measures of vocational interest on the studied samples showed that the obtained
structure generally corresponds to theoretical propositions. The obtained dimensions
correspond to the latent space defined by Prediger’s dimensions and the dimensions of
Prestige of the spherical model.
Key words: vocational interests, spherical model, Holland’s model, PGI, RIASEC.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the main lines of research in the area of vocational interests is aimed at the
creation of a comprehensive taxonomy of vocational interests. Probably the most well-
known model in this area is the famous hexagonal model of vocational interest proposed
by John Holland (Holland 1959, 1994), which includes six types of vocational interests
that stand in a circumplex interrelation, named Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic
(A), Social (S), Enterprising (E) and Conventional (C). These are spatially represented as
points at the bases of an equally-sided hexagon.
Received November 25, 2017 / Accepted May 22, 2018

Corresponding author: Vladimir Hedrih
E-mail: vladimir.hedrih@filfak.ni.ac.rs

20 V. HEDRIH, I. ŠVERKO, I. PEDOVIĆ
Holland's hexagon, like any hexagon, is a two-dimensional figure which therefore

exists in a two-dimensional space. The meaning of the two dimensions defining this
space was specified by Prediger (Prediger 1982, 1998; Prediger & Swaney 2004), who
named them People-Things and Ideas-Data. The first of the two dimensions is placed so
that it passes through the positions of R and S types on the hexagon. It defines the
preference for working with people that is opposed to the preference for working with
things. The second dimension stands orthogonal to the first dimension and passes
between I and A types on one side of the hexagon, and C and E types on the other. It
defines the preference for working with ideas as opposed to the preference for working
with data. Apart from the Prediger’s model, two other prominent definitions of the two
dimensions exist. These definitions are rotations of Prediger's dimensions. One of them
was proposed by Hogan in 1983 (Rounds & Tracey 1993) and in it the Prediger dimensions
are rotated 30 degrees, thus creating the dimensions of conformism and sociability, which
their author proposed correspond to dimensions of the Big Five model. The Conformism
dimension passes through A and C types, while the Sociability dimension passes between
S and E type positions on one side of the hexagon and between R and I types on the
other. Rounds and Tracey (Rounds & Tracey 1993) rotated the Prediger dimensions by
60 degrees and obtained two dimensions that they did not name. Of these dimensions,
one passes through I and E, and the other, orthogonal to it, passes through A and S on one
side, and through R and C on the other.
When conducting component analysis, these dimensions are typically extracted after the
so-called general factor – the first extracted factor, typically having high saturations on all
vocational interest types. As a possible method for the explanation of the existence of the
general factor, authors mention situational framing during the process of responding, which
happens due to the way questions are asked and the uniform format of the response scale
and a stable response style, like acquiescence or proneness for giving socially desirable
responses. As possible substantial explanation for the general factor phenomenon, stable
personality traits independent of the testing situation (such as enthusiasm, optimism and
general broadness of interests) are listed. And while there is some debate about the exact
nature of this factor, authors agree that it is not a dimension of vocational interests and
should not be interpreted as such (Darcy & Tracey 2003; Hedrih 2008; Šverko & Babarović
2016).
Holland's model has so far been a subject of a large number of studies that primarily
checked its so-called structural validity, i.e. checked its construct validity by conducting
studies of internal structure. These studies examined if the circumplex relation between the
six vocational interest types that is proposed by Holland's theory fits the empirically
obtained data. But, the results obtained varied greatly across countries. While studies
conducted in Japan, Israel, Iceland, Croatia, USA and Serbia uniformly showed a high level
of fit of empirical data to theoretical expectations (Einarsdóttir, Rounds, Aegisdóttir, &
Gerstein 2002; Hedrih & Šverko 2007; Hedrih 2006; Rounds & Tracey 1996; Šverko 2002;
Šverko & Babarović 2006; Šverko & Hedrih 2010), the same was not the case in many
other countries including some special samples from the US population (Elosua 2007; Farh,
Leong, & Law 1998; Leong et al. 1998; Long, Adams & Tracey 2005; Rounds & Tracey
1996; Ryan, Tracey & Rounds 1996; Tak 2004; Morgan & De Bruin 2018; Rounds &
Tracey 1993). Thus, exploring cross-population validity of the model, i.e. determining
which populations the model fits and which it does not, became an important aspect of
research on the topic.
Structure of Vocational Interests in Macedonia and Croatia – Evaluation of the Spherical Model 21
Taking all this and also some newer findings on the properties of relations between
types of vocational interests into account, Tracey proposed a new, three-dimensional
model of vocational interests (Tracey & Rounds 1996; Tracey 2002). This model, apart
from Prediger's two dimensions People-Things and Ideas-Data included a third dimension
that Tracey named Prestige. This dimension defines the preference of a person for longer
schooling, taking on tasks with a greater level of responsibility and duties and engaging
in more prestigious vocations. This model proposes the existence of 18 types of interests
distributed in the form of a sphere in three dimensions. For this reason, this model is
called the spherical model of vocational interests (Figure 1 and 2). Eight vocational
interest types are located at the equator of the sphere i.e. at its middle level, that is
sometimes referred to as Holland's plane or Holland' equator. These cover the same area
as Holland's types, and therefore Holland's types can easily be calculated from eight
spherical interest types. This makes the spherical model of vocational interests more
encompassing and more precise than Holland's. Unlike the case of Holland's model,
validation studies so far have tended to produce relatively uniform and confirming results
(Hedrih 2008; Long et al. 2005; Maria & Darcy 2005; Šverko 2008; Tracey 2002; Tracey
& Rounds 1996; Tracey, Watanabe, & Schneider 1997).
Considering the relationship between the hexagonal and the spherical model, as both
are topics of the current study, it should be said that although coming from different
authors, these are not two competing models of vocational interests, but rather two
models of different width describing the same latent space. Holland’s hexagonal model is
included in the spherical model and it covers the equatorial plane of the spherical model.
The difference is that the hexagonal model partitions this plane into six types, while the
authors of the spherical model prefer the partition of this plane into 8 interest types,
which they call the Basic interest types. It should be noted that three of these types are
identical between the hexagonal model and the Basic interest types of the spherical
model, although they have different names. These three equivalent types are Realistic (R)
/ Mechanical, Investigative (I) / Nature-outdoors and Artistic (A). Given the fact that this
partition into types is arbitrary and the product of convenience as demonstrated by Tracey
& Rounds (Tracey & Rounds 1995), rather than a reflection of naturally existing categories,
the two partitions of the vocational interest equator, i.e. the basic interest plane, can be
considered equivalent. Also, comparisons of the fit of the data to the RIASEC hexagon and
to Tracey’s basic interest types octagon typically yield similar levels of fit to the data of
both models (e.g. Hedrih 2008).
Research studies conducted in the region of South-East Europe (Croatia, Serbia,
Bulgaria) so far have confirmed both the validity of the hexagonal and the spherical
models and that their structures are almost identical, especially between Serbia and
Croatia (Hedrih 2008; Hedrih, Stošić, Simić, & Ilieva 2016; Šverko 2008b). On the other
hand, review of the literature yielded no data on the functioning of these theoretical
models in the Republic of Macedonia, or of Macedonian versions of these instruments, so
the results of this study would be of particular use to practitioners and researchers
working in Macedonia in the areas that include assessment of vocational interests and
career counselling in general.
The goal of the current paper was to explore the construct validity of the spherical and
the hexagonal models of vocational interests by exploring the extent to which these
models fit the data obtained on samples of Macedonian and Croatian students.
SPHERICAL MODEL OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS

UPPER HEMISPHERE
Fig. 1 Spherical model of vocational interests – upper hemisphere, horizontal cross-section at

the level of the Holland equatorial plane. Vocational interest types at the equator are
presented outside the circle. Their position on the spherical model roughly corresponds
to the intersection between their rectangle and the circle. Inside the circle are upper
prestige vocational interests. Their positions inside the sphere approximately
correspond to their positions in the model. Created according to: Tracey 2002.
SPHERICAL MODEL OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS

LOWER HEMISPHERE
Fig. 2 Spherical model of vocational interests – lower hemisphere, horizontal cross-section at

the level of the Holland equatorial plane. Vocational interest types at the equator are
presented outside the circle. Their position on the spherical model roughly corresponds
to the intersection between their rectangle and the circle. Inside the circle are lower
prestige vocational interests. Their positions inside the sphere approximately
correspond to their positions in the model. Created according to: Tracey 2002.
2. METHODS
2.1. Sample of participants
The sample consisted of 1367 university students of various faculties in the Republic of
Macedonia and the Republic of Croatia. Of this number 737 (77.3% female, 22.7% male)
participants were from the Republic of Macedonia and 630 (59.4% female, 40.6% male)
from Croatia. Average age of the participants in the Macedonian part of the sample was
around 21.2 years, and in the Croatian part of the sample was 23.6 years. The age of
participants ranged between 19 and 40, with most of the participants between 20 and 22 in
the Macedonian part of the sample, and 22 and 24 in the Croatian part of the sample.
According to their study program, participants from the Croatian part of the sample are
preparing to become psychologists (15.1%), recreation workers and sport trainers (11.1%),
economists (10.1%), mechanical engineers (9.0%), architects (5.7%), art historians (5.2%),
philologists (4.7%), wood technology engineers (4.4%), medical doctors (4.3%), textile
technology engineers (4.1%), rehabilitation counselors (3.9%), electrical and electronic
engineers (3.6%), forestry engineers (3.6%), computer programmers (2.0%), civil engineers
(1.6%), lawyers (6.1%), mathematicians (1.6%), and art teachers (1.3%). The sample also
included students preparing for various other professions with smaller frequencies. The
Macedonian part of the sample consisted of students preparing to become social workers
(16,7%), psychologists (16,0%), defectologists (8,9%), educationalists/pedagogues (8,3%),
economists, bankers, managers and marketing managers (8,2%), foreign language
philologists (8,2%), molecular biologists, biologists, biochemists, physicists, mathematicians,
mathematical physicists, applied physicists (8%), geography teachers (3,6%), music
theorists, solo singers and other professions in the area of music (3,5%), software engineers
(2,7%), defense analysts (2,4%) and various other professions with smaller frequencies
(graphic, interior, fashion, designers, dentists, translators, internet and mobile technology
engineers, etc.).
2.2. Instruments
For collecting data on vocational interests, the Croatian and Macedonian versions of the
Personal Globe Inventory were used (PGI, Tracey 2002; Croatian version – Šverko 2008).
The Macedonian version of PGI was created by the authors of the current study, through the
process of backtranslation. In the process, two items from the original were replaced, as
vocations mentioned in them are generally not familiar in Macedonia. The replacements
used were the same ones as in the Croatian version. “Ride attendant” was replaced with
“taxi driver” and “personal shopper” was replaced with “personal caregiver”.
The PGI inventory of vocational interests consists of 324 items representing various
measures of vocational interests proposed by the model. The first 108 items represent
various activities. The participant is required to answer questions about each item – to
assess his own preference for the activity described in the item and to also assess his own
competencies for conducting the described activity. The participant gives both responses by
using a seven-point scale (1-Strongly dislike, unable to do to 7-Strongly like, Very
competent). The other 108 items represent various occupations, and the participant is
required to specify their preferences for each of them, also by using a seven-point scale (1-
Strongly dislike, 7-Strongly like). For example, item number 2, indicator of the Managing
type, asks the participant to what extent he/she would like to “Manage the running of a
hotel”. For this item, the participant is to specify how much he/she likes that activity, and
then how competent for this activity he/she finds him/herself to be. In the third part of PGI,
item 42 indicator of the same type asks the participant to how much he/she would like to be
a “Hotel manager”.
As a result, PGI delivers measures of six of Holland’s types of vocational interests
and 18 types of vocational interests proposed by Tracey’s spherical model. It can also
provide other measures based on alternative typologies of vocational interests, and of the
three dimensions, but these were not used in the current study. Types of vocational
interests measured by PGI are listed in table 1.
2.3. Data collection procedure

In both countries, students were asked to complete PGI during their regular classes.
This was done in cooperation with the teachers and the faculty management. While the
students filled in the PGI, at least one member of the research team was present, along
with the professor or the assistant during whose class the data collection was conducted.
The data collection procedure was anonymous, in the sense that no identifying data was
required from the participants. On the other hand, as a form of incentive for participation,
participants were offered feedback on their results, but to receive it they needed to enter
their email address and name, thus forfeiting anonymity.
2.4. Analyses
Similarities between models and data was tested by using the randomization test of
hypothetical orders, Myors's test, and multidimensional scaling. Correspondence between
the theoretical model and data was also tested using principal component analyses.
Randomization p value is the level of statistical significance of the fit of model to the
data, as it is used to test the null hypothesis that random permutation of rows and
columns of the tested intercorrelation matrix fit the model as well as the empirically
obtained intercorrelation matrix. For this reason, randomization p value smaller than .05
is interpreted as a confirmation that the tested theoretical model fits the data better than
chance. The Correspondence Index (CI) is a descriptive measure of fit between the tested
model and data ranging from -1 (no predictions were confirmed) to 1 (all predictions
were confirmed). It is calculated by subtracting the proportion of the total number of
predictions based on the tested model that were not confirmed, from the proportion of the
total number of predictions based on the tested model that were confirmed. Both of these
statistics were calculated using the RANDALL software package (Tracey 1997).
Myors’s test calculates Spearman correlation coefficients between intercorrelations of
types and ranks of expected correlation sizes according to theoretical models and thus
higher values indicate a higher level of similarity between the tested model and data.
Minimum percentage of variance explained for the RIASEC model was read from the
table in the paper describing the method (Myors 1996), based on the obtained Spearman
correlation. As these concrete values were not provided for the spherical model, they
were calculated by the authors by extrapolating the method proposed by Myors to the 18-
type model. Spearman correlation between expected and obtained correlations sizes
between the 18 types, and the value of a correlation coefficient statistically significant on
the .05 level given the number of comparisons for the 18-type model were both converted
to Fisher’s z. The second Fisher’s z value was then subtracted from the first one. The
result was converted back to a correlation coefficient, and squared, thus obtaining the
minimum proportion of variance explained by the model value.
Fit of the theoretical model to the data by using multidimensional scaling was
assessed by using the normalized raw stress coefficient and the stress-1 coefficient. Both
of these coefficients represent discrepancy between the data and the model, so that larger
numbers represent larger levels of discrepancy, while values closer to zero indicate a
greater fit of model to the data. The procedure of multidimensional scaling with fixed
coordinates was used by supplying the final coordinate matrices corresponding to
theoretical positions of types according to the tested model. For the RIASEC types,
coordinates were organized so as to form a hexagon in two dimensions, while for the
spherical model, coordinates provided formed an 18-point sphere-like body in three-
dimensional space. The number of dimensions of the final spatial solution was set to two
for the RIASEC model and to three when the spherical model was tested. Coordinate
matrices used for fixing final coordinates in these analyses are given in table 1.
Table 1 List of types of the spherical and the hexagonal models with their coordinates
used in the process of multidimensional scaling with fixed coordinates.
Coordinates based on their theoretical positions.
Tracey’s spherical model Holland’s hexagonal model
Dimensions → People- Ideas- Prestige Dimensions → People- Ideas-
things Data Things Data
Social Facilitating -.383 .924 .000 R - Realistic -4.00 .00
Managing -.924 .383 .000 I - Investigative -2.00 3.40
Business Detail -.924 -.383 .000 A - Artistic 2.00 3.40
Data Processing -.383 -.924 .000 S – Social 4.00 .00
Mechanical .383 -.924 .000 E - Enterprising 2.00 -3.40
Nature/Outdoors .924 -.383 .000 C - Conventional -2.00 -3.40
Artistic .924 .383 .000
Helping .383 .924 .000
Social Sciences .522 .522 .710
Influence .000 .000 1.000
Business Systems -.522 -.522 .710
Financial Analysis -.522 .522 .710
Science .522 -.522 .710
Quality Control -.522 -.522 -.710
Manual Work .000 .000 -1.000
Personal Services .522 .522 -.710
Construction/Repair .522 -.522 -.710
Basic Services -.522 .522 -.710
Tucker’s coefficients of congruence were used to assess the similarity of component

structures obtained on the two samples. These were calculated using a custom created
script for calculating these statistics. It is calculated by dividing the sum of products of
corresponding loadings with the square root of product of sums of squared loadings from
the two factor loading matrices. It ranges from -1 to 1, with the absolute value of .80
being considered a minimum threshold for factor similarity (Fulgosi 1988), absolute
values between .85 and .94 indicating fair level of factor similarity, and values above .95
indicating the factors are virtually identical (Lorenzo-Seva & ten Berge 2006).
According to the theory, apart from the three fundamental dimensions underlying the
spherical model or two underlying the hexagonal model, there also exists a general factor
at the base of the vocational interest types. The meaning of this factor is not substantial,
i.e. it is not a dimension of vocational interests itself, but it masks the circular and
spherical structures of the other factors/components if factor rotation is applied to the
obtained factor solution. For this reason, principal component analyses were conducted
without rotation, in order to prevent the saturation of the fundamental dimensions with
variance which does not represent the substance of vocational interests, as suggested by
Tracey (2000).
3. RESULTS
3.1. Fit of the data to the spherical and hexagonal models
Fit of the hexagonal and the spherical model to the data was tested by using
multidimensional scaling with fixed coordinates, a randomization test of hypothetical orders,
and Myors’s test. The obtained results are shown in tables 2 and 3. Apart from the country
samples as a whole, analyses were conducted on male and female subsamples separately and
their values are presented in the brackets below the results obtained on country samples
Table 2 Fit of the propositions of the spherical model to the empirical structure
of the data: randomization test of hypothetical orders, Myors’s test,
and multidimensional scaling.
Macedonia Croatia
Test Parameter
(Male/Female) (Male/Female)
.06 .05
Normalized raw Stress
MDS with fixed (.09/.14) (.09/.13)
coordinates .25 .23
Stress-1
(.30/.37) (.31/.35)
Randomization .001 .001
Randomization test of p value - significance (.001/.001) (.001/.001)
hypothetical orders .55 .59
Correspondence coefficient (CI)
(.55/.53) (.58/.62)
.65 .69
Correlation coefficient
(.65/.63) (.68/.72)
Myors’s test
Min. % of variance explained 32% 38%
by the model (32%/30%) (36%/42%)
Concordance of Spearman correlation coefficient
.945
correlation matrices (Croatia-Macedonia)
Table 3 Fit of the propositions of the Holland’s hexagonal model to the empirical
structure of the data: randomization test of hypothetical orders, Myors’s test,
and multidimensional scaling.
Macedonia Croatia
Test Parameter
(Male/Female) (Male/Female)
.04 .04
Normalized raw Stress
MDS with fixed (.04/.05) (.05/.06)
coordinates .19 .21
Stress-1
(.19/.22) (.23/.24)
Randomization .017 .017
Randomization test p value - significance (.017/.017) (.017/.017)
of hypothetical orders .96 .89
Correspondence coefficient (CI)
(.92/.89) (.72/.92)
.91 .86
Correlation coefficient
(.88/.86) (.74/.88)
Myors’s test
Min. % of variance explained 60% 45%
by the model (50%/45%) (20%/50%)
Concordance of Spearman correlation coefficient
.959
correlation matrices (Croatia-Macedonia)
As for Tracey’s spherical model, the results show that empirical data in both samples
fits the propositions of the tested model better than chance – both the randomization test
of hypothetical orders and Myors’s test are statistically significant on both samples. Other
data also point to the conclusion that the model explains a substantial and similar percent
of variance of relations between types on both samples. Indicators of fit of the data from
the Macedonian sample to the model are numerically lower than on the Croatian sample,
but this difference is small. When the results of these tests on subsamples by gender are
considered, we can see that results for the two genders are also similar, the exception
being the results of MDS which shows much higher discrepancy of the gender
subsamples than of the integrated samples by country.
Considering the hexagonal model, results show that data fits the model better than
chance and also indicate a substantial percentage of the data variance being explained by
the model. Unlike the case of the spherical model, fit indicators are numerically somewhat
higher on the Macedonian sample in this case. However, a randomization test of differences
in fit of the two samples to the data showed that the difference in fit is not statistically
significant. This conclusion is also supported by the fact that there is a high similarity between
vocational type measures intercorrelation matrices on the two samples. Considering the results
on subsamples by gender it can be seen that the results of the two genders are similar on the
Macedonian sample, but that there is a noticeable difference in fit on the Croatian sample,
with the data from the male subsample showing a much poorer fit to the model.
3.2. Fundamental dimensions of vocational interests

Results of the parallel analysis showed that there are four raw data factors that have
higher eigenvalues than random data factors created in this procedure when the 18 Tracey’s
types are analyzed. The same procedure shows that there are three such factors when the six
Holland’s types are considered. The results of the principal component analysis show that in
both samples the extracted factors explain substantial percentages of variance of both
Tracey’s and Holland’s types, with the percentage of explained variance of Tracey’s types
being somewhat higher in the Croatian sample (tables 4 and 5).
Saturations and correlations with the theoretical dimensions indicate that there is a
general factor underlying the structures of both Tracey’s and Holland’s types, and on which
all interest scales have high saturations, while other factors generally correspond to Rounds
and Tracey’s dimensions and the dimensions of Prestige (Table 4 and 5). Tucker’s
coefficients of congruence indicated that the structure of dimensions is equal in both the
Macedonian and Croatian samples, regardless of whether Tracey’s or Holland’s types are
considered.
Table 4 Unrotated factor structure of Tracey’s types of vocational interests: factor loadings,
percentage of variance explained, factor similarities and correlations with
theoretical dimensions
Macedonian sample Croatian sample
F1 F2 F3 F4 F1 F2 F3 F4
Social Facilitating 0.69 0.33 0.36 -0.26 0.56 0.47 -0.48 -0.28
Managing 0.66 -0.20 0.54 -0.17 0.66 -0.12 -0.59 -0.21
Business Detail 0.56 -0.40 0.57 0.09 0.68 -0.43 -0.47 0.10
Data Processing 0.61 -0.43 -0.15 0.22 0.64 -0.50 0.20 0.26
Mechanical 0.72 -0.35 -0.40 0.14 0.67 -0.45 0.44 0.14
Nature/Outdoors 0.64 0.31 -0.43 0.30 0.46 0.48 0.47 0.33
Artistic 0.49 0.49 -0.25 0.15 0.20 0.66 0.25 0.17
Helping 0.52 0.68 0.26 -0.04 0.31 0.83 -0.13 -0.03
Social Sciences 0.52 0.64 0.16 0.11 0.32 0.77 -0.10 0.11
Influence 0.77 0.21 0.16 0.34 0.63 0.42 -0.15 0.43
Business Systems 0.71 -0.40 0.34 0.22 0.76 -0.38 -0.34 0.23
Quality Control 0.81 -0.37 -0.05 -0.12 0.81 -0.34 0.24 -0.20
Manual Work 0.64 -0.35 -0.41 -0.37 0.65 -0.19 0.47 -0.42
Personal Service 0.60 0.47 -0.03 -0.38 0.51 0.60 0.04 -0.38
Financial Analysis 0.44 -0.31 0.45 0.21 0.67 -0.38 -0.48 0.21
Science 0.64 0.24 -0.38 0.43 0.54 0.41 0.29 0.50
Construction/Repair 0.63 -0.41 -0.47 -0.24 0.62 -0.33 0.55 -0.25
Basic Service 0.73 0.19 -0.09 -0.49 0.61 0.37 0.04 -0.54
% variance explained 41.0 16.0 11.9 7.10 35.2 23.4 13.10 9.00
total 76.1 80.7
CC .98 .97 -.98 1.00 / / / /
People-things -.06 .79 .41 -.31 -.20 .82 -.40 -.27
Ideas-data -.03 .63 -.68 .20 -.20 .67 .63 .20
Sociability -.04 .35 .80 -.41 -.09 .44 -.78 -.39
Non-conformism -.05 .85 -.39 .03 -.25 .88 .30 .04
Dimension 1 .00 -.22 .87 -.34 .09 -.20 -.87 -.36
Dimension 2 -.06 .92 -.03 -.14 -.25 .93 -.03 -.12
Prestige .26 .28 .51 .73 .10 .33 -.52 .76
Note. Correlations and saturations higher than .40 are given in bold. CC – Tucker's coefficients of
congruence between matching factors from the two samples.
Table 5 Unrotated factor structure of Holland’s types of vocational interests: factor

loadings, percentage of variance explained, factor similarities and correlations
with theoretical dimensions.
F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3
R .71 -.49 -.37 .53 .72 -.32
I .75 .24 -.46 .71 -.26 -.50
A .64 .55 -.30 .56 -.61 -.34
S .67 .48 .45 .63 -.56 .41
E .70 -.10 .63 .59 .13 .75
C .67 -.65 .08 .52 .79 .03
% variance explained 47.9 21.0 17.4 35.4 31.9 19.9
total 86.3 87.2
CC 1.00 -.99 .99 / / /
People-things -.01 .85 .52 .04 -.89 .45
Ideas-data .12 .67 -.69 .17 -.68 -.69
Sociability -.08 .38 .91 -.06 -.50 .86
Non-conformism .10 .90 -.35 .15 -.92 -.33
Dimension 1 -.12 -.24 .94 -.15 .17 .96
Dimension 2 .06 .98 .05 .11 -.98 .05
Prestige .28 .15 .20 .23 -.21 .17
Note. Correlations and saturations higher than .40 are given in bold. CC – Tucker's
coefficients of congruence between matching factors from the two samples
When the results of the principal component analyses on subsamples by gender are
considered, it can be seen that factor structures of gender subsamples are similar on the
Macedonian sample, but that there is much smaller similarity between extracted factors on
the gender subsamples in the Croatian sample. This observation stands for both the
spherical and the RIASEC model. On the other hand, inspection of the structure of
saturations shows that types opposing saturations are all in accordance with the theoretical
models, meaning that types with the strongest saturations of opposite signs are always those
on opposing sides of the theoretical models, both RIASEC and the spherical one. Relying to
Fulgosi’s (Fulgosi 1988) criteria of factor equivalence (CCmin =.80), in the Croatian
samples only the third factor showed gender invariance (CC =.666). However, the distortion
of saturations was obviously not too strong, since the third factors extracted from the two
national samples still showed the equivalence (CC =.871; Table 6).
Table 6 Unrotated factor structure of Tracey’s types of vocational interests: factor loadings,
percentage of variance explained, factor similarities on gender subsamples and
correlations with theoretical dimensions of vocational interests.
(Male/Female loadings) (Male/Female loadings)
F1 F2 F3 F4 F1 F2 F3 F4
Social Facilitating .78/.71 -.11/.06 .36/.46 -.21/-.20 .70/.64 .13/-.06 .33/.61 -.45/-.14
Managing .68/.64 -.45/-.47 .32/.37 -.17/.13 .66/.63 -.36/-.52 .43/.39 -.32/-.15
Business Detail .67/.52 -.57/-.70 .19/.24 .15/.09 .64/.62 -.54/-.71 .41/.06 .05/.05
Data Processing .63/.61 -.25/-.27 -.35/-.35 .43/.15 .56/.71 -.46/-.26 -.18/-.37 .42/.23
Mechanical .73/.74 -.03/-.04 -.53/-.47 .24/.12 .65/.74 -.33/.05 -.47/-.51 .34/.08
Nature/Outdoors .65/.64 .48/.48 -.15/.-.22 .35/.29 .53/.50 .56/.56 -.15/-.34 .36/.26
Artistic .50/.52 .49/.51 .07/-.04 .28/.15 .27/.33 .68/.61 .07/-.11 .21/.13
Helping .61/.60 .38/.39 .54/.51 -.08/.04 .52/.42 .71/.50 .13/.56 -.12/.18
Social Sciences .50/.60 .46/.39 .58/.36 -.12/.21 .54/.38 .65/.49 .17/.49 .02/.35
Influence .75/.78 .22/.02 .42/.15 .18/.38 .72/.64 .35/.08 .29/.20 .31/.55
Business Systems .71/.70 -.53/-.53 .14/.03 .17/.22 .73/.71 -.49/-.58 .30/.02 .20/.19
Quality Control .87/.82 -.20/-.28 -.15/-.16 -.04/-.18 .80/.84 -.34/.-08 -.30/.-18 -.06/.-28
Manual Work .64/.70 .00/.02 -.56/-.36 -.31/-.45 .67/.67 -.10/.25 -.53/-.24 -.29/.51
Personal Service .72/.63 .29/.38 -.08/.22 -.41/-.33 .69/.59 .36/.45 -.15/.26 -.39/.32
Financial Analysis .62/.41 -.60/-.51 .24/.16 .13/.21 .61/.61 -.49/-.66 .48/.07 .11/.17
Science .60/.65 .58/.32 -.10/-.28 .31/.42 .63/.56 .42/.36 -.03/-.28 .50/.48
Construction/Repair .69/.68 .09/-.06 -.59/-.50 -.24/-.30 .63/.67 -.23/.25 -.62/.-39 -.11/-.35
Basic Service .79/.72 .07/.22 -.17/.10 -.43/.48 .72/.62 .19/.28 -.12/.23 -.47/-.51
% variance explained 46.25 / 14.35 / 12.74 / 6.89 / 40.56 / 19.90 / 10.11 / 9.28 /
43.03 13.90 9.89 7.40 37.96 18.56 11.61 9.90
CC - genders* .985 -.960 .963 .975 .993 .881 .666 .807
(1-1) (2-2) (3-3) (4-4) (1-1) (2-2) (3-3) (4-4)
CC -countries** Males Males Males Males Females Females Females Females
.995 .916 .871 .942 .985 -.960 .963 .975
(1-1) (2-2) (3-3) (4-4) (1-1) (2-2) (3-3) (4-4)
People - Things -.06/-.02 .29/-.45 .78/.77 -.46/-.24 -.10/-.15 .69/.39 .42/.84 -.53/-.14
Ideas – Data -.05/.01 .90/-.89 -.21/-.29 .24/.19 -.13/-.11 .84/.89 -.34/-.29 .29/.18
Sociability -.02/-.01 -.25/.21 .78/.87 -.52/-.33 -.02/-.05 .15/-.27 .64/.91 -.72/-24
Non-conformism -.07/-.01 .91/-.93 .17/.04 .00/.07 -.14/-.16 .95/.93 -.09/.05 .01/.11
Dimension 1 .02/-.01 -.67/.69 .55/.61 -.43/-.28 .08/.05 -.50/-71 .58/.62 -.59/-.23
Dimension 2 -.08/-.01 .71/-.82 .53/.40 -.25/-.07 -.13/-.18 .91/.81 .15/.44 -.26/.01
Prestige .08/.35 .07/.19 .81/.32 .49/.81 .14/.14 .25/.-27 .74/.26 .58/.90
Note. Correlations and saturations higher than .40 are given in bold.
When double numbers are presented, the first is from the male subsample and the second from the
female subsample.
* CC - genders – are Tucker’s coefficients of congruence between best matching factors from the two
gender subsamples. The numbers in brackets within each cell represent the best matching factors, where
the left one is from the male subsample and the right one from the female subsample. For example (1-1)
means that factor number one from the male subsample is best matched by factor number one from the
female subsample
** CC -countries – are the Tucker’s coefficients of congruence between best matching factors from the
same gender subsamples from the two countries. Factor structures of subsamples of the same gender but
from the two countries are compared. The numbers in brackets within each cell represent the best
matching factor numbers, whereas the left number is from the Macedonian subsample and the right
number is from the Croatian subsample.
Table 7 Unrotated factor structure of Holland’s types of vocational interests: factor

loadings, percentage of variance explained, factor similarities on gender
subsamples and correlations with theoretical dimensions of vocational interests.
(Male/Female loadings) (Male/Female loadings)
F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3
R .75/.76 -.28/.10 -.51/-.52 .62/.80 .57/-.08 .43/-.50
I .75/.74 .39/-.49 -.27/-.21 .72/.62 -.39/.63 .37/-.14
A .63/.65 .65/.-60 -.09/.05 .51/.48 -.68/.74 .23/.15
S .73/.73 .19/-.05 .57/.59 .73/.57 -.44/.04 -.39/.75
E .69/.71 -.34/.46 .56/.42 .63/.59 .28/-.60 -.68/.42
C .75/.68 -.53/.58 -.21/-.31 .57/.76 .74/.-45 .10/-.34
% variance explained 51.59 / 17.94 / 17.11 / 40.22 / 29.24 / 16.57 /
50.49 19.48 15.62 41.54 25.31 19.11
total 86.65 / 86.02 /
85.59 85.97
CC - genders* .999 -.966 .973 .978 -.806 -.786
(1-1) (2-2) (3-3) (1-1) (2-2) (3-3)
CC -countries** Males Males Males Females Females Females
.995 -.957 -.953 .987 -.980 .985
(1-1) (2-2) (3-3) (1-1) (2-2) (3-3)
People - Things -.09/.02 .48/-.34 .86/.93 -.00/-.18 -.80/.17 -.59/.96
Ideas – Data .09/.13 .87/-.95 -.42/-.15 .14/.04 -.80/.98 .56/-.01
Sociability -.13/.08 -.07/.35 .98/.91 -.09/-.18 -.30/-.52 -.94/.82
Non-conformism .04/.12 .97/-.94 .02/.22 .11/-.03 -.96/.92 .19/.34
Dimension 1 -.12/.12 -.57/.80 .78/.54 -.14/-.11 .39/-.89 -.89/.40
Dimension 2 -.02/.08 .86/-.78 .48/.59 .06/-.11 -.97/.70 -.18/.69
Prestige .13/.35 .20/.10 .38/.05 .25/.18 -.20/-.15 -.06/07
Note. Correlations and saturations higher than .40 are given in bold.
When double numbers are presented, the first is from the male subsample and the second from the
female subsample, except for the last row.
* CC - genders – are Tucker’s coefficients of congruence between best matching factors from the
two gender subsamples. The numbers in brackets within each cell represent the best matching
factors, where the left one is from the male subsample and the right one from the female
subsample. For example (1-1) means that factor number one from the male subsample is best
matched by factor number one from the female subsample
** CC -countries – are the Tucker’s coefficients of congruence between best matching factors
from the same gender subsamples from the two countries. Factor structures of subsamples of the
same gender but from the two countries are compared. The numbers in brackets within each cell
represent the best matching factor numbers, whereas the left number is from the Macedonian
subsample and the right number is from the Croatian subsample.
4. DISCUSSION
If the obtained results are compared to the ones obtained in previous studies, it can be
concluded that this study falls in the group of studies confirming both the hexagonal and
the spherical model of vocational interests. The obtained measures of fit of the model to
the data are in line with those obtained on US samples (Tracey 2002). Apart from that,
their numerical values are very similar.
It can also be noted that the levels of concordance with the model are much higher
when only the space of two Prediger’s dimensions is considered, i.e. the RIASEC model,
than when all three dimensions are taken into account, i.e. when the spherical model is
considered. The total level of discrepancy is higher when both the lower and upper
prestige types are included than in the case when only the middle level or the level of
Holland’s types is considered. This is especially pronounced on the Macedonian sample
where the relations between types of the hexagonal model, two-dimensional (CIMc_hex
= .96) fit the data numerically better than both on the current Croatian sample (CICr_hex
= .89) and Tracey’s US samples, while at the same time the level of fit of the spherical
model to the data is somewhat lower in the Macedonian sample than in the current
Croatian and the US samples (CIMc_spher = .55; CICr_spher = .59).
Stress decomposition tables obtained in the procedures of multidimensional scaling,
which could not be included in this paper due to space limitations, show that contributions
of upper and lower Prestige types to the total Stress coefficients are much higher than
contributions of the middle Prestige types. A probable explanation for these results could be
that they are due to the differences in the cultural and economic systems of both Macedonia
and Croatia and the US, where the spherical model originated.
Also, the study confirms the theoretical fundamental structure of vocational interests.
In both samples, and also on the gender subsamples, the three-dimensional structure of
Tracey’s model and the two-dimensional structure of Holland’s model were obtained,
both preceded by a general factor. In accordance with theoretical expectations, the first
extracted factor is a general factor on which all types of vocational interests have high
projections, while the other two dimensions are the substantial dimensions of vocational
interests. Similar results were obtained in almost all of the previous studies, although the
meaning of the general factor has not yet been securely established, given that various
authors give different explanations for its existence (e.g. Darcy & Tracey 2003; Hedrih
2006; Prediger 1982; Rounds & Tracey 1993; Šverko 2008a; Tracey & Robbins 2006). It
can be noted that a somewhat smaller variability of the general factor is obtained in the
Croatian sample (tables 3 and 4).
Substantial fundamental dimensions of vocational interests are identical in both
samples, regardless of the model. In both samples the two dimensions extracted from
Tracey’s and Holland’s types correspond to Rounds and Tracey’s rotation of Prediger’s
dimensions (Dimensions 1 and Dimensions 2 created by rotating Prediger’s dimensions
by 60 degrees), while there was a third dimension of Prestige extracted from Tracey’s
types (tables 3 and 4). Dimensions obtained in Macedonian and Croatian samples are
practically identical and this is confirmed by Tuckers’ coefficients of congruence which
are all substantially higher than the critical value of .80 (Fulgosi 1988), and almost reach
the theoretical maximum value of 1.00.
Considering the results obtained on the gender subsamples, it can be noted that
indicators of fit tend to be somewhat lower when MDS is used on subsamples than on the
integral country samples. This may be due to variance of vocational interests being
restricted in gender subsamples given the well-known gender differences in vocational
interests (e.g. Su, Rounds, & Armstrong 2009), thus taking away some of the variance
included in the model and creating space for various sources of error variance to become
larger proportions of the total. Another peculiarity that can be noted with gender
subsamples is discrepancies between male and female factor structures on the Croatian
sample. Visual inspection of saturations as well as Tucker’s coefficients of congruence
show factors 2 and 3 of RIASEC and factors 3 and 4 of the spherical model to have
somewhat different patterns of saturation on the two gender subsamples. On the other hand,
inspecting saturation by types, it can be noted that in both of these gender subsamples
saturations follow the theoretical propositions – highest saturations with opposite signs are
always those on the opposite sides of the theoretical models. This points to the probable
explanation for this - due to the exploratory nature of the principal component analysis, and
the existing gender differences in expression of certain types of interests, the two PCA
procedures produced factors of differing orientations, but still describing the same latent
space. As all factor/axes orientations defining the same latent space are equal, this would
result in factors assessed as unequal when using saturation-based comparison methods (like
Tucker’s coefficients), but the structure of the source data being assessed as similar by
methods based on correlation structure comparison, such as the methods used for assessing
the fit of the vocational interest models to the data. This explanation is supported by the fact
that structure of correlations on both these subgroups indeed fit the theoretical models well
enough, as can be seen from tables 3 and 4.
When the results obtained in this study are considered in the broader context of studies
of the validity of Holland's and Tracey's models of vocational interests, an interesting
tendency can be detected – studies of validity of Holland's model since its conception and
up to the end of the 20th century mainly tended to yield results that varied from country to
country. A high level of fit was obtained in some countries, while results in other countries
showed substantial discrepancies between data and the model, and yet in other countries
results completely invalidated the propositions of Holland's model on the structure of
relations between vocational interests (Elosua 2007; Farh, Leong & Law 1998; Leong et al.
1998; Long & Tracey 2006; Rounds & Tracey 1996; Ryan, Tracey & Rounds 1996; Tak
2004). Previous studies mainly used instruments for studying vocational interests based on
Holland's theory. On the other hand, studies of the validity of the spherical model have so
far produced results confirming the validity of the model, but also of Holland's model tested
by using RIASEC measures obtained by using PGI. Apart from differences in the model, it
should be noted that most of the studies of validity of Holland's model were conducted in
the second half of the 20th century, while studies of validity of the spherical model have all
been conducted in the last two decades. If this is taken into account when considering the
origin of the obtained differences, it should be acknowledged than one possible reason lies
surely with the difference in the model and instruments used to measure it. Holland's model
does not include prestige as a dimension, and for this reason, the measures provided by
instruments based on it are not balanced for prestige. The spherical model includes this
dimension, and for this reason measures of Holland's types obtained by using PGI are
obtained strictly by using items describing activities and vocations with the middle prestige
level. Therefore, RIASEC measures obtained by using PGI are balanced for prestige.
A second explanation of these differences is based on the time when the studies were
conducted – in the second part of the 20th century the world economic system contained
many more local specificities and there were much larger differences between economic
and education systems of various countries. Social changes and the development of
technology, internet and mass communication technologies before all else, created much
more uniformity among economical systems of various world countries. Near the end of the
20th century, the communist block ceased to exist. In China, although the communist
system was formally preserved, the economy started to function using a model much more
similar to the Western economy. The appearance and widespread use of Internet completely
redefined possibilities for communications across the globe and contributed greatly to the
changes in the properties of the world economy. There is an ongoing process of
international synchronization of education systems throughout the world, the dominance of
international companies is ever more pronounced, and there is a larger number of smaller
companies that have almost global reach than was ever the case. All these events
contributed to the appearance of the phenomenon known as globalization and this
phenomenon also manifests itself as a global process of uniformization of economic and
educational systems. Taking this into account, it is completely possible that what the results
of studies of validity of vocational interest models actually show is that societies have
become more uniform and more similar then they were at the time the first studies of
validity of Holland’s model were conducted. This explanation is especially supported by the
fact that studies conducted in China using Holland-based instruments used to yield varying
results, many of which negated the validity of Holland’s model on their data, while on the
other hand new studies conducted using PGI consistently yielded results confirming the
model (Long, Adams & Tracey 2005). Given this, it might be a good idea for future studies
to focus on examining to what extent the obtained differences really are the result of a better
model, and to which extent they are simply indicators of globalization at work.
Considering the relevance of these findings for psychological counseling practice,
probably the most important find of this paper is that the validity of both Holland’s and
the spherical model are supported in the population of the Republic of Macedonia. Also,
the validity of the Macedonian language version of PGI, created for this study, has been
demonstrated, thus adding a new possible tool or set of tools to the inventory of
practitioners. The similarity of the results on the Macedonian population to the results
obtained in other regional countries can be of use to practitioners working for regional or
international companies and/or regional and international markets, because they show
that equivalent instruments for measuring vocational interests can be used in various
language versions and that sufficient similarity in functioning can be expected.
It should be noted that one limitation of this study is that it was conducted on university
students, the majority of which were female. Thus, participants with higher scores on
Prestige and on the People side of the People-things dimensions were overrepresented in the
sample compared to the general population. Therefore, the generalization of the results to
the general population is limited. On the other hand, these two properties tend also to be
characteristic of the population seeking career counseling, thus making the results more
relevant for this population.
It can be concluded that the obtained results confirm the validity of both spherical and
hexagonal models of vocational interests on both Croatian and Macedonian students,
although with somewhat higher deviations from the model related to the dimension of
Prestige. The results also show the structures of relations between vocational interest types
to be very similar in the two national samples and in Macedonian gender samples, while in
Croatian gender samples, minor deviations were observed. The results support the validity
of the newly created Macedonian language version of the Personal Globe Inventory.
Acknowledgement: The paper is a part of the research done within projects 179002 of the Serbian
Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development and project 1229 supported by the
Croatian Science Foundation.
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STRUKTURA PROFESIONALNIH INTERESOVANJA

U MAKEDONIJI I HRVATSKOJ –
EVALUACIJA SFERIČNOG MODELA
Cilj ovog rada je ispitivanje konstruktne validnosti sferičnog i heksagonalnog modela
profesionalnih interesovanja. Ovo je ispitivano proverom uklapanja ova dva modela u podatke
dobijene na uzorcima studenata iz Republike Makedonije i Republike Hrvatske. Hrvatska i
makedonska verzija upitnika profesionalnih interesovanja (Personal Globe Inventory - PGI) zadata
je uzorku od 1367 studenata različitih fakulteta iz Hrvatske i Makedonije (737 studenata iz
Makedonije i 630 iz Hrvatske). Rezultati su pokazali da i sferični i heksagonalni model odgovaraju
podacima bolje od slučaja i da ovi modeli objašnjavaju supstantivni procenat varijanse mera
profesionalnih interesovanja. Ispitivanje faktorske structure dobijenih mera profesionalnih
interesovanja na ispitivanim uzorcima pokazala je da dobijena struktura generalno odgovara
teorijskim očekivanjima. Dobijene dimenzije odgovaraju latentnom prostoru koji je definisaio
Predidžer, kao i dimenziji Prestiža iz sferičnog modela.
Ključne reči: profesionalna interesovanja, sferični model, Holandov model, PGI, RIASEC.
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
https://doi.org/10.22190/FUPSPH1801037S
Review Paper
ONLINE MEDIA AS CONFLICT GENERATORS 

UDC 070:004.738.5]:327(497.11:497.13)

University of Niš, Faculty of Philosophy, Deparment of Communicology and Journalism,
Serbia
Abstract. The media have always had great influence on the construction of attitudes and
opinions of the public, thus it comes as no surprise that they constantly adjust to
contemporary tides and the ways in which the public obtains information. Thanks to the
popularity and possibilities offered by the Internet, the media were forced to converge
towards online forms of reporting. Besides this, the Internet enabled the removal of state
limits when it comes to informing, so the public can learn more easily about events from
all over the world. In this way, mass-media communication gets new outlines while
directing social tides on the global level. Although such a trend can be useful, it can also
carry certain dangers. Therefore, the new media can become a platform for international
conflicts and lead to possible interruption of good relations among states. Considering the
fact that relations between Serbia and Croatia are characterised by a now concluded war,
this paper examines the way in which the Serbian and the Croatian online media report
on the relationship between the two states from the perspective of political relations,
media presentations of each other, as well as how large the role of the modern media is in
provoking new conflicts. Using a quantitative-qualitative analysis of the content, both the
Serbian and the Croatian versions of the portal “24 hours” were analysed within the
period from April 1 to April 30, 2017.
Key words: the Internet, conflicts, Serbia, Croatia, new media, reporting.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although the war in former Yugoslavia officially ended more than 20 years ago,
many questions have remained open, especially concerning the relations between Serbia
and Croatia. Even though political leaders declaratively propagate peace and stability
within the region, the messages whose rhetoric reminds us of the 1990s can occur from
time to time. At that time, the same as today, the media had the key role in transmitting
Received July 10, 2017 / Accepted May 22, 2018

Corresponding author: Dušan Aleksić
E-mail: dusan.aleksic@filfak.ni.ac.rs

38 I. STAMENKOVIĆ, M. NIKOLIĆ, D. ALEKSIĆ
those messages. The key difference is that today we live in the age of media pluralism,
information sources are far more numerous, and technological development has
contributed to the fact that the media have become more interactive. The development of
the Internet has provided a far greater choice of content. The platform set in such a way
gives an opportunity to bridge the gap created several decades ago. However, the
question is whether this potential is used, that is, whether the contemporary media are the
generators of hatred, as was the case during the war years. The same as technology, the
media also evolve and adapt to contemporary trends (presence on social networks,
provision of interactive services, and the like). Their progress regarding form is
indisputable, but the focus of this paper is the question of content, that is, in what way
Serbia is presented in the Croatian media and vice versa.
Even after the end of the war, topics such as religion, social and state ideologies, and
sport events provoked strong reactions on both sides. When it comes to the role of the
media, it should be noted that today the number of different media is far greater than it was
20 years ago1, that the market is much more competitive, which questions the ways which
media companies use to attract as many users as they can, especially from the perspective of
journalism ethics. As we have already mentioned, the relation between Serbia and Croatia
has always been a burning issue, which leaves room for the media to reactivate the conflict
points in this relation, knowing that it would always attract an audience, a large number of
comments on web portals, and a higher reading percentage. On the other hand, this subject
can also be misused for political purposes in order to move the attention from more
important subjects. In this way, the conflict is not resolved but only transferred to a new,
virtual environment, and old rivalries are revived, in which the Other can always be marked
as the guilty party. If this is accompanied with the fact that the flow of information on the
Internet is free, new opportunities are opened for the dissemination of false information
which is accepted by the users as media content without additional checking, which can
only make these relations more complicated. In that way, young people, as active users of
social networks, become the consumers of such content, so they start to construe images
and inherit negative discourse on the basis of these media images, although they were not
even born during the conflict (Vujović & Obradović 2017).
That is why one of the aims of this paper is to examine the role of contemporary
media in provoking conflict, as well as the media representation of the “opposing” side.
1
According to Saša Mirković, the State secretary at the Ministry of Culture and Information, the number of
registered public media at the Serbian Business Registers Agency is 1,379, out of which 107 are television
media and more than 350 are radio stations. In detail: http://www.blic.rs/vesti/drustvo/u-srbiji-registrovano-
1379-medija/7pchmcb.
The number of public media is continuously on the rise, and as NUNS claims, a significant contribution to
increasing this number is given by the illegal media which are present even today. It is more important to take into
account non-transparency of the owner structure when it comes to means of informing the public, being that the
media consolidation collides with the option of the freedom of opinion and expression, that is, with public interest
and a free, critical public opinion. In detail: http://www.nuns.rs/reforma-javnog-informisanja/strategija.html.
Online Media as Conflict Generators 39
2. THE RECONSTRUCTION OF NATIONAL IDENTITIES IN TIMES OF CRISIS AND CONFLICT

During the last decades of the twentieth century in the Balkans, the issues of the nation2,
national identity3 and borders have become a point of contention among the countries from
this region. Đorđe Stojanović and Milena Pešić (2016, 37) point out that the basic approaches
to national identity in science are primordialist or essentialist, and instrumentalist and
constructivist. According to the first approach, “the feeling of community is based on the idea
of mutual origin and historical experience of the community, as well as on the shared myths,
tradition and culture”, while the second approach shows that “the national communities are
created out of interest and they are artificially maintained as long as there are pragmatic
reasons for that” (Stojanović & Pešić 2016, 37–38). Branislav Stevanović (2013, 244)
explains that the “ethnic and religious „revival‟ in the Balkan region in the last decade of the
20th century, brought about the predominance of the concept of reaffirmation of the national
cultural identity in cultural politics”. One of the preconditions for the formation of the states
was the existence of collective identities4 which found their support within the national
borders.
Slobodan Miladinović (2009, 13) emphasises that the “collective identity in a fragmented
society cannot be any different than fragmented and partialized, broken down into a large
number of subidentities marked by national, religious, territorial and social signs”. Each
identity is constructed in relation to the Other, so the very differences among Balkan countries
represented, as they represent today, important constituents of national identities. There are a
lot of elements of separation; however, as the main ones, Milan Tripković (2005, 102) states
those which come from different religions or differences in religions, from cultural-historical
differences of life in the previous national formations and from different or differently
understood and experienced external supports and helpers. Discussing the question of identity
and analysing the term itself, Branislav Stevanović (2013, 259) concludes that “there are no
„self-made identities‟, but only those which are constituted in „relation to others‟ and which
are the result of that relation”. This kind of attitude implies the importance of intercultural
communication, which has to be based on the respect of diversity. It implies the establishment
of dialogues and the exchange of cultural contents and contributes to the enrichment of
cultures which are in contact with one another. However, peoples in the Balkans needed the
Other which would be considered an enemy, and in relation to which they would emphasise
their uniqueness. The concept of “the narcissism of small differences”, which was discussed
by Sigmund Freud, can explain the cause of the conflict among Balkan countries. According
to this theorist, animosity is directed towards those who are most similar to us, because we see
ourselves in them, and that jeopardizes our uniqueness. Therefore, in order to create our own
2
Đorđe Stojanović and Milena Pešić (2016, 40) emphasise the opinion of Benedict Anderson who states that
“being a nation‟ is not related to large cultural systems which have created a certain referential framework, and
those are the religious community and the dynastic kingdom which preceded it, and out of and against which
they developed”.
3
Đorđe Stojanović and Milena Pešić (2016, 31) explain that “the nation and the national identity cannot be
reduced to an ideology or a form of politics without necessary cuts, because every complete scientific insight,
even only into these two dimensions of the problem, requires their wider observation and interpretation in the
anthropological and cultural light, and always in the socio-cultural context”.
4
The term collective identity should imply a complex system of values, beliefs, symbols, patterns of behaviour,
etc., which develops within the processes of personal and long-term crystallisation of collective experiences of
the members of one community” (Stevanović 2013, 263).
identity, it is necessary for us to find and emphasise differences (Stojković 2002, 86). A very
common opinion of the Other is based on prejudices and stereotypical representations, on the
basis of which a distorted image is created in people‟s consciousness. They can produce many
negative feelings and cause aggressive behaviours with very dangerous consequences. Dušan
Kecmanović (2002, 50) points out that people justify ethnic prejudices by a projection
mechanism, which implies that hatred towards other people is only a way to defend oneself
from the hatred they already receive from them. Considering the fact that this makes them feel
threatened, they find ways to limit, disrespect and destroy the members of other ethnical
communities. At the same time, they represent themselves as the victims of the conflict. David
Bruce MacDonald (2002, 39) explains that during the period of disintegration of Yugoslavia
this very pretending to be the victim was the central part of Serbian and Croatian propaganda,
thus legitimizing the violence which was necessary in order to create expanded homelands.
In times of crisis, as there were in the Balkans during the last decades of the 20 th
century, very often there occurred a loss of a personal identity and then, a man turns to a
group, seeking direction and safety within it. Slobodan Miladinović (2009, 17) states that,
in those times, it is “necessary to rationalize the crisis, and the easiest way to perform
rationalization is when easily-acceptable culprits for the current social problems can be
identified. The simplest way is to put the blame on a member of the group with which
there is some form of historical rivalry, and those are, most often, other ethnic or
religious groups”. The group constructs its identity in relation to the assumptions it has of
the Other. An individual accepts that identity as his/her own, while also adopting those
assumptions which enable him/her to direct their behaviour. There is mistrust towards
someone who is different, which, in fact, originates from not knowing. If we add here the
relations between the Balkan peoples which have been full of conflict, it becomes clear
why nationalism was, and still is, widespread in this region. According to Milan
Tripković, during the 1990s, there was a “politisation of ethnicity”:
“Contrary to the general trend of certain relativisation, partial blend-in or softening
and fading away of the national borders and national sovereignty, through the
integration of the national states into wider and more organised international
frameworks, the ideal of „the national state‟ experienced its absolutisation here,
primarily through a clear distinction from the immediate surroundings of the „others‟
who were experienced as centuries-old and undisputable enemies by birth”
(Tripković 2005, 104).
Very often, an individual accepts nationalistic attitudes because he/she fears that if
he/she does not do that, he/she will be unaccepted and ostracized from the group. It is in
this very fact that Slobodan Miladinović (2009, 15) sees one of the reasons why people
accept nationalistic attitudes, including also “cultural legacy” and ethnic stereotypes
which are uncritically accepted through socialization, but also the frustration due to
unsatisfied needs. Frustrations cause aggressiveness, expressed by an individual exactly
towards individuals from other groups. Dušan Kecmanović (2002, 47) also agrees with
this, and explains that when the level of aggressiveness reaches a certain point, there is no
more need for a stimulus which is usually connected with aggressive behaviour: “You
can lose your life simply because someone thinks that you have looked at him askance”.
Considering the fact that an individual automatically accepts attitudes, values and ideas
promoted by the group, he/she does not develop the need to question, so he/she is more
susceptible to manipulation. In this case, there is a possibility for him/her to be used for
achieving the aims of other individuals and interest groups.
Contemporary information-communication technologies provide access to a great
deal of information, which enables an individual to construct his/her identity by
himself/herself. On the one hand, the expansion of the new media gives him/her an
opportunity to choose what he/she reads, but, on the other hand, the lack of control of
Internet content carries with it the danger of manipulation. Plenty of untruthful data
which come from unreliable sources find their place in the online world, and the modern
man/woman becomes the victim of such content very easily. If he/she creates his/her
opinion and attitude, and therefore his/her identity, according to these, he/she can create
prejudices and stereotypical representations about others, which are suitable for the
expansion of nationalism. The collective identity of the Balkan peoples gained the
outlines of a nationalistic one a long time ago and it has become a threat to democratic
progress and multiculturalism. Branislav Stevanović offers the solution to this problem:
“Contrary to the primordialist concept which defines national culture as the expression
of the autonomous spirit of the national community, the only way for the national
cultures in the Balkans to make peace and respect each other is that the borders
between them are not treated as the lines of perpetual discord. The space of
contemporary culture is most surely not a simple expression of the unique „national
spirit‟ on a certain territory, but also the space of communication, the field in which
there is an exchange of not only the finished cultural goods, but also those places
where they are created” (Stevanović 2013, 248).
3. THE MEDIA AS THE CREATORS OF A REPRESENTATION OF THE OTHER

Fabrication of meaning represents one of the main activities of the media. The
formation of group identities is based on the images created by the producers of the media
content. The way in which the world will recognize us and the way in which we will
perceive others depend on the meaning which the media relate to certain groups. The
versions of the world which are favoured by those who hold the power in society are
channelled through the media and in that way, through the use of certain verbal and visual
entries, reach the media public who often accepts them without questioning. The
representation of reality is possible from different perspectives, but a certain perspective is
given preference because it fits into the interests of the ruling elite.5 This elite organizes all
modalities of reality representation: who speaks of it, how it is spoken of and who has the
power to represent it in a certain way (Đorđević 2009, 17). The media strategies which are
used in the process of representing one‟s identity, one‟s own group and a group of
strangers, that is, other groups, usually lead to the symbolic superiorisation of the first-
mentioned group and inferiorisation of all others which are distinguished by a multitude of
criteria – language, religion, ethnicity, etc. Starting from the 1960s, various social groups
5
The agenda setting theory explains how certain topics, after a careful selection, obtain prominent places within
the media space, be it printed or digital media. Considering the fact that certain topics, individuals, events and
social events are preferred in the media discourse, such a place is also occupied in the perceptions of citizens,
the users of media information. The foundations of this theory were set in 1922 by Walter Lippman, and it was
further developed, shaped and complemented by McCombs and Shaw.
which have formed on the basis of innate factors, as well as on acquired beliefs, have
started to fight against marginalization in the society which only values the mainstream
cultural pattern.6 Thinking about the significance of media representation, Danka Ninković-
Slavnić (2011, 16) notes that this process is inextricably linked with reality, as well as that
this relation gives sense to social phenomena and groups. The author writes:
“Representation is a process of the production of meaning which operates through two
kinds of representation systems: the first one, which organizes the world into meaningful
patterns and categories; and the second one, a system of signs used for sharing the same
categories with other members of society. Through representation, the continuous complex
world is organized by the fact that certain things, that is, in the case of humans, their traits
are selected and categorized, marked and communicated.
The awareness of the media representation of identities of different groups becomes
more and more clear and pronounced, and the struggle of these groups to become a part of
the mosaic of media images, which reflects the stronghold points of their identity, as well as
their needs, becomes fiercer and fiercer. In the process of constructing the meaning about
others, the traditional media were also joined by the new media at the end of the 20th
century. The power of the new media is empowered by technological innovations and the
creation of Web 2.0, which was the starting point of a new era in communication in which
the user of the media content becomes the creator and the active participant of media
communication. In this way, the struggle for the mastery and control of the symbolic field
expands from the traditional media to the new media and communication means whose
influence is now even greater, especially among the younger population.7 Although the
democratic capacity of the Internet is widely discussed by theorists and researchers of
public communication, it seems that technology by itself cannot awaken the public spirit of
criticism and encourage the public to discuss socially relevant topics (Papacharissi 2002, 9).
Within the virtual space of the Internet, there is a possibility for the revitalization of the
public sphere, but such a venture depends on citizens who can initiate a meaningful debate,
start and direct discussions on forums, portals and sites. Moreover, such communication is
also more and more controlled, especially when it comes to online editions of traditional
media. The rules of communication are well known, and each violation of some of those
rules results in the exclusion of a user‟s comment, which is usually under the supervision of
administrators and moderators of websites. Certain specificities of the Internet refer not
only to the content, but also to the way in which it is organized and presented on online
sites. Manovich (2015, 107) speaks of an overlap between the influences of software, the
technical code with the contents created on the basis of conventional cultural codes. The
field where they meet is labelled as „interface‟ by the author. “The interface shapes the way
in which the user of the computer understands the computer itself. It also determines the
way in which a user thinks about any media item which is obtained through the computer.
By taking away the original traits of various media, the interface imposes its own logic”.
The process of designing an interface for a portal is under the influence of the ideology of a
6
Milan Mesić states that the number of social movements with the demand to recognize different identities has
been increasing since the 1960s. The starters of these movements were, among others, national minorities,
ethnic and racial groups, old and new immigrants, feminists, homosexuals and others (Mesić 2006).
7
According to the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 59,9% of households in Serbia owns a computer,
while 55,8% has an Internet connection. See in detail: http://www.nuns.rs/info/news/20168/u-srbiji-raste-broj-
korisnika-interneta.html.
hegemonic group which controls collective consciousness. The connection between the
ideology and the new media and software was discussed by Galloway (2012, 55), whereby
he discovered that ideological constructions hide behind the seemingly neutral software
code. Thereby, he directly opposed the thesis on the liberal power of the new media, that is,
the Internet.
Considering the fact that it is difficult to speak about the ideological neutrality of media
discourse, be it in the case of the traditional or the new media, then it is advisable to
critically analyse media content in order to reveal what kind of strategies are used in
representing Others and Otherness. Among the most present media strategies which are
used for representing minority groups, Ninković-Slavnić (2011, 19) includes: strategies of
polarization, symbolic annihilations, blaming, media conformism and normalisation.
Among them, the most used is polarization, which implies that the difference which exists
between two groups is emphasised, and the similarities are minimized and removed. Ruth
Wodak (2011, 49-50) analyses media texts and recognizes strategies which stress the
positive traits of one‟s own group and the negative traits of other groups. Those are the
following strategies: the strategy of nomination (referential), the predicative strategy,
argumentative, the strategy of perspective from which the social problem is viewed and
which discovers who constructs and defines world views, and the strategy of increasing
positive and minimizing negative traits of one‟s own group. These strategies are used not
only in the media representation of minorities, but also in the representations of other
cultures, nations, and especially of neighbouring countries. The outcome of applying these
strategies can also be to provoke conflicts or to expand the existing conflicts between two
groups. The populist trend of reporting which dominates the media scene of Serbia resorts
to these strategies, using provocative and sensational textual and visual content while
representing others, and particularly those nations which are culturally, religiously and
linguistically very close. The aim of such a media approach in reporting about the peoples
in the region is to attract the public‟s attention in order to sell it an ideological story created
on the basis of the imaginary interests of its own elite. In a public, media discourse, the
opposing sides measure their strengths and struggle for supremacy in a symbolic sense, and
the media receive a very important role during periods of crisis. At those times, one can
recognise the capacities of the media in imposing a concrete attitude, preparation and
possible mobilisation of citizens against the opposing group. In modern conflicts, the media
can have a double role, they can initiate conflicts or suppress violence, that is, they can be
agitators or peace-makers (Hannu-Pekka 2009, 15; Vulić & Pavlović 2014). Whether the
media will take the role of a violence instigator or they will inhibit violence and actively
work on resolving the crisis depends on many factors, but the most important among them
is the independency of a media company from the participants in the conflict (Puddephatt
2006, 4).8 The mass propaganda induction of fear from real, but also imaginary enemies,
the feeling of vulnerability, hopelessness, psychological disorientation and collapse of the
value system were particularly noticed during the conflicts among the ex-Yugoslavian
states during the 1990s. In such a disintegrated situation within society, importance is given
8
During times of crisis, the ruling elite often misuses the media, and media tools become the most significant
tools in the hands of those in power when there is an indication of conflicts with other countries. This was
particularly noticeable in the region of former Yugoslavia in the 1990‟s when the media participated in the
psychological preparation and mobilization of citizens for future conflicts and the war.
to values, beliefs and interests which are based on the national heritage, whereby
xenophobia, mistrust, and even contempt towards other ethnic groups and nations, are
strategically strengthened. In the post-conflict period as well, the public discourse is marked
by numerous linguistic manipulations and the use of stereotypes. “The images of war and
the feeling of hostility from the past in the countries of ex-Yugoslavia are still present in the
lives of their citizens, either in the form of memory or through media images” (Stojanović-
Prelević et al. 2014, 142). Believing they are the most operative rhetorical means, Đerić
(2008, 263) thinks that stereotypes reflect the condition of society during the time of
inquiry, being that they are closely related to the political, developmental and intellectual
scene from which they originate. The modern discourse, as emphasised by the author,
should be observed as “the collective mechanism of society control”, but also as the
medium through which the meanings in the language itself are broken and changed. The
public language is important, as stated by Đerić (2008, 264), because it is assumed that it
has influence on the formation of an individual, but also on wider social presentations. The
access to the communication field and the option to control the symbolical capital, and
indirectly the mind of recipients of media messages, show that a certain social group has the
power to fabricate and impose their worldview: “The influences of the state and ideological
systems are brought into dialectic dependency on constructing and deconstructing social
problems, whereby the producers of ideological constructs, moral dilemmas, cultural
patterns, symbols of good and evil, use the agenda theory to set the style and topics of
political debates” (Jevtović & Milašinović 2016, 533).
The changes in the way culturally close groups which are in the latent conflict or
disagreement are spoken of and written about are closely related to the institutional
changes of those societies. Analysing hate speech in the Croatian media, Gordana Vilović
(2011, 68–69) concluded that there are three periods of this type of speech: the first one is
the pristine form of hate speech which is characteristic for the period between 1990 and
1997; in the second period, the second period is marked by a concern to reduce the
intensity of hate speech (1997–2000), while during the third period, starting from 2000
onwards, sanctioned hate speech in public discourse is replaced with the politically
incorrect speech about national minorities, especially about the Serbian minority, as
believed by Vilović. Although open hate speech has disappeared, the intolerant attitude
towards the Other and „the different‟ has been channeled by the political elite through the
stereotypical images about multiple minorities (e.g. homosexuals).
3. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
The subject of the research:
The traditional media have been joined by the new, interactive media which actively
participate in the process of constructing the representation of the Other. This paper
focuses on the analysis of the representation of the Other on the online news-portals in
Serbia and Croatia. More precisely, the paper investigates the way in which Serbia is
represented on the Croatian website “24sata.hr”, and also the way Croatia is reported
about on the Serbian portal “24online.info”.
The main aim of the research:
To determine to what extent and in what manner Serbia is represented on the Croatian
portal, and Croatia is represented on the Serbian portal.
Specific aims:
To determine whether religious identity is used for the purpose of polarization.
To determine whether both sides make references to historical events in order to
ignite conflicts.
To determine whether there are stereotypes and prejudices in reporting on the
Croatian and Serbian portals.
To determine what kind of visual presentation of texts is on the portals.
To determine whether the texts are ideologically oriented towards the culture of peace
or towards the provocation of conflicts.
Research method:
The paper uses a quantitative-qualitative analysis of the content of the Croatian portal
“24sata.hr”9 and the Serbian website “24online.info” 10.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

„24 sata‟ (24 hours) is the name of a daily newspaper published in both Serbia and
Croatia. Although they share the same name, these newspapers do not have the same
publisher, editorial staff, nor the same marketing approach. The Croatian edition has been
published since March 2005 by an Austrian company called Styria Medien AG, while the
publishing licence in Serbia is owned by a Swiss company Ringier AG which also owns
other popular daily newspapers and magazines in this country. In Croatia, this newspaper
is bought and costs 5 kunas, while the Serbian version can be found for free at busy
locations in Belgrade. Both countries have both printed and online editions. It should be
noted that these are popular and frequently visited websites in both countries 11.
Although they do not have the same editorial staff, their formulations are similar
regarding topics and processing. However, there are certain differences in the visual
presentation. The choice of menu items on both websites is located at the top of the page,
whereby the Serbian version offers a much larger number of sections (Belgrade, EU
news, World, Politics, Economy, Society, Culture and arts, Sports, Entertainment, Music,
Health, Lifestyle, Travel, IT/Hi-Tech) versus (Home, News, Show, Sport, Life&Style,
Sci/Tech, Viral, Video). The labels of the sections, as well as the article titles, have larger
font sizes on the Croatian website, thus they are more visible.
There are also differences in the way the most important articles selected by editors
are featured. In the Serbian edition, below the line which lists sections, there is a
rectangle which offers the selection of the most important articles. Moving the cursor to
the left or to the right offers the review of all the most important articles at that particular
moment. By scrolling vertically, new articles appear, each in a separate rectangle
(banner), of unequal size. When the bottom of the page is reached, a new set of articles
automatically opens.
In the Croatian edition, there is one main article which occupies the central position
below the sections. Below this, there is a list of banners which can be smaller or bigger,
9
http://www.24sata.hr/
10
http://www.24online.info/
11
The data taken from http://www.yumreza.info/top_lista.html
depending on their importance. When the bottom of the page is reached, articles are not
displayed automatically, and the reader has to click on the link “Load more”, in order to
open a new set of articles. However, what is common for both editions is the banner
principle. Above the titles there is a prominent image, followed by a title, and if the
banner has larger dimensions, there are a few first words from the lead of that article
below the title. The Serbian version names the author of the image below it, while in the
Croatian version, within the image, there is a comment given by the article‟s author or by
the editorial staff which is usually in the form of one to three words (“We have a
solution”, “Decisive votes”, etc.).
At the bottom of the page of the Serbian edition, there are textual links to the menu
items, as well as the links to social networks on which this medium has a profile. The
bottom of the page of the Croatian edition has a smaller format, and it contains, besides
the links to social networks, the following textual links: Mobilni 24sata, Impressum,
Pretplata, 24sata.biz, Uvjeti korištenja, Oglašavanje, RSS, Karijera u 24sata.
The very structure of the text in the Serbian edition is such that the title is written in
capital letters, below which there is a large-format image. The most important part of the
article is typed in bold, and that is always the first paragraph. It uses the inverted-pyramid
principle which implies that facts are ordered by importance from top to bottom of the
article. The statements are written in italics.
When it comes to the Croatian edition, below the title there is an excerpt from the article
which does not necessarily have to be the lead, but it can also be a part of the statement of
the article‟s subject. Images are optional. If there are any, the main image is located below
the excerpt of the article, whereby it has been established that several articles contain more
images and some articles do not contain any. The characteristic part of the Croatian edition
is that certain words or syntagms in the statements are written in bold.
4.1. Quantitative analysis
Table 1 The number of articles of the Croatian site “24sata.hr” about Serbia and the Serbian
portal “24online.info” about Croatia, in the period from April 1 to 30, 2017
Online news portals Number of articles
24 sata.hr 31
24 online.info 18
In the period from April 1 to 30, 2017, on the basis of the key words Srbija and
Hrvatska, the sites “24 sata.hr” and “24.online.info“ were analysed. It has been determined
that the Croatian portal has dedicated more articles (31) to the events and topics related to
Serbia than the Serbian portal, which, in the given period, published 18 articles related to
Croatia.
Table 2 The number of articles of the Croatian site “24sata.hr” about Serbia
organized by sections, in the period from April 1 to 30, 2017
Sections Number of articles
News 27
Sport 3
Lifestyle 1
It has been concluded that on the site “24sata.hr”, the articles about Serbia were
published in three sections: News, Sport and Lifestyle. The „News‟ section contained the
most articles, 27 of them, while three were dedicated to the topic of sports, and one article
was seen in the Lifestyle section. The analysis has shown that the Croatian portal focuses its
attention on the daily-informative political and social topics which are related to Serbia,
while very little space has been given to articles which can be labelled as soft news.
Table 3 The number of articles from the Serbian site “24online.info” about
Croatia, organized by sections in the period from April 1 to 30, 2017
Sections Number of articles
World 7
Society 5
Politics 3
EU news 1
Culture and arts 1
Economy 1
Out of 18 articles about Croatia, on the portal “24online.info”, only one was
published in the section „Culture and arts‟. The item „World‟ contained the most articles
(7), while one is placed in the EU news. Also, 9 articles were dedicated to social (5),
political (3) and economic (1) topics which are related to Croatia. It can be concluded that
the Serbian site in its reporting about Croatia, just like the Croatian site in its reporting
about Serbia, pays most of its attention to social and political events
4.2. The qualitative analysis

During the Yugoslav Wars of the nineties, religion was a key determiner of the national
identities of the belligerents. Because of this, it has remained a very sensitive topic in
intercultural communication in the region. One of the controversial elements of the relations
between Serbia and Croatia is the possible canonisation of Croatia‟s Catholic cardinal
Aloysius Stepinac, which the Vatican has to decide on. While in Croatia they believe that
he should become a saint, Serbia opposes this position due to the alleged discrediting
activities during World War II, i.e. because of his support for the Ustaše regime. The media
in Serbia frequently refer to this topic, and during the analysed period one text we found
dealt with it. The text entitled “Porfirije: The Results of the Stepinac Committee Still
Uncertain”12 is dedicated to a statement made by Porfirije, Metropolitan of Zagreb and
12
The text can be found at: http://www.24online.info/porfirije-jos-neizvestan-rezultat-rada-komisije-o-stepincu/
- published on April 15, 2017, analysed on May 4, 2017.
Ljubljana of Serbian Orthodox Church, in which he said that he hoped that the joint
Orthodox-Catholic committee would contribute to a rightful decision, because no one at
that moment knew what the Pope would decide. It was interesting that Porfirije sounded
conciliatory in his statement: “As the Patriarch said, the decision, whatever it would be,
would be obligatory for the Catholics, and we would either be satisfied or dissatisfied with
it,” where he calls the Catholics to accept the decision, regardless of the outcome.
Religious elements are frequently used for political purposes, which is illustrated by
the text “Dodik said to Komarica He Does Not Contribute to Peace and Cohabitation,” in
which the president of the Republic of Srpska Milorad Dodik responds to a statement
previously made by Franjo Komarica, the Bishop of Banja Luka, in which he claimed
that Catholics in the Republic of Srpska were endangered 13. Several times throughout the
text, Dodik emphasizes that it is bad to make such accusations on a great Christian
holiday: “Unfortunately, you do not respect one or the other Easter, which we could see
on this great day. We cannot come over such statements, and that is why I point at your
mistakes, which do not contribute to peace and cohabitation in the region, and God can
forgive you if he wants to.” Although in his letter Dodik insists on religious and overall
tolerance, he emphasizes some past events, which still generate various conflicts: “Even
when you cry about the dwindling number of Catholics in the Republic of Srpska, you are
confined within yourself, you are rejecting the truth, and you do not even think about the
fact that most of the Croats from the Republic of Srpska inhabited one of 50,000 cosy
flats and houses belonging to the Serbs thrown out of Zagreb, Dubrovnik, Karlovac and
other Croatian towns.”
The text “Exhibition Jasenovac – the Right Not to Forget Opened”14 shows that the
historical conflicts between Serbia and Croatia permeate the media nowadays. In the text,
Maja Gojković, the current President of the National Assembly of Serbia, reminds the
readers of the Serbian, Jewish and Romani victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp,
but at the same time reactivates the historical events so as to use them in passing political
messages coming from the current ideological circles in Serbia, which can be seen in the
following example: “In the name of the current and the previous generations, Serbia is
ready to soothe the troubling memory of the great sacrifice, and will not do that by means
of revenge or hatred, but by means of freedom and progress, which will ensure peace,
stability, democracy and development. Serbia will demand justice for the victims. In the
name of the future generations, today we build a better society, and better Serbia, and a
better region.” Moreover, the absence of tolerance can be seen in this text as well: “She
said that Serbia was obliged to identify and talk about extremism „which had recently
been awakened in the neighbouring countries.ʼ As she claimed, we had to notice with
regret that on one hand there had been attempts to relativize the crimes that the
Independent State of Croatia committed during World War II, while on the other hand we
could see a revival of the Ustaše ideology embodied in unveiling a plaque with an Ustaše
salute in Jasenovac or attempting to canonise Aloysius Stepinac”. Statements like this do
not contribute to reconciliation, which both sides are, at least officially, dedicated to. In
the text, we can sense a polarization strategy which differentiates Us from Them, i.e. the
13
The text can be found at: http://www.24online.info/dodik-porucio-komarici-da-ne-doprinosi-miru-i-suzivotu/
- published on April 18 2017, analysed on May 4 2017.
14
The text can be found at: http://www.24online.info/otvorena-izlozba-jasenovac-pravo-na-nezaborav/ -
published on April 29 2017, analysed on May 4 2017.
good from the evil or the victim from the one who committed the crime. The frequent
unjustified naming, or juxtaposing categories like the Ustaše and the Chetniks, are part of
the public discourse in Serbia and Croatia and they determine how different groups see
each other, and reinforce the bonds within the groups.
What happened in the Jasenovac concentration camp is still a point of dispute in the
relations between the two countries. As they believe that putting up a plaque with the salute
“Za dom spremni!” (lit. “For the homeland – ready!”), which the Serbian public regards a
provocation, in the vicinity of the memorial park is inappropriate, the Serb National Council
stated that the Concentration Camp Break will be honoured independently of the official
commemoration. This was announced in the text “Pupovac: SCN Commemoration
Separated from the State Commemoration”15. Texts like these show that provocations and
tension generation are still present and that the ideological construction “For the homeland
– ready!” has acquired a deeply negative connotation which evokes strong affective
reactions in the Serbian people.
Miodrag Linta, the president of the Association of Serbs in the Region had his say in
regard to the Jasenovac Concentration Camp Break commemoration day. In the text titled
“Linta: Serbia Obliged to Pass a Resolution on the ISC Genocide”16 he demands from the
Republic of Croatia to admit the crimes that the Independent State of Croatia committed
against Serbs, Jews and Roma, to appropriately mark the places where they were killed, to
properly bury their remains and to pay reparations to their families. Among other things, in
the text, he says: “The resolution shall demand that all the content glorifying the
Independent State of Croatia and Ustaše criminals be erased from the course books, that all
monuments dedicated the killed Ustaše or members of the Croatian army marked with ʽFor
the homeland – ready!ʼ be removed, and all the associations and portals elevating the ISC
and Ustaše criminals be banned”. This text once again shows how historical events which
already represent a burden on the complex relations can be accentuated.
Another text in the analysed period is dedicated to Miodrag Linta – the text is titled
“Linta: ʽFor the homeland – ready!ʼ in Split – another proof of Ustashism”17. Here Linta
again emphasizes that one can still see the signs of the Ustaše ideology in Croatia. He
claims that “Exclaiming the Ustaše salute ʽFor the homeland – ready!ʼ by the former
members of the Croatian Armed Forces (CAF-HOS) in Split is another among the many
proofs that Ustašism became a legal and widely accepted phenomenon in Croatia”.
If we compare the interface design of both portals (Manovič, 2015), it is interesting that
on the Serbian version of the 24 sata portal there is no option to comment on a text, there
is only an option to express whether one likes or supports the author‟s view by clicking
on a button. Furthermore, there is an option to sort the texts in regard to the number of
likes and popularity, but there is no way to determine the total number of likes per text,
nor to determine how many times a text has been viewed. There is a way to manipulate
these parameters even in those cases in which they are more transparent, whereas the
15
The text can be found at: http://www.24online.info/pupovac-komemoracija-snv-odvojeno-od-drzavne/ -
published on April 17 2017, analysed on May 4 2017.
16
The text can be found at: http://www.24online.info/linta-srbija-ima-obavezu-da-donese-rezoluciju-o-
genocidu-ndh/ - published on April 10 2017, analysed on May 4 2017.
17
The text can be found at: http://www.24online.info/linta-za-dom-spremni-u-splitu-novi-dokaz-ustastva/ -
published on 11 April 2017, analysed on 4 May 2017.
chances to deliberately shift a user‟s attention within the media space of the portal in this
case are far greater.
The Serbian Prime Minister Aleksandar Vučić also tackled the issue of Ustašism in
the text “Vučić and Dodik claim: Croatia Revives Ustaše Ideology” 18 published in the
Croatian version of 24 sata. The text was written in a frustrating tone which expresses the
animosity of the author towards one of the subjects of this report. “The Serbian Prime
Minister and the newly-elected President of this country, Aleksandar Vučić, appeared at
the commemoration after being nearly two hours late, thus disrupting the entire
programme which had to be temporarily stopped so that Vučić could be applauded in the
middle of the memory of the victims of atrocities”. The article further pointed out that:
“In a long speech, Vučić accused Croatia of trying to revive Ustaše ideology and thus
threatened that Serbia would oppose with determination to “the attempts to repeat what
happened in the past”. Although it has not been explicitly stated that the prevention of
new conflicts also implies a new war, the words spoken by Vučić have been reported as a
threat, which indicates the passionate reaction of the article‟s author, but does not release
him/her from the responsibility of shaping the public opinion in Croatia. The inciting,
sensational titles have the purpose of drawing the attention of as wide an audience as
possible in order to provide the media company, in this case – a web portal, with a large
number of advertisers and a better position on the media market. Besides the fact that
using a certain choice of words in titles and title banners has a direct influence on the
impression which is created about a person or a group which that title mentions, this kind
of language can deepen the existing and incite new conflicts which find their space in the
comments section. This article has provoked the largest number of comments, as many as
186. When compared to other articles, which are analysed in the section for the
qualitative analysis, the remaining articles have received some 40 or so comments each.
Alluding to the events in Sobranje in FYR Macedonia, Vučić pointed out the necessity of
respecting the integrity of all states in the region. In an article titled “I have invited
Grabar Kitarović and Plenković to the restoration of dialogue” 19, the Prime Minister of
Serbia emphasised that “the Balkans can be stabilized, „with good relations with the
Bosnians and the establishment of a serious axis of respect”, and that kind of stability,
according to him, „brings a complete peace for the citizens‟. The two previously analysed
articles show the difference in presenting the relations between Serbia and Croatia. While
the former shows a noticeable tendency to ignite conflicts, the latter emphasises the focus
on the culture of peace and dialogue. Although politicians declaratively propagate peace,
their rhetoric in the public discourse shows the exact opposite. For this reason, public
personalities, and politicians in particular, should know that the influence of their words
is proportionate to the media space they receive: the leaders of the political stage should
have a special responsibility for every spoken word because their rhetoric shapes the
awareness of the social community.
An article titled “Vučić: „I was at Maksimir in 1990 and hatred could be felt!‟” 20
contributes to the fact that the public is even today reminded of the so-called rivalry
18
The text can be found at: http://www.24sata.hr/news/vucic-i-dodik-tvrde-hrvatska-ozivljava-ustasku-
ideologiju-521446 - published on 23 April 2017, analysed on 4 May 2017.
19
The text can be found at: http://www.24sata.hr/news/pozvao-sam-grabar-kitarovic-i-plenkovica-na-obnovu-
dijaloga-522293 - published on 28 April 2017, analysed on 4 May 2017.
20
The text can be found at: http://www.24sata.hr/sport/vucic-bio-1990-na-maksimiru-na-stadionu-se-osjecala-
which exists between Serbia and Croatia. The article describes the atmosphere before and
during the football match between the clubs Red Star and Dinamo in Zagreb in 1990,
from the viewpoint of Aleksandar Vučić. This match has remained for by numerous
fights among the fans. The disturbing part of the statement is when he states: “Both they
and we felt powerful at the time. In our country, the Serbian nationalism was on the rise;
we arrived in Zagreb in large numbers. There will never be an away-match which will be
visited by so many fans of Red Star. Fans arrived from Glina, Petrinja, Knin, entire
Krajina, and even the Dalmatian hinterland. However, at the time, the Croatian
nationalism was also on the rise, so Dinamo‟s fans also felt free and powerful. A genuine
hatred was felt at the stadium, and on both sides, you could hear songs with the most
horrific lyrics”. A healthy competitive spirit implies mutual respect among the players of
opposite teams even though each group fights for a better place in the standings. The
question which arises is what the aim of evoking such events from the past encouraged
by strengthening nationalism on both sides is. Merging nationalism with sports and other
social fields implies the implementation of ideology into every pore of society which is,
in fact, controlled by such mechanisms. Images which accompany the article also indicate
the author‟s subjectivity (Vujović&Stojanović Prelević 2014), because the representation
of the Prime Minister as a fan awakens the animosity of the Croatian public (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Photo: Twitter
Considering the fact that the quantitative analysis has shown that there are more
articles in Croatia about Serbia than vice versa, there are also more topics which are
covered. Therefore, in the Croatian edition there are articles about Serbia which can be
included in the „crime section‟, but which are not in any way connected to the Republic
of Croatia. One of the examples is the article: “Horror in Vojvodina: Doctors found a
mrznja-520978 - published on 19 April 2017, analysed on 4. May 2017.

dead baby in the toilet”21, which tells that it is not known whether the baby was drowned
or stillborn, but particular attention was given to the psychological condition of the
mother. The choice of such articles, with an extremely negative connotation, contributes
to the creation of a bad image about one people, that is, it can be said that this kind of
media selection speaks about the psychological condition of an entire community by
giving generalized representations about its members. Although this article has not
provoked a large number of users‟ comments, in relation to all other articles, it has been
viewed the most, 8,456 times. This piece of information again confirms the thesis that
shocking, spectacular and terrifying stories always find their audience and that, in fact,
they attract the attention of the largest part of the audience, which, obviously, craves
sensationalism, whatever its nature.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The question of creating a national identity has been causing conflict for decades
among the countries in the Balkans. A necessary constitutive determinant of each
identity, and nation as well, is the emphasis of differences in relation to the Other. In a
conflict, we are always the victims, while they are the enemies who are demonised and
represented as the main culprits.
In the construction of the representation of other peoples, a large role is played by the
media, which promote the acceptable image, while transmitting desirable values and
attitudes. Considering the fact that an individual, quite often, uncritically relies on the
media in order to find out about the world which surrounds him/her, he/she is susceptible
to manipulation. In the previous decades, during the conflicts among Balkan countries, as
well as during the process of the creation of national identities, the traditional media have
been an important instrument of propaganda. Today, they are joined by the new media,
which have become a dominant means of mass communication in the modern age. The
media have managed to adjust themselves to the demands of the modern individual and
they have become an everyday part of a large number of people in the world. There is
almost no traditional medium today which is not present on social networks or similar
digital platforms. Besides that, a large number of the media are present only in an online
environment. Due to this fact, people receive information even though they do not search
for it explicitly. For example, by merely opening their Facebook profile on a computer or
a mobile phone, users become exposed to the media contents which are placed among the
posts of other users of this social network. This shows that the power of the media is
great nowadays as well and that new ways of reaching the audience are constantly being
discovered. Techniques and communication tools, as well as the strategies of representing
the Other are being improved. Pointing out one‟s own superiority and other‟s inferiority,
and emphasising the differences and not the bonds which connect the two peoples can be
seen in the media every day. Very often, stereotypes are those which dictate the way in
which we will view the members of other countries and what kind of prejudices we will
create. A stereotypical image which has been created for decades is difficult to modify
overnight.
21
The text can be found at: http://www.24sata.hr/news/kod-kuce-rodila-bebu-lijecnici-je-pronasli-mrtvu-u-wc-
skoljki-521896 - published on 26 April 2017, analysed on 4 May 2017.
The paper has shown that Serbia and Croatia are most often mentioned on the
analysed portals in the context of daily, political and social events. In case of linguistic
closeness of two social communities, the identifier on the basis of which they will differ
starts to be religion. This is particularly present on the territories of ex-Yugoslavian
countries. Citing the historical events which represent the point of contention can be
found in several articles which refer to the anniversary of the breakthrough from the
Jasenovac concentration camp. The commemoration of that event is permeated by a clear
ideological messages of the ruling elite in Serbia, which, as it seems, uses every
opportunity to revive the conflicts from the past. The leading personalities from Serbia,
such as the Prime Minister and newly-elected President Aleksandar Vučić and the
President of the National Assembly Maja Gojković speak about the revival of the Ustaše
ideology, as it is shown by the analysis of the media articles. Instead of searching for
elements which would bring the two nations closer, as well as establishing high-quality
cooperation in all social fields, the public, media discourse of Serbia and Croatia abounds
in stereotypes and polarisations which strengthen and deepen the existing fractures in
their relations. When the ideological threads go through all the pores of modern society,
no area remains untouched, nor is any interpretation clean from the ideological layers of
the ruling circles. The article which mentions the match between Red Star and Dinamo,
played in Zagreb in 1990, is a good example of such strategies intensifying sports rivalry
by making references to the national identities of teams and fans. The „poisoned‟ sporting
spirit does not only have the aim of beating the opponent in the game, but of using its
victory to humiliate and degrade his/her dignity and to show one‟s own superiority. Due
to such relations, our share in the conflict is being relativized, while the share of the other
side is always in the centre of attention and represents an unending source of negative
rhetoric. In this way, even young individuals who had not been born during the war and
who should, declaratively, build the path of reconciliation, are being drawn into the
media-constructed conflicts which are waged in a virtual world as well. This makes it
more difficult to establish a dialogue between the two peoples, even when it comes to
future generations. The unjustified generalizations, which are a part of the everyday
media rhetoric, can hardly be stopped, especially if they are an integral part of the plan of
the ruling hegemon. Only the spirit of criticism and interpersonal contacts with other
cultures prove to be the real paths for breaking the prejudices and unmasking the media-
constructed worldview.
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https://www.academia.edu/7683231/Slobodan_Miladinovi%C4%87_ETNI%C4%8CKI_ODNOSI_I_IDENTITE
TI, accessed on 14 March 2017.
Ninković-Slavnić, D. “Medijska reprezentacija grupnih identiteta”. CM 19, 6 (2011): 15–37.
Papacharissi, Z. “The Virtual Sphere: The Internet as a Public Sphere”. New Media & Society 1, 4 (2002): 9–27.
Available at: http://zizi.people.uic.edu/Site/Research_files/VirtualSphere.pdf, accessed on 15 March 2017.
Puddephatt, Andrew. Voice of War: Conflict and the Role of the Media. Copenhagen: International Media
Support, 2006. Available at: https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-voices-of-
war-2006.pdf, accessed on 19 March 2017.
Stevanović, Branislav. Političko-kulturne interferencije. Niš: Studentski kultrni centar, 2013.
Stojanović, Đ. i M. Pešić. ”Realizam i kontruktivizam u svetskoj politici: problem nacionalnih identiteta”. In
Polja geopolitike, edited by Lj. Despotović i V. Konatar, 29–55. Novi Sad: Kultura polisa, Fakultet za
evropske pravno političke studije, 2016. Available at: http://kpolisa.com/KPP2016/KPP2016_
PoljaGeopolitike.pdf, accessed on 17 May 2017.
Stojanović-Prelević, I., I. Stojković i M. Milutinović. “Senzibilnost i senzacionalizam u izveštavanju štampanih
medija o narodima u regionu: Analiza sadržaja Blic, Politika i Kurir”. U Uloga medija u normalizaciji
odnosa na Zapadnom Balkanu, 141–159.Novi Sad: Filozofski fakultet i Centar za istraživanje religije,
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Stojković, Branimir. Identitet i komunikacija. Beograd: Fakultet političkih nauka, 2002.
Tripković, M. „Etnički sukobi u multikulturnim društvima i (ne)mogućnosti njihovog predupređivanja“.
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2(2005)/Tripkovic.PDF, accessed on 19 March 2017.
Vilović, G. “Govor mržnje”. Političke analize 6, 2 (2011): 68–70. Available at: http://hrcak.srce.hr/175715,
accessed on 15 March 2017.
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Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History 16, 1 (2017): 51–61.
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Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History 13, 3 (2014): 123–135.
Vulić, T. and D. Pavlović. “Domestic Violence in the Serbian Daily Press: From Facts to Sensationalism”.
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and B. Paltridge, 39–54. London and New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2001.
ONLAJN MEDIJI KAO GENERATORI KONFLIKATA

Mediji su oduvek imali veliku moć u konstruisanju stavova i mišljenja publike, pa ne čudi što se
stalno prilagođavaju savremenim tokovima i načinima na koje publika dolazi do informacija.
Zahvaljujući popularnosti i mogućnostima koje internet pruža, mediji su bili prinuđeni da konvergiraju
ka onlajn formama izveštavanja. Osim toga, internet je omogućio brisanje državnih granica u pogledu
informisanja, pa publika lakše može doći do saznanja o događajima iz bilo kojeg dela sveta.
Masmedijska komunikacija tako dobija nove obrise, usmeravajući društvene tokove na globalnom
nivou. Iako ovakav trend može biti koristan, on sa sobom može nositi i određene opasnosti. Tako novi
mediji mogu postati platforma za međunarodne konflikte i dovesti do potencijalnog prekida dobrih
odnosa među državama. S obzirom na to da odnose između Srbije i Hrvatske karakteriše ne tako davna
ratna prošlost, u ovom radu istraživali smo na koji način srpski i hrvatski onlajn mediji izveštavaju o
odnosu dve države iz ugla političkih odnosa, medijske prezentacije onog drugog, kao i koliku ulogu
savremeni mediji imaju u provociranju novih konflikata. Kvantitativno-kvalitativnom analizom sadržaja
analizirana je srpska i hrvatska verzija portala „24 sata“ u periodu od 1. do 30. aprila 2017. godine.
Ključne reči: internet, konflikti, Srbija, Hrvatska, novi mediji, izveštavanje.
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
https://doi.org/10.22190/FUPSPH1801055D
Review Paper
THE CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY AND

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE ATTEMPTS OF ITS
IMPLEMENTATION IN SERBIA 
UDC 502.1

Abstract. The basis of the advancement of contemporary society comprises the

development of science and technology, intensified by the globalization processes. The
tendency to progress further and produce more in order to improve the living conditions
of people has also led to certain adverse consequences reflected in the ecological crisis,
that is, the disturbance of the ecological balance. In an effort to come up with a solution,
the model of sustainable development was created on the basis of harmonizing the
economic needs with the preservation of the ecological balance both at the global and the
local level. A healthy and high-quality living environment is not only the basic condition
for economic wealth, but clean air, healthy water and healthy soil and food also present
the fundamental preconditions for the good health of people.
The concept of sustainable development is a relatively new notion, particularly in Serbia.
However, it has neither been developed nor implemented sufficiently in our country. The
reasons behind this are numerous, among which the unfavourable economic situation
certainly occupies an important position, along with the fact that the concept of
sustainable development still does not represent a widely accepted development paradigm
in Serbia. For Serbia, as a developing country, it is of particular importance to preserve
its ecological balance and ensure sustainable development, which is possible, among
other things, by cooperating internationally in the sphere of environmental protection
Key words: living environment, ecological crisis, sustainable development, Serbia.
Received September 21, 2017 / Accepted May 22, 2018

Corresponding author: Jelena Dinić
E-mail: jelendzi@hotmail.com

56 J. DINIĆ, I. TASKOVIĆ
1. INTRODUCTION
“As the ocean „waves,‟ the universe „peoples.‟

Every individual is an expression of the whole realm of nature,
a unique action of the total universe”
(Alan Watts 1966, according to Đurić 1998)
Globalization is a phenomenon of the modern era.1 It is a global process that took place
at the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. The basis of globalization is the
creation of a unified economic and political space of global dimensions and it can be
understood as the merger of national economies into a world economy. This implies the
liberalization of international economic relations, the existence of certain standards, both in
the economic and the legal system, and the pronounced importance of international
institutions in the assurance of an unhindered functioning of the new concept of world
economy (Crafts 2004). Therefore, it is the case of economic integration and cooperation of
global dimensions, and it relates to tearing down the obstacles that stood in the path of
trading goods, services, movement of capital and people, i.e. the workforce (Dinić 2011).
Money and profit have gained enormous and real power that is possessed by transnational
banks and corporate multinational societies. Such a “globalized economy” does not
acknowledge state borders and is led by the logic of maximum exploitation of all potentials
with the aim of generating as much profit as possible (Karlić 2008).
It is a fact that science and technology comprise the basis of global integration, which
leads to the technological, economic and cultural connection between individual societies
and the development of the relations of interdependence. However, the application of
scientific knowledge and technology also compromises the balance of the biosphere, causes
environmental problems and leads to an ecological crisis. Today, these processes
encompass the entire world, and the discourse on the living environment and ecological
problems can no longer be limited to certain areas but has to be expanded to the global level
(Miltojević 2004a), thus gaining more and more importance every day. Therefore, living
within environmental boundaries is one of the central principles of sustainable development
and the topic of this paper.
2. THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

The economic needs of contemporary society impose a constant tendency for ever-
greater progress and mass production so as to ensure the better material situation of people.
However, apart from improving the living conditions of people, this huge technological
advancement has also had negative effects on the living environment (Romančikova and
Mikocziova 2011). Due to the excessive influence of the human society on the
environment, the ecological balance, necessary for the survival and further development of
humanity, has been disturbed. This disturbance is simultaneously accompanied by the
industrial development of the economically most developed countries (Nešković 2009).
1
The opinion that globalization is the phenomenon of the modern era is often found debatable, which is further
corroborated by the existence of world religions and trade routes in the Middle Ages (for more details see:
Pečujlić 2005).
The Concept of Ecological Sustainability and a Brief Overview of the Attempts of its Implementation in Serbia 57
People have upset the ecological balance, the mutual and harmonized connection within the
living world, with their activities aimed at improving their living conditions. By
endangering the natural environment, people have endangered the integrity of their own
survival at the same time (Bjelajac, Dašić, Spasović 2011).
According to Nešković (2009), the ecological crisis is most often displayed on three
levels. The first and the lowest level of environmental pollution is the one where the
ecological balance is disturbed, yet the disturbance is not that great for nature to be unable
to regenerate itself and return to the normal state in due time. The second level relates to the
natural environment being endangered to the extent where the ability of the ecosystem and
the biosphere to self-regulate has been reduced significantly; thus the re-establishment of
the balance is not possible without human activity. The third level relates to the destruction
of the natural environment. This is the final stage in the ecological crisis where the pollution
and the destruction of nature are such that the regeneration of certain ecosystems is almost
impossible or implies huge human effort over a long period of time, without any guarantee
of a positive outcome.
The living environment is global, and it functions as a closed ecosystem, which is why
no ecological problem can be observed as exclusively local. The majority of ecological
problems, such as declines in biodiversity, pollution, reduction of arable land, exploitation
of natural resources and climate change, increase with the intensification of globalization
(Ehrenfeld 2003; Pajvančić-Cizelj 2015). The major threats to the ecological balance at the
global level can be found in the demographic expansion or the demographic boom, the
exploitation of natural resources (particularly the non-renewable ones), the problem of
energy emitted by modern technological achievements, the abuse of the findings of
biological, chemical and medical sciences, the uncontrollable deforestation that reduces the
amount of oxygen on the planet, global warming resulting in the greenhouse effect, water
management problems, the extinction of birds and animals, and pollution of nature as a
universal problem (Ehrenfeld 2003; Vranješ 2009; Biočanin 2011).
Observed in this manner, it is evident that a local threat can have global dimensions and
consequences. There is not a single country, region or continent that cannot be affected by a
certain ecological problem. For example, the greenhouse effect attacks both Europe and the
USA, as well as all the other countries on the planet. This can also be said of nuclear
radiation, or a possible use of any type of weapon of mass destruction. Therefore, the
resolution of global ecological problems requires the action of all, i.e. a global action
(Vranješ 2009).
However, the territorial observation of globalization shows that apart from the economic,
the world also suffers from the ecological inequality. Namely, nowadays, when the results
of the implementation of global strategic plans are more than obvious, it is evident that the
greatest price has been paid, is being paid, and will be paid by developing countries.
Developed countries, which first started the globalization process, are not affected by the
losses incurred by the economy and society of developing countries (Waller-Hunter, Jones
2002). Grasping the importance of the vicinity of raw materials, production and market,
their manufacturing is mainly dislocated across various countries with cheap labour and
lower costs. This comfort can only be afforded by developed countries (Mićunović,
Novaković i Stefanović 2015). On the other hand, developing countries cannot afford such
comfort, and the ones that have decided to outsource their production elsewhere are most of
the time left without work, which eventually leads to an increasing dissatisfaction and social
unrest. The economic inequality further conditions the inequality in the opportunity to
invest resources into environmental protection. This opportunity thus drastically differs
from country to country, in line with their economic power (Mićunović, Novaković i
Stefanović 2015). In that sense, the eternal debate between globalists and antiglobalists on
the ultimate consequences of globalization gains importance all the time.
Inequalities in the domain of ecological globalization are first expressed in the fact that
the developed parts of the world participate increasingly in the creation of ecological
problems but suffer their consequence to a lesser extent. For example, water scarcity now
affects almost 1.3 billion people, the majority of which live in undeveloped countries
(Monaghan 2011; Pajvančić-Cizelj 2015). Water, on the other hand, is becoming a general
good, the so-called “virtual water”, which circulates increasingly at the global level, where
people often use water that comes from the other side of the world not being aware of its
scarcity (Pajvančić-Cizelj 2015).2 Bearing in mind the inequalities that accompany
globalization, it is not difficult to conclude that the establishment of any kind of global
standard oriented towards the preservation of the living environment that could be met by
all countries is almost impossible. Then again, such a standard is inevitable since this is no
longer merely the case of environmental protection but the issue of the very survival of the
human species on Earth (Mićunović, Novaković i Stefanović 2015).
3. THE AWAKENING OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS IN THE WORLD

AND THE INCEPTION OF THE IDEA OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Global society faces numerous global problems, among which an important place is
occupied by the disturbance of the ecological balance on the planet Earth to such an extent
that one could speak of a global ecological crisis. The devastation and degradation of the
natural environment has reached enormous dimensions (Waller-Hunter, Jones 2002;
Nešković 2009; Martens and Raza 2010). However, at the same time, the awareness of these
ecological problems has been raised, which has led to the awakening of environmental
awareness and the formation of the environmental culture (Miltojević 2004a).
The development of environmental awareness has further developed the tendency to
find solutions to the ecological crisis, thus the idea of sustainable development has been
born, based on the harmonization of economic needs with the preservation of the ecological
balance at the global, but also the local level (Pavlović 2011). Drljača (2012) states that
sustainable development and the very term “sustainability” were first mentioned in 1968 at
the gathering known as the Club of Rome. Within its six reports, based on substantial
scientific analyses, the Club of Rome issued an appeal to world leaders to change the way
in which people treated the planet Earth. The reports showed that if the trends in the
population growth, industrialization, food production and exploitation of natural resources
continued without change, the growth limits on this planet would be exceeded, resulting in
the eventual decline in population and industrial capabilities. At the same time, at the
international level, the UN declaration on the human environment was adopted in
Stockholm in 1972, stating that scientific and technological achievements should be used
for the improvement of the economic and social development with the aim of discovering
2
In that sense, it is pointed out that, for example, 140 litres of water are necessary to grow enough coffee beans
for a single cup of this beverage. Thus, water is consumed in one place, and that cup of coffee in another (in
more detail: Pajvančić-Cizelj 2015).
and limiting all of the hazards that could affect the environment (Miltojević 2004b). In that
vein, the 1987 report by the World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED, 1987), as part of the “Our Common Future” report, developed the model of
sustainable development. This form of development represents a new social relationship
towards the environment and natural resources, and it implies the idea of the existing
responsibility towards the present and future generations (Miltojević 2004a; Romančikova
and Mikocziova 2011). The main guidelines of sustainable development are the insistence
on providing future generations with at least equally good living conditions as are present
today, and the attempt to improve the situation in developing countries, regardless of the
introduction of more stringent standards in economy with the aim of resolving ecological
problems (Miltojević 2004b; Nadić 2011). The report also proposed the setting up of the
UN programme on sustainable development and an international conference on
environment and development (Štrbac, Vuković, Voza i Sokić 2012).
The UN Conference on the Human Environment in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 saw the
adoption of the Declaration on Environment and Development that promoted the concept of
sustainable development (Nešković 2009), while the United Nations Resolution known as
the Millennium Declaration was adopted in September 2000 with its main development
goals. The Millennium Development Goals comprised eight objectives agreed upon by all
191 members of the United Nations in an attempt to achieve them by 2015. The goals were
related to the eradication of poverty and hunger in the world, fundamental education for all
girls and boys across the globe, reduction in child mortality, improvement of the position of
women in the world, the fight against HIV and AIDS and other diseases on the global scale,
assurance of environmental sustainability and development of global partnerships for the
purpose of achieving these goals. The Millennium Goals raised awareness of the important
aspects of development and mobilized governments worldwide to pay more attention both
to the social welfare and health of people and the environment itself.
In September 2016, the General Assembly of the UN adopted a new global development
agenda – the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, together with a new set of global
goals, which represent the continuation of the Millennium Goals and strive to achieve what
the latter did not manage to. Compared with the Millennium Declaration, the Agenda
represents a much more comprehensive programme that contains 17 universal goals of
sustainable development, whose successful implementation will require the involvement of
all available resources, both at the domestic and the international level. Namely, contrary to
the Millennium Development Goals that were directed towards developing countries, the
Agenda is a global agreement to determine a universal, all-encompassing action programme
for all countries. Taking into consideration the level of development, national context and
possibilities, all countries will have to contribute to the cause, and it is precisely the national
responsibility and the responsibility towards one‟s own citizens that will be of crucial
importance for the success of this programme (Pavić-Rogošić 2015).
It can be said that sustainable development is a relatively new concept, yet it today
occupies a central position in the programmes of many governments, companies, educational
institutions and non-governmental organizations across the world. This concept has been
introduced with the aim of overcoming the deficiencies of previous development models,
above all the neglect of the issue of environmental protection, and it is thus characterized by
the tendency to harmonize the economic, social and ecological components so as to preserve
the natural wealth of the planet Earth for future generations (Štrbac, Vuković, Voza i Sokić
2012). Nešković (2009) believes that the essence of the sustainable development model lies
in the need to harmonize economic activities with economic capabilities, i.e. to preserve the
ecological balance and align production with natural constraints, which means limiting the
exploitation of natural resources.
Pavlović (2011) emphasizes that one can differentiate between three dimensions of the
meaning of the concept of sustainability. The first relates to the natural ecological
sustainability, i.e. the ability of self-renewal of complex ecosystems that includes both the
living and the non-living world. The second relates to the sustainability of renewable
resources in the sense of their balanced exploitation, while the third dimension relates to a
more rational use of non-renewable resources and their replacement with renewable sources.
Today, the term sustainability mainly relates to the last of these dimensions.
According to the principle of sustainable development, it is necessary to achieve economic
growth with at first reduced and later completely discontinued exploitation of natural
resources and degradation of the human environment. This should, in fact, be a type of
development that would ensure the satisfaction of the current generations‟ needs, without
jeopardizing the possibility of satisfying the future generations‟ needs as well (Ţuţek 2009).
Such a social development can contribute to the resolution of ecological problems and
improvement of the quality of life, particularly through the strengthening of supranational
institutions in the sphere of environmental protection (Miltojević 2004a). Its essence lies in the
care for future generations and orientation towards the future.
The concept of sustainability is today widely accepted as the condition for the survival and
progress of humanity. Pešić (2002) talks about certain reasons for its creation and
development in general, thus emphasizing that there exist “strong moral reasons for the
present generation to leave nothing less to its posterity than the equal chances for development
as they enjoy now. This means that planet Earth, with all its potentials, must not be degraded
by the existing populace”, as well as that the right of the current generation to exploit natural
resources and the environment must not endanger that same right for future generations. The
second group of reasons for sustainable development are ecological in nature. The author
explains that if nature represents a value in itself, i.e. if the preservation of biodiversity or the
reserves of natural resources is justified by the attitude that humans are only a part of nature,
then any form of economic activity that compromises the diversity of the living world, or the
wealth of resources, is unacceptable. The third reason behind the concept of sustainability is
the economic argument that sustainable development is more efficient. In other words, not
acknowledging the concept of sustainability leads to inefficient economic development, in the
sense of increasing resource and energy losses, i.e. the tendency to cause long-term
deterioration on the global scale.
The model of sustainable development is grounded in three major premises, and these
are the understanding that all people have the right to live a healthy life in accordance
with nature, that countries have a sovereign right to use natural resources, but in a way
that does not endanger the living environment of other countries, and that international
cooperation is inevitable in the effort to resolve ecological problems in the best possible
manner (Miltojević 2004b; Martens and Raza 2010).3
3
The two most important international organizations that deal with environmental protection, and which act
globally and have a legal and political capacity under the jurisdiction of the UN, are: UNEP and UNDP. The
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is a UN programme which aims at creating and strengthening
partnerships for environmental protection and quality development at the global level. The seat of this
organization is in Nairobi, Kenya, although it has its offices all around the world. The programme is led by the
The model of sustainable development prioritizes the satisfaction of needs and the
resolution of conflicts between economy and ecology, i.e. the harmonization of economic
development with the possibilities and capacities of the biosphere. The improvement of the
living conditions in a community, the strengthening of the relationship between economy,
environment and society, can be achieved through sustainable economy, sustainable use of
energy and sustainable industrial activities. Such an approach provides the basis for further
development of the society, which implies not only increases in profit, but also the
humanization of the working and living environment (Miltojević 2004b). In an effort to
point to the importance of sustainable development as well as the need to introduce the
world to these standpoints, and to transform ideas into actual efficient actions as soon as
possible, the UN declared the period from 2005 to 2014 the Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development (Vranješ 2009).
4. MONITORING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

To successfully manage sustainable development, both at the local and the global level,
it is necessary to possess a high-quality system of data acquisition and analysis in the field
of environmental protection and management of limited natural resources, as well as to
assure a realistic picture of the data on pollution or resource scarcity (Janković-Milić,
Jovanović i Krstić 2012). Sustainable development indicators provide information on how
well we live, how resources are distributed, how efficiently they are used, what the current
state is and what the consequences to the environment are, so that we can better understand
the world around us (Milutunović 2010; Veljković 2011). They are our link to the world.
They warn us of a problem before it becomes too grave and they help us understand what
needs to be done in order to solve it (Bossel 1999).
Miltojević (2004b) emphasizes that sustainable development indicators are categorized
into four groups. The first group comprises social indicators that point to social justice,
health, education, residential conditions, safety and demographic changes. The second
group consists of economic indicators that relate to economic structure, consumption and
production. The third group encompasses institutional indicators that deal with introducing
the environment and development in decision making, potential scientific resources to
achieve sustainable development, national mechanisms and international cooperation. The
fourth group is made up of environmental indicators related to atmosphere, soil, oceans,
seas, water and biodiversity.4
Executive Board, which reports to the General Assembly of the UN. Not one of the former Yugoslav republics
currently have their representatives there. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is a UN
development programme directed towards connecting countries with the aim of their development and exchange of
experiences, and for the purpose of achieving better living conditions. This programme has a global character and it
includes 166 countries. The programme covers the following areas: democratic rule reduction in poverty,
prevention of crises and renewal, environment and energy, and fight against HIV/AIDS. When it comes to the
living environment, the organization deals with the following: sustainable development strategy, water management,
sustainable energy, sustainable development of earth, biodiversity, chemical management and national policies and
programmes of radiation hazards control (in more detail: Vranješ 2009).
4
There are different methods of selecting sustainable development indicators. The following are mentioned in the
literature: Three-ring circus model, Russian dolls model, Night-owl model (in more detail: Levett 1998; Wu, Liou,
and Su 2014).
Today, a number of composite indicators are used to monitor sustainable development,

and these indicators are created so as to obtain a clearer picture of the interdependence of
various development aspects at the international level (Veljković s.a.). To measure the
performance of the living environment, the Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) was
first developed under the auspices of the UN and published by the World Economic Forum.
ESI deals with how much countries are capable of environmental protection. The index
encompasses natural resources, pollution levels, efforts in environmental management and
abilities of a society to improve its ecological achievements (Esty, Levy, Srebotnjak, and de
Sherbinin 2005). It is expressed on a scale from 0 to 100, where a higher ESI result
indicates better environmental management. Due to the constraints of this index as a
guideline of economic policy based on a large number of wide-scope indicators, the most
recent report on it was published in 2005.5
Since 2005, the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) has been used. Its value is also
given on a scale from 0 to 100, and it measures the total contribution of a country to the
preservation of the environment, taking into account major global environmental problems as
well as the ways in which certain countries deal with them. It focuses on a narrower set of
environmental protection issues so as to yield more easily applicable and clearer results and
facilitate the comparison between countries. This index allows for the identification of key
areas in which the situation needs to be improved, in line with the practices of other countries
that have achieved substantial results in those areas (Janković-Milić, Jovanović i Krstić
2012).6
Yet another indicator that deserves attention was developed by the Canadian economist
William E. Rees and named the ecological footprint (Veljković s.a.). This sustainable
development indicator shows the relationship between the existing natural resources and their
consumption by human beings (water, soil, air, coal, crude oil, ores, etc.). It includes water,
air, ores, soil, arable land, meadows, populated areas, fishing and forest areas necessary for the
absorption of carbon dioxide not absorbed by the oceans. Almost every aspect of human
activity, particularly today in the globalized world, affects the planet. Everything, from the
type of diet, through transport, to waste management has a smaller or larger ecological
footprint. The greater the consumption of natural resources, the larger the footprint made by
people on nature. Resources are being consumed at such an enormous speed that nature is not
capable of making up for the lost natural resources at the same speed (Muradian 2004; Lukas,
Kay, and Offermans 2017).7
The inequality characteristic of the contemporary world is also pronounced in this case.
The ecological footprint is unevenly distributed, since developed countries use more natural
5
Out of 146 countries in 2005, according to ESI, the best positioned were Finland, Norway, Uruguay, Sweden,
Iceland. Serbia and Montenegro were ranked 89th that year (2005 Environmental Sustainability Index Report
available at: http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/es/esi/ESI2005.pdf).
6
According to the data from 2014, out of 178 countries the Republic of Serbia was ranked 31st according to
EPI, while Switzerland, Luxembourg, and Australia occupied the first three places, respectively (in more detail:
Hsu et al. 2014).
7
It is believed that the carbon that comes from the combustion of fossil fuels has been the main culprit of the
increasing ecological footprint in the last fifty years. The literature states that the greatest increase in traffic-
induced carbon dioxide is expected in Eastern and Central Europe, the former USSR countries, China, Central
Asia and other developing countries (in more detail: Van Veen-Groot, and Nijkamp 1999).
resources than they require while some of the poorest countries in the world barely have
enough for their basic needs (Global Footprint Network 2016).8
5. THE ECOSYSTEM OF SERBIA AND ATTEMPTS AT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Environmental protection and improvement are among the main priorities on all
continents. Not only is the healthy and high-quality environment a basic condition for
economic wealth, but clean air, healthy water and healthy soil and food also present
fundamental preconditions for the good health of people (Kanjevac Milovanović, Milivojević
i Kokić Arsić 2008).
The only legally defined and binding evaluation of the pollution level in the Republic of
Serbia is the air quality assessment based on the exceeding of boundary and tolerant values
of pollutant concentrations (Popović 2015). The data show that during 2014 the air quality
in the Vojvodina region, the cities of Novi Sad, Niš, Pančevo and Kosjerić, was of the 1st
category, clean or slightly polluted air, and that no boundary values of any pollutant
concentrations were exceeded. In Belgrade, on the other hand, during 2014 the air was of
the 2nd category, moderately polluted air, while in the cities of Bor, Uţice, Smederevo and
Valjevo the air was of the 3rd category during 2014, meaning highly polluted air.
The main sources of air pollution are the energy and transport sector and industrial
plants (UN 2007). When it comes to Serbia, the equipment for exhaust gases treatment in
power plants is inadequate, and the combination of inefficient combustion and inadequate
maintenance results in high levels of exhaust gases. The causes of pollution in the industrial
sector are similar to the exhaust gas emitters in the energy sector: outdated technologies,
lack of flue gases treatment or low efficiency of filters, poor quality of raw materials and
low energy efficiency, as well as inadequate functioning and maintenance.
One of the most important causes of environmental pollution is the inappropriate sewerage
infrastructure, i.e. inadequate wastewater collection and treatment. The sewerage system
covers 48% of the population of the Republic of Serbia, but there are huge variations in the
coverage between districts, as well as between the urban and rural population. Furthermore,
the main sources of water pollution are the untreated industrial and municipal wastewater,
agricultural discharge, landfill discharge as well as pollution related to the water transport and
thermal power plants. The discharge of industrial wastewater in Serbia is most concentrated in
the Sava river basin, which takes in around 80% of industrial waste (UN 2007).
Only 28 cities have plants for wastewater treatment. The largest cities, such as Belgrade,
Novi Sad, and Niš, release their wastewater untreated into the rivers. Moreover, certain
plants are abandoned, partially dysfunctional or provide only mechanical treatment. The
loss of water in the water supply system in Serbia expressed in percentages in the period
from 2005 to 2013 generally had a negative (increasing) trend. Losses of over 50% were
to be found in the Kolubara (51%) and Zaječar district (53%). Particularly significant is
the data on the size of losses in the Belgrade water supply system of around 27%, whose
8
According to the data obtained from SEPA, the Serbian ecological footprint is 2.33, which is lower than the one of
the neighbouring countries, with a deficit amounting to -0.95 global hectares per citizen. When the ecological
footprint and the biocapacity are compared at the regional plan, a clear picture is obtained in the production, import
and export of certain countries and the wealth of their ecosystem. Bulgaria (EFp=4.07) has the largest ecological
footprint (EFp) in the region, followed by Croatia (EFp=3.75) and Bosnia (EFp=2.75) (in more detail: Veljković s.a).
reduction by only 10% annually would provide enough water to meet the needs of the
city of Kragujevac (Veljković 2014).
In the case of soil, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (Government of
RS 2015), in 2013 on the territory of the Republic of Serbia, 422 locations were identified
as potentially contaminated. Urban areas in comparison to rural ones are more often subject
to the anthropogenic influence due to higher population density, traffic intensity, vicinity of
industry, etc. The examination of soil quality on the territory of the city of Belgrade in 2013
(Government RS 2015) showed that, according to certain parameters, the examined locations
could be categorized as potentially polluted, while only a small percentage (3%) as alarmingly
polluted on the basis of the total content of nickel (Subotica, Smederevo – where the nickel
content exceeded the boundary value in 100% of the samples). In the cities of Poţarevac,
Kragujevac, Novi Sad and Novi Pazar the results showed that, according to certain
parameters, the examined locations could be categorized as potentially polluted (RZS 2015).
On the other hand, the geographical position of the country, the variety of climate
conditions and the situation in habitats, create a rich biodiversity in forests and enable the
presence of a number of different types of trees and plants. Pursuant to the Law on
Environmental Protection (Official gazette RS 36/2009, 88/2010 and 91/2010), the Ordinance
on the proclamation and protection of strictly protected and protected species of wild plants,
animals and fungi (Official gazette RS 5/2010 and 47/2011) encompasses 1760 strictly
protected species of wild algae, plants, animals and fungi, and 853 protected species of wild
animals, plants and fungi.
Forests and wooded areas cover 28% of the territory of Serbia, and this current surface
is twice the size it was at the end of World War II (UN 2007). The diverse flora of Serbia
includes a number of medicinal herbs, fruit, vegetables, industrial and decorative plants. All
of them are used for various commercial and non-commercial purposes. There are around
700 species of medicinal and aromatic plants in the Serbian flora. The vast richness of
habitats has allowed the co-existence of numerous plants and animals of different biology,
origin, time of emergence, distribution and way of life on the territory of Serbia. The
centres of floral diversity in Serbia are high mountain regions, canyons and gorges, steppes
and sand dunes, swamps, fens and marshes, preserved forest communities and the like
(Lakušić, Stevanović, Jančić i Lakušić 2010). Apart from the diverse flora, Serbia is also
characterized by a very diverse fauna. The permanently protected animal species in our
country include: bear, lynx, western capercaillie, black grouse, beaver, otter, steppe polecat,
stoat, weasel, rock partridge, hazel grouse and others (Official gazette RS 5/2010 and
47/2011).
The formulation of the National Sustainable Development Strategy of the Republic of
Serbia began in 2005, and the Strategy was adopted in May 2008 with defined priorities and
principles as a mid-term plan for the period from 2008 to 2017. The solutions proposed by
the Strategy are harmonized with the European integration, the EU Sustainable Development
Strategy, the UN Millennium Development Goals, and the National Millennium Development
Goals in the Republic of Serbia, adopted by the Government of the Republic of Serbia in
2006.
The Serbian National Sustainable Development Strategy from 2008 (Official gazette RS
55/05, 71/05-correction and 101/07) defines sustainable development as “targets-oriented,
long-term (continuous), comprehensive and synergetic process with impacts on all aspects
of life (economic, social, environmental and institutional) at all levels. The long-term
concept of sustainable development implies continued economic growth, but such growth
that brings with it not only economic efficiency and technological progress, but also a
higher share of cleaner technologies and innovation in the society as a whole and corporate
social responsibility, enabling poverty reduction, long-term better use of resources,
improved health and quality of life and pollution reduced to the carrying capacity of the
environment, prevention of future pollution and preservation of bio-diversity”.
Some of the main principles of the Strategy are the integration of the environmental
issue into other political sectors, the preservation of the natural balance, the inclusion of
costs related to the environment into the price of products, which would yield the full
economic price to cover production expenses, the use and disposal of products during
their entire “life” cycles, and sustainable production and consumption. The Action Plan for
the implementation of the National Sustainable Development Strategy of the Republic of
Serbia was adopted in March 2009 for the period from 2009 to 2017 (Official gazette RS
57/08), and it was later replaced by a new plan for the period from 2011 to 2017 (Official
gazette RS31/10). The plans contain a detailed elaboration of the measures and activities
intended for the implementation of the Strategy goals.
A sustainable development plan, defined in the Serbian National Strategy for 2017,
reads: “Serbia in the year 2017 is an institutionally and economically developed country,
with adequate infrastructure, harmonized with EU standards, a country with knowledge-
based economy, efficient use of natural and man-made resources, higher efficiency and
productivity, rich in human capital, with a preserved environment, historical and cultural
heritage, a state with private-public partnership, offering equal opportunities for all citizens”
(Official gazette RS 55/05, 71/05-correction and 101/07). The national priorities whose
achievement should have led to the fulfilment of the sustainable development vision ending
in 2017 are EU membership, development of a competitive market economy and balanced
economic growth, development and education of human resources, development of
infrastructure and balanced regional development, and protection and promotion of the
environment and rational use of natural resources.
Today, in 2017, we can conclude that, although undoubtedly certain progress has been
made in these last ten years, the vision has not been fulfilled in its entirety. Serbia now faces
great problems and challenges in all spheres – social, economic, scientific, educational,
legislative, institutional, environmental. Unfortunately, the concept of sustainable
development has not been sufficiently developed or implemented in our country. The
reasons for such a state of things are numerous, among which one should certainly mention
the unfavourable economic situation and stagnation that lead to various budget restraints.
Veljković (s.a.) also emphasizes that the several year-long policy of neglecting industrial
and agricultural production, along with the policy of importing mass consumption goods,
has categorized Serbia within the zone of non-European countries with regard to the quality
of life.
Among the possible obstacles for the establishment of sustainable development is the
fact that sustainable development still does not represent a widely accepted development
paradigm in Serbia, which is an aspect that needs to be worked on. As Miltojević (2004a)
states, the acceptance of new principles of environmental ethics would simultaneously
open the possibility of observing development in line with real conditions, which would
contribute to both cultural and biological diversity.
Sustainable development is multisectoral in its nature and it requires mutual harmonization
and cooperation at all levels. Therefore, the responsibility is on the elites that rule at the state
and local level to accept and apply the national sustainable development strategy not only as a
plan with a determined implementation deadline, but also as a plan whose implementation is a
never-ending process, which includes the constant adjustment of the existing sectoral and
local strategies both to the necessities imposed by the process of globalization and the natural
processes such as climate change (Veljković s.a.). To ensure an efficient national strategy it is
necessary to view the real picture of its possibilities in relation to available resources and the
real picture of the relationship with the environment (Mićunović, Novaković i Stefanović
2015).
6. CONCLUSION
The living environment is a term that implies “natural surroundings: air, water, soil,
animal and plant world; phenomena and actions: climate, ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation, noise and vibration; the man-made environment: cities and other settlements,
infrastructural, industrial and other buildings, including the historical and cultural heritage”
(Bjelajac, Dašić i Spasović 2011). The tendency towards ever-increasing progress and
production in order to improve living conditions has also resulted in adverse consequences,
which are reflected in the ecological crisis, i.e. the disturbance of the ecological balance. The
rapid growth of human activity since the industrial revolution has resulted in the
consumption of vast amounts of resources and energy, consumed over a relatively short time.
Mass consumption and a high level of production have a significant influence on the ecology
of the Earth, exploitation of non-renewable resources and creation of ecological problems,
which lead to air, water and soil pollution (Srebrenkoska, Jašić, Sokolović i Cvrk 2013).
However, the dominant opinion today is that nature has its ultimate limits within which
humans have to act, and overstepping these limits endangers their own survival. It has been
shown that humans do not rule nature, and that nature is not inexhaustible, thus the wrong
valuation of the world around us leads to an imminent disturbance in the ecological balance
and ensuing environmental problems (Miltojević 2004a). The ecological crisis represents
the endangered stable functioning of both biosphere and society, which jeopardizes the
existence of humans as both natural and social beings (Nešković 2009). Therefore, it is not
by accident that environmental awareness has been developed (Miladinović 2012). The
environmental issue has become the constituent part of political programmes in the majority
of industrially developed countries. Still, the advocates of environmental protection often
remonstrate that not much has been changed (Stojaković 2009).
The general situation in the majority of countries is still deteriorating, despite the
success in the reduction of certain types of air pollution. During 2014 the air in the Belgrade
region was moderately polluted, while on the territory of the city of Valjevo, in Western
Serbia, the air was highly polluted. The sewerage system covers 48% of the population of
the Republic of Serbia, with huge variations in the coverage between the districts, as well as
between the urban and rural population. The largest cities of Belgrade, Novi Sad, and Niš
release their wastewater untreated into the rivers. The loss of water in the water supply
system in Serbia has a negative trend. On the other hand, the geographical position of the
country, the variety of climate conditions and the situation in habitats create a rich
biodiversity.
The concept of sustainable development is a new notion, particularly in Serbia. It is a
multidisciplinary concept that includes economics, ecology, ethics, sociology, law, and is
rounded up by politics. It relates to the harmonization of the economic, social and
ecological dimension of development, i.e. the harmonization of production with nature in a

way that would not lead to its being endangered. It links the welfare of the present and
future generations with the capacities and limitations of the biosphere with the aim of
making life on Earth sustainable (Obradović, Stanković i Obradović 2007). The positive
side of this concept is that it appreciates the diversity of actual societies including the
differences in their political and economic systems, different development goals of certain
societies, as well as the specificities of local conditions and important safety aspects
(Miladinović 2012).
Globalization is the process of economic, social, cultural and political activity that
transcends the borders of nation states. On the one hand, this process offers the opportunity
to advance, while on the other, it creates the danger of differentiation, increasing poverty
and the subordinate position of undeveloped countries in the world of ever-growing
interdependence. Globalization negatively affects the environmental quality in all countries,
primarily the underdeveloped ones. However, what is certain is that globalization is an
indisputable fact. It cannot be removed, avoided or neglected. It should be accepted and
directed and shaped for the better (Karlić, 2008). Globalization also contributes to the
strengthening of supranational institutions, which is very important for environmental
protection and sustainable development, since ecological problems transcend national
borders, and can be solved only through joint ventures at the global level. The development
of technology, particularly information technology, which connects completely different
societies through space and time, offers the possibility of the rapid spreading of
information, including information on the endangerment of the environment, which could
positively affect the development of environmental awareness and environmental culture
(Miltojević 2004a). Serbia cannot certainly measure up to other countries in every field, but
what it can and, as Kuzmanović (2012) states, must do, is to turn globalization into its
instrument of development and progress.
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KONCEPT EKOLOŠKE ODRŽIVOSTI I KRATAK OSVRT

NA POKUŠAJE NJEGOVE PRIMENE U SRBIJI
Osnovu napretka savremenog društva čini razvoj nauke i tehnologije, što je intenzivirano procesima
globalizacije.Težnja za sve većim progresom, sve većom proizvodnjom kako bi se poboljšali uslovi života
ljudi stvorili su i štetne posledice koje se ogledaju u ekološkoj krizi, odnosno narušavanju ekološke
ravnoteže. U težnji za pronalaženjem rešenja nastao je model održivog razvoja u čijoj je osnovi
usaglašavanje ekonomskih potreba sa očuvanjem ekološke ravnoteže na globalnom nivou, ali i lokalnom
nivou.Zdrava i kvalitetna životna sredina ne samo da je osnovni uslov ekonomskog bogatstva, već su čist
vazduh, zdrava voda i zdravo zemljište, te hrana osnovni preduslovi za dobro zdravlje ljudi.
Koncept održivog razvoja je relativno nov pojam, posebno u Srbiji. Međutim, on nije dovoljno
razvijan niti sprovođen u našoj zemlji. Razlozi za ovakvo stanje su mnogobrojni, među kojima
svakako značajno mesto zauzima nezavidna ekonomska situacija, ali i činjenica da koncept
održivog razvoja još uvek ne predstavlja široko prihvaćenu paradigmu razvoja u Srbiji. Za Srbiju,
kao zemlje u razvoju, posebno je značajno očuvati ekološku ravnotežu i obezbediti održivi razvoj
što je ostvarivo između ostalog i kroz međunarodnu saradnju u sferi zaštite životne sredine.
Ključne reči: životna sredina, ekološka kriza, održivi razvoj, Srbija.
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
https://doi.org/10.22190/FUPSPH1801071V
Review Paper
TECHNOAESTHETICS: SOME REMARKS

ON THE COVERGENCE OF AESTHETICS AND TECHNOLOGY 
UDC 111.852
Maroje Višić
Dubrovnik, Croatia
Abstract. This article has two main points: 1) there are no reasons why sexual ethics
should be excluded from fashionable “applied ethics” and “bioethics” investigations, and
2) that the key concepts of “sexual discourse” – especially the concept of “perversion” –
deserves full philosophical attention. As an example, the author offers a brief analysis of
the reasons why, despite the ruling “libertarian paradigm”, the concept of “perversion”
should be kept in ordinary language.
Key words: bioethics, sexual ethics, perversion, ordinary language.
1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to thoroughly examine the question and application of
technology and perhaps offer a new theoretical perspective on the usage of technology
expressed through the notion of ―technoaesthetics‖. In this attempt I will draw on
Heidegger‘s, (especially) Marcuse‘s and Jonas‘ works. These philosophers laid milestones
and profoundly changed the understanding of technology – namely the very essence of
technology. Heidegger refuted the common understanding of technology as something
instrumental and argued that technology is a mode of enframing and revealing. Marcuse‘s
works characterizes lifelong searching for liberation and emancipation of the individuals.
The question of technology occupies a significant place in Marcuse‘s critical theory. It is
precisely in technology which transformed not only the character of labor but societies in
general that Marcuse saw the strongest revolutionary potential for the ―qualitative
change‖. Thus, it could be said that Marcuse perceived technology as a new ontology. At
last Jonas comes after the technology that failed to deliver the promise of liberation
which Marcuse constantly emphasized. The world changing experience of the atomic
bomb corroborated Heidegger‘s warning that the very essence of technology holds the
Received April 23, 2017 / Accepted May 27, 2018

Corresponding author: Maroje Višić
Dubrovnik, Croatia
E-mail: maroje_asi@yahoo.com

72 M. VIŠIĆ
greatest peril for humanity. Profoundly affected with this enormous life-threatening
potential of technology, Jonas reformulates Kant‘s categorical imperative stating that life
(as an omnipresent) idea must exist and that no one has any claims to endanger life on
Earth. Thus, by introducing the notion of ―technoaesthetics‖ I will attempt to capture and
describe the new mode of usage of technology that as it seems is fundamental to
Heidegger, Marcuse and Jonas.
2. THE ESSENCE OF TECHNOLOGY

To completely comprehend Marcuse‘s argument, it is unavoidable to mention
Marcuse‘s philosophical debt to Martin Heidegger. Heidegger‘s influence on Marcuse‘s
thought is unquestioned and it is also present in Marcuse‘s dealings with technology. 1
Heidegger differentiates between technics in Greek understanding and modern technic.
In the former technics is part of the poiesis. It relates to a mode of production as well as art
– technics which the artist uses in creating art. In the modern sense, Heidegger (1977)
argues, technics is not a part of poiesis. Modern technics is used for bringing-forth which
means revealing something that is hidden. To put it in Heidegger‘s words: ―What has the
essence of technology to do with revealing? The answer: everything. For every bringing-
forth is grounded in revealing (…) Instrumentality is considered to be fundamental
characteristic of technology (…) Technology is therefore no more means. Technology is a
way of revealing‖ (Heidegger 1977, 5). What Heidegger tries to demonstrate is that
revealing (unconcealment) is not part of poiesis and that this way of revealing profoundly
affects human perception of the world and nature. So according to Heidegger the
unconcealing in modern technic has a form, an essence of setting-in-order in the sense of
1
Heidegger‘s influence on Marcuse should be noted here in order to dismiss Schoolman‘s (1984) misinterpretation
of Marcuse. Schoolman (1984) argues that Marcuse‘s understanding of technology is largely influenced by
Weber‘s notion of rationality while Heidegger‘s influence is menial. Schoolman‘s (1984) argument is that Marcuse
closely follows Weber according to whom domination is immanent to technological rationality. In the essay
Industrialization and Capitalism in the Work of Max Weber Marcuse is critical of Weber and he clearly
demonstrates, contrary to Schoolman‘s (1984) claim, that: ―But it is precisely here, at this most decisive point,
where Weber‘s analysis becomes self-criticism, that one can see how much this analysis has fallen prey to the
identification of technical reason with bourgeois capitalist reason. This identification prevents him from seeing that
not ‗pure‘, formal, technical reason but the reason of domination erects the ‗shell of bondage‘, and that the
consummation of technical reason can well become the instrument for the liberation of man‖ (Marcuse 1937, 167). As
I tried to show it is precisely Heidegger‘s notion of ―standing-reserve‖ that is central to Marcuse‘s understanding of
technology. Like Heidegger, Marcuse also sought liberating possibilities that technology could offer and this is so
much unlike Weber‘s understanding: ―On the basis of its own achievements, that is, of productive and calculable
mechanization, this separation contains the potentiality of a qualitatively different rationality, in which separation from
the means of production becomes the separation of man from the socially necessary labor that de-purposiveness would
be no longer ‗antinomical‘; nor would administer automated production, formal and substantive purposiveness would
be no longer ‗antinomical‘; nor would formal reason prevail indifferently among and over men. For, as ‗congealed
spirit‘, the machine is not neutral; technical reason is the social reason ruling a given society and can be changed in its
very structure. As technical reason, it can become the technique of liberation. For Max Weber this possibility was
utopian. Today it looks as if he was right. But if contemporary industrial society defeats and triumphs over its own
potentialities, then this triumph is no longer that of Max Weber‘s bourgeois reason‖ (Marcuse 1937, 169).
Regarding Heidegger‘s ―menial‖ influence on Marcuse, it suffices to cite the acknowledgments from Marcuse‘s
habilitation: ―Any contribution this work may make on the development and clarification of problems is indebted to
the philosophical work of Martin Heidegger‖ (Marcuse 1987[1932], 5).
Technoaesthetics: Some Remarks on the Covergence of Aesthetics and Technology 73
challenging forth.2 According to Heidegger (1977) modern technic characterizes scientific

relation toward nature which is evident in the accumulation of energy resources ever ready
to be distributed. This is what Heidegger (1977) calls ―standing-reserve‖ (Bestand) and
argues that this should be understood in terms of enframing and ordering. It is in the
―standing-reserve‖ and not in the instrumental use of technic that Heidegger saw the
greatest peril for men. That peril lies in the possibility that ―standing-reserve‖ becomes the
single mode of revealing. If this is to happen, then man would be absorbed by technics by
becoming himself part of ―standing-reserve‖. To put it in Heidegger‘s words: ―The essence
of technology lies in Enframing. Its holding sway belongs within destining. Since destining
at any given time starts man on a way of revealing, man, thus under way, is continually
approaching the brink of the possibility of pursuing and pushing forward nothing but what
is revealed in ordering, and of deriving all his standards on this basis. Through this the other
possibility is blocked, that man might be admitted more and sooner and ever more primary
to the essence of that which is unconcealed and to its unconcealment, in order that he might
experience as his essence his needed belonging to revealing. Placed between these
possibilities, man is endangered from out of destining. The destining of revealing is as such,
in every one of its modes, and therefore necessarily, danger (…) yet when destining reigns
in the mode of Enframing, it is the supreme danger. This danger attests itself to us in two
ways. As soon as what is unconcealed no longer concerns man even as object, but does so,
rather, exclusively as standing-reserve, and man in the midst of objectlessness is nothing
but the orderer of the standing-reserve, then he comes to the very brink of a precipitous fall;
that is, he comes to the point where he himself will have to be taken as standing-reserve‖
(Heidegger 1977, 13–14).
2
To demonstrate how technology affects human understanding of world and nature Heidegger offers an
example of the Rhine river: ―The hydroelectric plant is set into the current of the Rhine. It sets the Rhine to
supplying its hydraulic pressure, which then sets the turbines turning. This turning sets those machines in
motion whose thrust sets going the electric current for which the long-distance power station and its network of
cables are set up to dispatch electricity. In the context of the interlocking processes pertaining to the orderly
disposition of electrical energy, even the Rhine itself appears as something at our command. The hydroelectric
plant is not built into the Rhine River as was the old wooden bridge that joined bank with bank for hundreds of
years. Rather the river is dammed up into the power plant. What the river is now, namely, a water power
supplier, derives from out of the essence of the power station. In order that we may even remotely consider the
monstrousness that reigns here, let us ponder for a moment the contrast that speaks out of the two titles, ―The
Rhine‖ as dammed up into the power works, and ‗The Rhine‘ as uttered out of the art work, in Hölderlin‘s
hymn by that name. But, it will be replied, the Rhine is still a river in the landscape, is it not? Perhaps. But how?
In no other way than as an object on call for inspection by a tour group ordered there by the vacation industry.
The revealing that rules throughout modern technology has the character of a setting-upon, in the sense of a
challenging-forth‖ (Heidegger 1977, 7).
Compared with Marcuse‘s example it could be noted that he almost paraphrases Heidegger: ―Let us take a
simple example. A man who travels by automobile to a distant place chooses his route from the highway maps.
Towns, lakes and mountains appear as obstacles to be bypassed. The countryside is shaped and organized by the
highway: what one finds en route is a byproduct or annex of the highway. Numerous signs and posters tell the
traveler what to do and think; they even request his attention to the beauties of nature or the hallmarks of
history. Others have done the thinking for him, and perhaps for the better. Convenient parking spaces have been
constructed where the broadest and most surprising view is open. Giant advertisements tell him when to stop
and find the pause that refreshes. And all of this is indeed for his benefit, safety and comfort; he receives what
he wants. Business, technics, human needs and nature are welded together into one rational and expedient
mechanism. He will fare best who follows its directions, subordinating his spontaneity to the anonymous
wisdom which ordered everything for him‖ (Marcuse 1941, 46).
74 M. VIŠIĆ
Even though Heidegger‘s treatment of modern technology is somehow pessimistic for

the men‘s destiny he still offers a glimpse of hope. As a dialectical thinker, Heidegger
believed that everything in itself holds a negation which means that something is not what it
is or that by negating itself could become something else. The same principle of negation
applies to the essence ―standing-reserve‖ of modern technology and offers a hope in
deliverance. Heidegger demonstrates this saving possibility: ―But what help is it to us to
look into the constellation of truth? We look into the danger and see the growth of the
saving power. Through this we are not yet saved. But we are thereupon summoned to hope
in the growing light of the saving power. How can this happen? Here and now and in little
things, that we may foster the saving power in its increase. This includes holding always
before our eyes the extreme danger. The coming to presence of technology threatens
revealing, threatens it with the possibility that all revealing will be consumed in ordering
and that everything will present itself only in the unconcealedness of standing-reserve.
Human activity can never directly counter this danger. Human achievement alone can never
banish it. But human reflection can ponder the fact that all saving power must be of the
higher essence than what is endangered, though at the same time kindred to it‖ (Heidegger
1977, 18). Heidegger emphasized the power of reason in this liberation from ―standing-
reserve‖. The reason alone needs to be guided and this guidance is found in art. The art by
her poetic revealing counters the technological mode of revealing. So reasoning on
technology must happen from the realm of aesthetics. On this question Heidegger
concludes: ―Because the essence of technology is nothing technological, essential reflection
upon technology and decisive confrontation with it must happen in a realm that is, on the
one hand, akin to the essence of technology and, on the other, fundamentally different from
it. Such a realm is art. But certainly only if reflection on art, for its part, does not shut its
eyes to the constellation of truth after which we are questioning. Thus questioning, we bear
witness to the crisis that in our sheer preoccupation with technology we do not yet
experience the coming to presence of technology, that in our sheer aesthetic-mindedness we
no longer guard and preserve the coming to presence of art. Yet the more questioningly we
ponder the essence of technology, the more mysterious the essence of art becomes‖
(Heidegger 1977, 19).
3. TECHNOLOGICAL RATIONALITY
Although Marcuse explicitly discussed technology in his perhaps best-known works
Eros and Civilization and One Dimensional Man I will consider the question of technology
by analyzing the complete works of Herbert Marcuse. This analysis is necessary in order to
avoid misunderstandings about the alleged inconsistence in Marcuse‘s thoughts on
technology. For example, reflecting on the 50 years after publishing One Dimensional Man
Whitfield argues: ―Nor are Eros and Civilization and One-Dimensional Man entirely
consistent. For example, Eros and Civilization envisions technology as a catalyst of
emancipation, freeing humanity from drudgery and permitting a polymorphous sexuality to
pervade utopia. The latter book repudiates technocratic bureaucracy, however, and
condemns the exploitation of nature that scientific progress is supposed to achieve‖
(Whitfield 2014, 106). Whitfield has misconceptions about Marcuse‘s understanding of
technology due to his unfamiliarity with Marcuse‘s complete opus and especially
Marcuse‘s early works which are actually the keys to understanding his later writings.3
Marcuse was consistent in thinking that technology could bring liberation. The only
difference was that at first he thought that liberation is inherent in technological
development and later he argued that it is a political decision to use technology in a
liberating way. This article will attempt to clarify the fallacy regarding the role of
technology in Marcuse‘s works.
Before examining in detail the political role of technology, it is important to note that
the signs of the technology as a new ontology are already present in the essays from the
1920s to 1930s which can be located to Marcuse‘s ―heideggerian-marxism‖ or
―phenomenological marxism‖ period. In On the Concrete Philosophy Marcuse writes: ―An
example: in the intoxication of power that has accompanied advancements in technology
and rationalization in contemporary society, it has been overlooked that the personal power
of humans over nature and ‗things‘ has not increased, but decreased! Just as humans as
‗economic subjects and objects‘ find themselves in thrall to a commodity economy that has
become a self-sufficient ‗entity‘, rather than in a situation where their industry is an
appropriate mode of their existing, so it is that their tools-machines, means of
transportation, electricity, light, power-have become for them so large and burdensome that,
seen from the perspective of the individual, those people who use these tools must
increasingly adapt their existences to suit them, must enter into their service. Indeed, it
becomes clear that ever more lives are being consumed in order to keep them
‗functioning‘!‖ (Marcuse 1929, 43–44).
The essay Some Implications of Modern Technology represents a turning point in
Marcuse‘s search for the subject of a revolution. It is evident that Marcuse perceived the
proletariat‘s impotence to bring about revolution due to its integration into society which
was largely based upon rapid technological advancement which rendered physically
exhausting labor obsolete. This fact offered Marcuse an argument that technology in itself
holds catalytic potential for advancement of freedom and even more a reduction of time
spent at work.
Marcuse‘s thoughts on technology are profoundly influenced by Heidegger‘s above
mentioned arguments. Especially Marcuse‘s term ―technological rationality‖ is deeply
rooted in Heidegger‘s understanding of ―standing-reserve‖. Where Heidegger thought of
potential danger for men to be absorbed by technology Marcuse thought it had already
happened and termed it ―technological rationality‖. Following Heidegger, Marcuse
emphasized the emancipatory potential in the essence of technology and in his later works
Marcuse developed Heidegger‘s argument on art and technology further by envisioning the
3
Habermas (1968) argues that it is impossible to understand Marcuse, especially Eros and the Civilization, without
studying his early works. Marcuse‘s critics also emphasized the importance and continuity of his early works. Farr
argues: ―Marcuse‘s work on Freud must be taken as only a moment within a larger more complex project‖ (Farr
2009, 63). Schoolman is also aware of this fact: ―Criticism is focused largely upon Marcuse‘s thought as it took
shape after 1933. But before the nightmarish shock of that year produced a dramatic turn in Marcuse‘s thinking, his
early work had constituted a significant project that ought to be pursued by contemporary social theory…‖
(Schoolman, 1984: xiii). Perhaps the best statement on this has been offered by the critic MacIntyre: ―The
importance of this early papers does not lie only in the fact that they constitute a first statement of the thesis which
informs the whole of his later work. For on certain points they are more explicit than anything in the later work‖
(MacIntyre 1970, 16).
76 M. VIŠIĆ
cooperation of technology and art in creating a new society. A detailed examination of

Marcuse‘s thoughts on technology follows.
Like Heidegger, Marcuse also sees dualistic potential of technology: a danger and a
liberation force: ―Technics by itself can promote authoritarianism as well as liberty, scarcity
as well as abundance, the extension as well as abolition of toil‖ (Marcuse 1941, 41). But
while Heidegger thought that deliverance can be approached by thinking as a distinctive
human category, Marcuse observed that the technological advancement created a new form
of rationality – ―technological rationality‖ which subdued humankind to technological
apparatus. Marcuse describes this argument: ―Technology, as a mode of production, as the
totality of instruments, devices and contrivances which characterize the machine age is thus
at the same time a mode of organizing and perpetuating (or changing) social relationships, a
manifestation of prevalent thought and behavior patterns, an instrument for control and
domination (…) In the course of the technological process a new rationality and new
standards of individuality have spread over society, different from and even opposed to
those which initiated the march of technology‖ (Marcuse 1941, 41–42). What Marcuse
observed was that the development of technology directly affected the creation of new
rationality and individuality. But Marcuse immediately emphasized that this is not due to
the instrumentalist usage of technology (same as Heidegger (1977) argued) but that it is the
sole factor in its essence and development. In order to demonstrate this argument Marcuse
(1941) contrasts the idea of individuality in the 16th and 17th century with the new
technological individuality. Marcuse argues that in the former the interest of the individual
did not necessarily overlap with the interests of society and thus the individual was free in
criticizing dominant norms of society and in seeking and realizing true norms. The
realization of these norms was possible in liberal society as this mode of social organization
offered the possibilities for development of individual rationality. Marcuse (1941) argues
that the individuality demonstrated itself in the sphere of free competition, goods and
services which became an integral part of a society‘s needs. In Marcuse‘s opinion, the
development of mechanization and rationality based upon competitive effectiveness and in
favoring companies with highly mechanized industrial equipment instead of individual
entrepreneur abolished this 16th and 17th century idea of individualism. For Marcuse (1941)
this kind of efficiency means profit, and profit means profitable employment of the
apparatus to the extent that it dictates quantitative production and distribution of goods and
through this power technology affects entire rationality thus creating a new kind of
rationality – technological rationality. Marcuse describes technological rationality as:
―Under the impact of this apparatus, individualistic rationality has been transformed into
technological rationality. It is by no means confined to the subjects and objects of large
scale enterprises but characterizes the pervasive mode of thought and even the manifold
forms of protest and rebellion. This rationality establishes standards of judgment and fosters
attitudes which make men ready to accept and even to introcept the dictates of the
apparatus‖ (Marcuse 1941, 44).
Marcuse (1941) argues that individuality under the technological rationality is
transformed into standardized efficiency in which the individual is considered efficient if
his freedom and actions are in accordance with the objective demands of the apparatus.
Under technological rationality man internalizes the rationality of the machine.4 The
categories in which man now thinks are: efficiency, productivity, feasibility, profitability,
expediency and convenience. Marcuse explains this in detail: ―The facts directing man‘s
thought and action are not those of nature which must be accepted in order to be mastered,
or those of society which must be changed because they no longer correspond to human
needs and potentialities. Rather they are those of the machine process, which itself appears
as the embodiment of rationality and expediency‖ (Marcuse 1941, 46).
The key insight is that the individual is not deprived of his individuality by some
external force as it was for example the organization of capital whose moments would be
abolished by the revolution as Marx argued. Instead, the individual is deprived of his
autonomy and individuality by the same rationality under which he is living. This is one
factor in explaining the diminishment of revolutionary consciousness: ―Today, the
prevailing type of individual is no longer capable of seizing the fateful moment which
constitutes his freedom. He has changed his function; from a unit of resistance and
autonomy, he has passed to one of ductility and adjustment. It is this function which
associates individuals in masses‖ (Marcuse 1941, 55).
Marcuse concludes his early thoughts on technology in the same optimistic tone as
Heidegger (1977) did. In technology Marcuse sees an opportunity for individual development.
This opportunity presents itself namely in the technological capability of reducing necessary
time spent at work.5 To put it in Marcuse‘s words: ―Technological progress would make it
possible to decrease the time and energy spent in the production of the necessities of life, and
a gradual reduction of scarcity and abolition of competitive pursuits could permit the self to
develop from its natural roots. The less time and energy man has to expend in maintaining his
life and that of society, the greater the possibility that he can ―individualize‖ the sphere of his
human realization. Beyond the realm of necessity, the essential differences between men
could unfold themselves: everyone could think and act by himself, speak his own language,
have his own emotions and follow his own passions‖ (Marcuse 1941, 64).
In the following lines I will examine how Marcuse perceived the emancipatory but also
oppressive role of technology.
4. THE TRANSFORMATIVE POTENTIAL OF TECHNOLOGY

In Eros and Civilization Marcuse offered his vision of the possibility of non-repressive
civilization. This possibility is partly brought about by the technological advancement
which helped the abolishment of toil. In order to understand the possibility of civilization
without repression and the role of technology in it, a brief overview of Freud‘s thoughts on
civilization is necessary.
4
By using term ―technological rationality‖ Marcuse attempts to describe the effect that advanced industrial civilization
has on men. This term elaborates Marx observation which early industrial society had on man: ―Machine
accommodates itself to the weakness of man in order to make a machine out of the weak man‖ (Marx 1985, 290).
5
It should be noted that in Marcuse‘s theory liberation means liberation from the burden and duration of work.
In On the Philosophical Foundations of the concept of Labor in Economics Marcuse (1933) demonstrated that
individual passions and development come on the other side of the labor medal – the play which is strictly
reserved for leisure time. Thus freedom for Marcuse means minimizing labor time and increasing leisure time.
Marcuse saw in technology an opportunity for this.
78 M. VIŠIĆ
Freud (1962) understands the development of an individual as the permanent conflict

between eros and thanatos. The conflict of these two basics human instincts is similar to the
development of civilization through conflict also. Conflict of the civilization takes the form
of conflict between the pleasure principle and reality principle. While the pleasure principle
seeks to maximize gratification, the reality principle imposes restrictions upon the pleasure
principle demanding the negation of instincts and postponing of gratification. Renunciation
of instincts is then a pre-requirement for the development of civilization. Freud (1962)
enumerates two basic renunciations which are demanded by civilization: renunciation of
sexual gratification and renunciation of aggression. According to Freud (1962), civilization
became an increasingly male business. Since men do not have unlimited quantities of
sexual energy (libido) they have to make a distribution of their libido. In doing so,
civilization exploits sexual energy for its further advancement. In order to eliminate
aggression among the members of the same group civilization tends to bind members of the
community by libidinal ties. Civilization uses its utmost effort to advance the strong
identification of the members. Thus, once again sexual energy had to be restricted in order
to establish friendship relations. Regarding the further development of civilization Freud
offers somehow pessimistic conclusion arguing that with its development civilization would
require even more restrictions: ―… to represent the sense of guilt as the most important
problem in the development of civilization and to show that the price we pay for our
advance in civilization is a loss of happiness through the heightening of the sense of guilt‖
(Freud 1962, 81).
The main problem of Freud‘s theory of civilization development is that he considered
repression to be a universal principle. In other words, Freud‘s theory is lacking a
differentiation of historical epochs. In a word, Freud‘s theory is ahistorical. Marcuse
(1974[1956]) immediately detects this deficiency and argues that the necessity for
repression is always historical and that it is caused by the societal production and
reproduction conditioned by the scarcity of material goods. In order to differentiate more
clearly between basic biological and socially conditioned repression, Marcuse introduces
the terms ―surplus repression‖ and ―performance principle‖: ―the restrictions necessitated
by social domination. This is distinguished from (basic) repression: the ‗modifications‘ of
the instincts necessary for the perpetuation of the human race in civilization. Performance
principle [is] the prevailing historical form of the reality principle‖ (Marcuse 1974, 33). As
it was mentioned earlier, labor is the central category of Marcuse‘s critical theory. Marcuse
understands freedom in terms of the transformation of the character of labor. And it is
precisely the notion of labor that is behind the ―surplus repression‖ and the ―performance
principle‖. Repression and restriction of instincts was needed in the historical era of
material scarcity which demanded toil in order to provide for the basic needs. But the
advancement of modern industrial civilization owes much to the rapid development of
technology which in turn changes the amount of energy and time spent at labor. In other
words, technology holds negating potential for overcoming the ―kingdom of necessity‖. To
put it in Marcuse‘s words: ―The available resources make for a qualitative change in the
human needs. Rationalization and mechanization of labor tend to reduce the quantum of
instinctual energy channeled into toil (alienated labor), thus freeing energy for the
attainment of objectives set by the free play of individual faculties. Technology operates
against the repressive utilization of energy in so far as it minimizes the time necessary for
the production of the necessities of life, thus saving time for the development of needs
beyond the realm of necessity and of necessary waste‖ (Marcuse 1974, 63). The main
argument is that technology can liberate eros or in other words that the comprehensive
satisfaction of needs can be achieved without toil. This in turn is possible only with the
changed characteristic of labor. Marcuse emphasizes this possibility: ―This quality would
reflect the prevalent satisfaction of the basic human needs (most primitive at the first, vastly
extended and refined at the second stage), sexual as well as social: food, housing, clothing,
leisure. This satisfaction would be (and this is the important point) without toil - that is,
without the rule of alienated labor over the human existence‖ (Marcuse 1974, 94). In Eros
and Civilization Marcuse envisages a welfare society where productivity is not conditioned
by an instinctual repression and alienated labor. Owing to the technology and growing
mechanization of work a returning of libidinal energy to eros is possible. Technology thus
has the potential of eliminating alienated labor. The technology‘s liberating potential clearly
contradicts Freud‘s conclusion about further development of civilization and on the other
hand it complements Freud‘s theory of individual development by offering a possibility to
liberate eros.
The question of technology is also an important part of Marcuse‘s analysis of soviet
marxism.6 Marcuse (1958) argued that the technological development of western societies
enables parallel sustainability of the military industry and raising living standard. Marcuse
(1958) argues that this means that the soviet society actually supports the stability and unity of
capitalistic society. The soviet society placed enormous efforts in technological and industrial
development. Marcuse (1958) considers an attempt to win the economic and technological
race with western society a crucial factor of soviet marxism. According to Marcuse, the soviet
society should be partly criticized on a technological basis: ―In its most visible form, the link
is in the technical economic basis common to both systems, i.e., mechanized (and increasingly
mechanized) industry as the mainspring of societal organization in all spheres of life. As
against this common technical-economic denominator stands the very different institutional
structure-private enterprise here, nationalized enterprise there‖ (Marcuse 1958, 5–6). Marcuse
perceived in the soviet society the same factors which hindered the development of
individuality and autonomy in western society. In other words, in his analysis Marcuse applies
the previously mentioned concept of ―technological rationality‖ in order to demonstrate the
devastating effect of technology on the individual: ―… the same mechanization and
rationalization generated attitudes of standardized conformity and precise submission to the
machine which required adjustment and reaction rather than autonomy and spontaneity. If
nationalization and centralization of the industrial apparatus goes hand in hand with (…) the
subjugation and enforcement of labor as a fulltime occupation, progress in industrialization is
tantamount to progress in domination: attendance to the machine, the scientific work process,
becomes totalitarian, affecting all spheres of life‖ (Marcuse 1958, 84). From this citation it
could be noted that the soviet‘s technological development not only had not liberated
individuals, but had subjected them even more to the production apparatus. Marcuse
introduces the term ―new rationality‖ for which he considers to be an adequate description of
6
Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis is usually omitted from the bibliography of those who are critical as well as
of those who are sympathetic to Marcuse‘s theory. The reason for omitting it is that Soviet Marxism was written
during Marcuse‘s work in the Russian Institute and it was written on the order of the CIA. Marcuse himself did not
consider it a part of his main current of thought. Nevertheless, Soviet Marxism is important in Marcuse‘s theory
since in it he develops further the notion of ―technological rationality‖, demonstrates the distortion of Marx‘s theory
which in turn testifies to Marcuse‘s commitment to Marx. In conclusion, Soviet Marxism is an eastern counterpart
of One Dimensional Man.
80 M. VIŠIĆ
soviets‘ reality.7 The term ―new rationality‖ is actually an augmented notion of the previously
mentioned and demonstrated ―technological rationality‖. It is Marcuse‘s contention that the
soviet‘s ―new rationality‖ largely uses ―technological rationality‖. What Marcuse attempted to
demonstrate is that in its essence soviet society, just like capitalist society, is repressive and
that it uses technology in the same repressive way as its capitalistic counterpart. This draws
the conclusion that the soviet and capitalist society share the same technical base.
It was previously mentioned that in Eros and Civilization Marcuse considered that
technological development per se can initiate social transformation. But now Marcuse
learned that technology can produce even more repression regardless of the better standard
of living. It is now important to note that Marcuse perceives social transformation solely as
a political decision to use technology for different (liberating) purposes: ―Modern
machinery is susceptible to capitalist as well as socialist utilization. This amounts to saying
that mature capitalism and socialism have the same technical base, and that the historical
decision as to how this base is to be used is a political decision (…) No matter how high the
level of technical progress and material culture, of labor productivity and efficiency, the
change from socialist necessity to socialist freedom can only be the result of conscious
effort and decision. The maintenance of repressive production relations enables the Soviet
state, with the instrumentalities of universal control, to regiment the consciousness of the
underlying population‖ (Marcuse 1958, 185–190).
In One Dimensional Man, Marcuse offers his final critical statement on technology.
Thus One Dimensional Man should be read as Marcuse‘s attempt to create critical theory of
technologically advanced societies. While before he emphasized the neutral or even
liberating character of technology, Marcuse (1964) is now certain that the domination is
immanent to technology: ―In the face of the totalitarian features of this society, the traditional
notion of the ―neutrality‖ of technology can no longer be maintained. Technology as such
cannot be isolated from the use to which it is put; the technological society is a system of
domination which operates already in the concept and construction of techniques‖ (Marcuse
1964, xlvi). Marcuse‘s main (Hegelian) thesis is that technologically advanced societies
produced and enabled the technologization of lordship. In other words, Marcuse noticed the
proletariat‘s integration and with it the disappearance of revolutionary consciousness. This
integration was possible on the technological basis. Marcuse observes the changes in the
structure and function of the two antagonistic classes and argues: ―And to the degree to
which technical progress assures the growth and cohesion of the communist society, the
very idea of qualitative change recedes before the realistic notions of a non-explosive
evolution‖ (Marcuse 1964, xliii). The technological basis resembles an attempt to mitigate
the gap between two antagonistic classes. It is precisely in this resemblance that Marcuse
finds the ideological function of technology in suppressing the revolution: ―Here, the so-
called equalization of class distinctions reveals its ideological function. If the worker and
his boss enjoy the same television program and visit the same resort places, if the typist is
as attractively made up as the daughter of her employer (…) then this assimilation indicates
not the disappearance of classes, but the extent to which the needs and satisfactions that
7
In its usage in the soviet‘s analysis term ―new rationality‖ has a wider and more comprehensive meaning than the
term ―new rationality‖. A detailed examination of the ―new rationality‖ would be out of the paper‘s scope but it should
be noted that according to Marcuse ―new rationality‖ incorporates a set for creating social reality: ―technological
rationality‖, pragmatic production of desired attitudes, ideological character of language and ritualization and magic
usage of Marx‘s theory.
serve the preservation of the Establishment are shared by the underlying population‖
(Marcuse 1964, 10).
Technological advancement also altered the definition of a laborer. In Marx‘s theory the
laborer was understood as a manual laborer who by toil consumes his power. Satisfaction of
needs was largely basic and it consisted of nourishment and sleep. Both of them helped the
laborer regain his strength in order to perform the same toil tomorrow. Marcuse (1964)
noticed that technology overcame this physiological and biological fact of Marx‘s era: ―The
technological change which tends to do away with the machine as individual instrument of
production, as ‗absolute unit‘, seems to cancel the Marxian notion of the ‗organic
composition of capital‘ and with it the theory of the creation of surplus value‖ (Marcuse
1964, 31). According to Marcuse (1964), the crucial change is that instead of the laborer, it
is the machine that creates a surplus value. The transition from classical to advanced
capitalism abolished Hegelian and Marxian relation of lordship, serfdom and overcoming.
Marcuse describes this change: ―The capitalist bosses and owners are losing their identity as
responsible agents; they are assuming the function of bureaucrats in a corporate machine.
Within the vast hierarchy of executive and managerial boards extending far beyond the
individual establishment into the scientific laboratory and research institute, the national
government and national purpose, the tangible source of exploitation disappears behind the
facade of objective rationality (…) And this mutual dependence is no longer the dialectical
relationship between Master and Servant, which has been broken in the struggle for mutual
recognition, but rather a vicious circle which encloses both the Master and the Servant‖
(Marcuse 1964, 35–36). Marcuse believes that the containment of social change is
dependable on the level in which the politics of ―technological rationality‖ is able to elevate
standard of living by efficient subjection of science and technological inventions. Marcuse
sums up: ―… the highest stage of capitalist development corresponds, in the advanced
capitalist countries, to a low of revolutionary potential‖ (Marcuse 1972, 5).
Marx argued that the movement of history is influenced by the specific social
organization of production, and in that sense it is evident that Marx considered the character
of technology to be neutral: ―In acquiring new productive forces men change their mode of
production; and in changing their mode of production, in changing the way of earning their
living, they change all their social relations. The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal
lord; the steam-mill society with the industrial capitalist‖ (Marx 2010[1847], 73). But
Marcuse differs here from Marx in perceiving the totalitarian character of technology.
According to Marcuse (1964) this totalitarian character of technology is evident in the
subjugation of men and nature to the logos of technics. The implications of this are the
impossibility of human autonomy and freedom in serving the technical apparatus which
raises the conformity and productivity of labor. For Marcuse this implies that human
relations will obtain the character of technological functioning.8 Or in other words,
8
In effect Marcuse is influenced by Lukács‘ (1971) understanding of mutual relations between reification and
consciousness. Lukács (1971) understood reification as a historical form of thingness in which relations among
people obtain character of commodity – human relations become as relations among things. According to Lukács
social reality could be penetrated only by piercing through commodity relations. To put it in Lukács‘ words: ―It
stamps its imprint upon the whole consciousness of men; his qualities and abilities are no longer an organic part of
his personality, they are things which he can ‗own‘ or ‗dispose of‘ like the various objects of external world. And
there is no natural form in which human relations could be cast, no way in which man can bring his physical and
psychic ‗qualities‘ into play without their being subjected increasingly to this reifying process‖ (Lukács 1971, 100).
82 M. VIŠIĆ
technological reification will become the dominant mode of social reality: ―Only in the
medium of technology, man and nature become fungible objects of organization. The
universal effectiveness and productivity of the apparatus under which they are subsumed
veil the particular interests that organize the apparatus. In other words, technology has
become the great vehicle of reification - reification in its most mature and effective form‖
(Marcuse 1964, 172).
4. THE NEW CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

Noticeable in Heidegger‘s and Marcuse's understanding of technology and its potential
is this overwhelming reach of technology. This reach that touched all life (organic as well
as inorganic) and changed the way we perceive nature but also the way we perceive life in
general. Jonas captures this profound change due (or thanks) to technology: ―The good or
bad (...) was near the action (...) and it wasn‘t a thing of far planning (...) The effect of
action was small, time frame for prognosis, for setting aims and for calculating was short,
the control of circumstances was limited (...) far reaching consequences were left to destiny,
coincidences or to prophecies‖ (Jonas 1990, 18). This was, of course, before the
introduction of modern technology. With modern technology human behavior also
changed. Technology transformed the character of labor, the future could be calculated, life
could even be prolonged, the human battle with Nature finally ended. Humanity was
victorious. Or was it indeed? Technological reason translated ideas of speculative reason
into the reality of technological reason. But to what effect? The atomic bomb represents the
peak of technological reason. It also represents how far technology can reach into life and
the future. For Jonas (1990) what is at stake are the idea of life and the complete planet‘s
biosphere. Thus, Jonas formulates a new ethical imperative for technological civilization:
―The Idea of humanity must exist (...) Act so that the effects of your action are in
accordance with the permanence of human life on Earth (...) Act so that the effects of your
actions are not detrimental for the future possibility of life (...) Do not put in jeopardy the
conditions for unlimited existence of humanity on Earth‖ (Jonas 1990, 28). Unlike Marcuse
who unconditionally placed trust in the capabilities of an average person for social change,
Jonas was pretty much disillusioned with the idea that the change could come from down
below – from the people. Thus, Jonas (1990) delegated the implementation of this new
categorical imperative to the person of statesman. Jonas (1990) even went so far to call for
the ―dictatorship of the enlightened‖. The reason for this is that Jonas witnessed the
devastating effect of atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima. Jonas (like Heidegger and
Marcuse) called for a new mode of instrumental usage of technology – a mode that would
not be harmful to life in all its forms and to the planet itself. Although Jonas (1990) saw this
goal attainable through the ―dictatorship of enlightened‖ his idea of nondestructive usage of
technology fits precisely into the notion of ―technoaesthetics‖: a harmonious and artistic
usage of technology for creating and preserving beauty. And life itself is one form of
beauty.
As it may be noticed, Marcuse shares Lukács‘ concept of reification but instead of commodities, Marcuse argues
that insight into reified social relations is possible through technology.
5. TECHNOAESTHETICS AND LIBERATION

What can one conclude from the previous chapters on Heidegger, Marcuse and Jonas?
These philosophers saw great power and promise in technology, but they also saw a peril
– peril for humanity and Nature. For Heidegger the escape from this peril was through
thinking as a distinct human capability. Thinking in this sense would mean contemplating
on how to use technology in accordance with Nature, in the creation of a more humane
world. This usage of technology implies in itself the category of beauty. Since all things
in Nature are already ordered in a harmonious and aesthetical way, it is only technology
that can either foster this aesthetical harmony or disturb it. For Heidegger this synergy of
technology and aesthetics was mediated through thinking as contemplating. Marcuse was
probably most enthusiastic regarding the liberating potential of technology. He saw in it a
tremendous potential for the liberation of individuals from toil and for the creation of an
aesthetic society with the help of technology. Marcuse thought that this liberating
potential would come after the (radical) change in individuals‘ consciousness. For him
technology imbued with art would act in a harmonious way with Nature. Jonas urged that
in technological civilization a new ethics is required. Ethics that would guide the usage of
technology in a way that is not disastrous only to present life, but to the very idea of life.
And if we accept that life is a form of beauty, perhaps its highest form, then in order to
change the direction of the application of technology, technology itself must be
supplemented with the category of beauty.
I propose to introduce the term ―technoaesthetics‖ since I consider it to be coincidental
within the framework of Marcuse‘s theory as well as with Heidegger‘s and Jonas‘ thoughts
on technology. Notion ―technoaestehtics‖ relates first to the invention and creation of
aestheticized technology imbued with beauty. And second, aesthetics would attain
technological instrumentality, it would become techne in the comprehensive Greek
meaning of the word. Simondon in his letter to Derrida9 explains this convergence of
technology and aesthetics: ―The Garabit viaduct, on the Truyère, is perhaps even more
remarkable, due to the inversed catenary curve of its main arc and how it‘s embedded in the
rocks of its bases. It‘s beautiful also because it‘s in the middle of nature. The viaduct
traverses nature and is traversed by it. Finally, and perhaps even more so perhaps, it‘s
beautiful due to the conditions of its construction: first the two parallel half-bridges set up
against the two hills; had there been wind on the day they were joined, it could have been
catastrophic. ‗But there will be no wind,‘ Eiffel said. And indeed, there was no wind. The
two half-bridges turned slowly and simultaneously under the traction of the cables, at a 90-
degree angle. They ended up settling, at their outer ends, against each other, and were
bolted. And since then the viaduct has existed as a unity, as something that‘s completely
perfect. This is an example of a techno-aesthetic work: perfectly functional, successful, and
beautiful. It‘s technical and aesthetic at the same time: aesthetic because it‘s technical, and
technical because it‘s aesthetic. There is intercategorial fusion‖ (Simondon 2012, 2).
9
―‘On Techno-Aesthetics‘ is a letter by Gilbert Simondon to Jacques Derrida about the foundation of the Collège
International de Philosophie (CIPH). It is dated July 3rd, 1982, and it is handwritten on letterhead paper from the
Université René Descartes. The letter was published in Issue 12 of Papiers, a collection directed by CIPH‘s program
directors. The issue also features a typewritten text by Simondon on educational reform, which is not included here.
The letter begins with a one-paragraph introduction in which Simondon addresses Derrida (‗Cher Camarade‘) and
states his support for the foundation of CIPH. The following translation starts with the second paragraph of the letter,
where Simondon launches into a reflection on techno-aesthetics‖ —Translator‘s introduction.
84 M. VIŠIĆ
In the last instance Marcuse sought possible the synergy of technology and art in the
creation of a beautiful humane society. For this synergy to happen, technology ought to be
imbued with the main aesthetical principle –beauty. Simondon also argued that the techno-
aesthetical convergence could be extended ―through the contemplation and handling of
tools‖ (Simondon 2012, 2). Nondestructive to life, aesthetical, the creation of technology is
perhaps best given in the micro example of a hand wrench: ―What‘s remarkable about this
tool is that the two heads allow for an easy grip. One holds the head that‘s not being used in
one‘s closed fist. If the tool were merely a straight piece of metal, it would hurt to hold it.
The head that‘s not being used is like a compact and resistant handle. As a whole, it‘s a very
nice object weighing approximately one hundred grams. It‘s a tool that answers very well to
what it is required to do. Made in bronze, it gives aesthetic pleasure when one contemplates
it‖ (Simondon 2012, 3). In what ―tecnoaesthetics‖ reveals itself is not in contemplation (like
Heidegger assumed), but in mediation, usage and application, in a sense that offers a joy
and in usage that does not destruct but reveals what is hidden in a usage that liberates
(compare with Heidegger‘s understanding of the essence of technology). Sismondi once
again offers an example: ―... contemplation is not techno-aesthetics‘ primary category. It‘s
in usage, in action, that it becomes something orgasmic, a tactile means and motor of
stimulation. When a nut that is stuck becomes unstuck, one experiences a motoric pleasure,
a certain instrumentalized joy, a communication--mediated by the tool—with the thing on
which the tool is working (...) Art is not only the object of contemplation; for those who
practice it, it‘s a form of action that is a little like practicing sports. Painters feel the
stickiness of the paint they are mixing on the palette or spreading on the canvas‖ (Simondon
2012, 3). For Simondon (2012) there is a continuous spectrum that unites technology with
aesthetics.
Perhaps the best understanding of the notion of ―technoaesthetics‖ could be offered
by following Marcuse‘s arguments on art and technology. Marcuse carried out the most
detailed theoretical analysis on this convergence of arts and aesthetics. Thus, not only
could Marcuse‘s arguments be used to derive the notion of ―technoaethetics‖ but the term
also best captures Marcuse‘s vision of an aesthetic society made possible by qualitatively
different usage and application of technology.
The crucial insight that Marcuse draws from thematization of technology is the conclusion
on the further development of ―historical project‖ towards ―greater historical truth‖ and the
inherent possibility of unison between men and nature. This relationship of harmony with
nature is possible on the technological grounds and Marcuse describes it with the term
―pacification of existence‖: ―Pacification of existence means the development of man's
struggle with man and with nature, under conditions where the competing needs, desires, and
aspirations are no longer organized by vested interests in domination and scarcity – an
organization which perpetuates the destructive forms of this struggle‖ (Marcuse 1964, 18).
Pacification of existence towards which Marcuse points is not only concentrated to the
abolishment of alienated labor but also to the reorganization of the technological basis of
society. Both abolishment of alienated labor and reorganization of the technological basis are
requirements for qualitative change. Marcuse describes this qualitative change: ―The
technological transformation is at the same time political transformation, but the political
change would turn into qualitative social change only to the degree to which it would alter the
direction of technical progress - that is, develop a new technology. For the established
technology has become an instrument of destructive politics. Such qualitative change would
be transition to a higher stage of civilization if technics were designed and utilized for the
pacification of the struggle for existence‖ (Marcuse 1964, 232). Marcuse understands this
qualitative change as a methodical political action in which technology is liberated from its
instrumental use and deployed towards the creation of a more humane society. The
pacification of existence is thus possible by the completion of a technological project: ―If the
completion of the technological project involves a break with the prevailing technological
rationality, the break in turn depends on the continued existence of the technical base itself.
For it is this base which has rendered possible the satisfaction of needs and the reduction of
toil - it remains the very base of all forms of human freedom. The qualitative change rather
lies in the reconstruction of this base - that is, in its development with a view of different
ends‖ (Marcuse 1964, 236). The technological achievement renders possible the calculation of
what it means to live a better life: ―For example, what is calculable is the minimum of labor
with which, and the extent to which, the vital needs of all members of a society could be
satisfied (…) calculable is the degree to which, under the same conditions, care could be
provided for the ill, the infirm, and the aged‖ (Marcuse 1964, 236–237). The pacification of
existence thus presupposes the qualitative change in usage of technology. It negates both the
destructive efficiency and performance principle. As a regulating idea in using technology,
pacification of existence tends to exploit the liberating potential of technology. This
qualitative turn it its usage Marcuse describes: ―To the degree to which the goal of
pacification determines the Logos of technics, it alters the relation between technology and its
primary object, Nature. Pacification presupposes mastery of Nature, which is and remains the
object opposed to the developing subject. But there are two kinds of mastery: a repressive and
a liberating one (…) In the process of civilization, Nature ceases to be mere Nature to the
degree to which the struggle of blind forces is comprehended and mastered in the light of
freedom‖ (Marcuse 1964, 240-241).
The reality of reason on which Marcuse insists throughout his works is possible by
transcending technological rationality to a post-technological rationality where the principle
of beauty fuses with the principle of social organization. What Marcuse proposes is the
cooperation of art and technics towards the creation of aestheticized society. This
cooperation is possible based on the fact that both technology and art hold the vision of a
better and more beautiful world with a difference in the arts‘ incapability to translate these
ideas into the creation of society. Marcuse describes this cooperation of art and technology:
―Technique, assuming the features of art, would translate subjective sensibility into
objective form, into reality‖ (Marcuse 1969, 24).
The cooperation between art and technology and pacification of existence are two
determinants of the new society, namely the aesthetic ethos. The aesthetic ethos places the
principle of beauty as a new organizing principle of society. The aesthetic as a new form of
society is possible on the basis of scientific and technological development.10 On the basis of a
given civilizational development, aesthetics can change its historical topos. Society can
become the subject of aesthetics and that in turn would affect the affirmative character of
culture. The cooperation of art and technic would change them both. Art would define the
construction and the form of machines, while at the same time art would receive some
technical denotations. Their product would be society as a work of art and beauty an important
characteristic of human‘s freedom. This is implicated in the term ―technoaesthetics‖. Here is
10
Compare with Marcuse‘s (1937b) early essay The Affirmative Character of Culture where he argued that
beauty pertains to art only and that this idealized more beautiful world could never be turned into practice.
86 M. VIŠIĆ
Marcuse‘s final statement and his vision of artistic society: ―In the reconstruction of society
for the attainment of this goal, reality altogether would assume a Form expressive of the
new goal. The essentially aesthetic quality of this Form would make it a work of art, but
inasmuch as the Form is to emerge in the social process of production, art would have
changed its traditional locus and function in society: it would have become a productive
force in the material as well as cultural transformation. And as such a force, art would be an
integral factor in shaping the quality and the ‗appearance‘ of things, in shaping reality, the
way of life. This would mean the Aufhebung of art: the end of the segregation of the
aesthetic from the real, but also the end of the commercial unification of business and
beauty, exploitation and pleasure. Art would recapture some of its more primitive
‗technical‘ connotations: as the art of preparing (cooking!), cultivating, growing things,
giving them a form which neither violates neither their matter nor the sensitivity…‖
(Marcuse 1969, 31–32).
6. CONCLUSION
I have attempted to demonstrate the convergence of aesthetics (mainly its category of
beauty) and technology. This convergence was expressed through the notion of
―technoaetshetics‖. The notion was derived through a critical examination of Heidegger‘s
Jonas‘, Marcuse‘s and later Simondon‘s texts on technology (and aesthetics). For Heidegger,
technology should not be understood in terms of instrumental usage or application, but as a
mode of revealing, enframing and setting-forth. Modern technology profoundly changed
human understanding of Nature. But this change is not necessarily to the benefit of
humanity. Heidegger argued that the greatest danger for humanity is probably hidden in the
very essence of technology. Thus, Heidegger considered that between humans and
technology, a thinking as a distinct human capability should mediate. Thinking understood
as contemplating the usage of technology in accordance with the preservation of Nature.
Jonas witnessed the unencumbered potential of technology released at the same time when
the a-bomb dropped on Hiroshima. For Jonas this event signified the peak of destructive
mode of usage of technology as well as the (negative) peak of technological reason. Thus,
Jonas reformulated Kant‘s well-known categorical imperative stating that life must exist
and that contemporaries are responsible to the possibility of realization of the idea of life.
This is only possible with the change of our usage of technology, a shift from the
destructive to nondestructive or even creative application of technology. This qualitative
and sensitive change in the character of technology could only occur if technology itself is
imbued with the ideas of a better life – ideas that were safeguarded in the dimension of
aesthetics. Marcuse was perhaps one of the first political and social theorists to perceive
technology as a new protagonist of the historical process. Marcuse argued that technology
and art can change their functions and converge. Common to both technology and art are
ideas and promises of a better more beautiful life and world. This ideal, expressed through
the notion of ―technoaesthetics‖, could be attained through sensitive cooperation between
art and technology. Art would not be any more beautiful in appearance and technology
would be delivered from its destructive use. In the cooperation of technology and art, as
Marcuse thought it, could bring a qualitative change – the creation of aesthetic ethos.
―Technoaesthetics‖ encompasses not only change in the instrumental usage of technology

but the change in the very essence of technology. The decision for this change is a political
one and perhaps should come from above as Jonas argued.
Acknowledgement. This paper under the title The Political Role of Technology has been previously
published in Serbian Political Thought 15, 1 (2017). Parts of this paper were also published in author's
book Kritika i otpor: osnovne crte kritičke filozofije Herberta Marcusea, Zagreb: Naklada Breza. The
current paper contains some revised ideas and further elaborates the notion of ―technoaesthetics‖. For this
I am especially grateful to the anonymous reviewers.
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88 M. VIŠIĆ
TEHNOESTETIKA:
NEKA ZAPAŽANJA O KONVERGENCIJI
ESTETIKE I TEHNOLOGIJE
U radu autor analizira pitanje i upotrebu tehnologije. Autor se poziva na rad Hajdegera, Markuzea i
Jonasa. Naglasak je na radu Markuzea jer je on na najbolji način razvio teoriju oslobađanja kroz
tehnologiju i ponudio detaljnu viziju estetike etosa. Autor prvo predstavlja Hajdegerovo poimanje
tehnologije na koje je u velikoj meri uticao rad Markuzea. Zatim, autor razmatra Jonasovu premisu za
novu etiku tehnološke civilizacije. Na kraju, pozivajući se na Hajdegera, Markuzea, Jonasa i Simondona,
autor predstavlja termin “tehnoestetika” kao pojam koji opisuje i obuhvata kvalitativno različite ideje o
upotrebi i primeni tehnologije.
Ključne reči: umetnost, tehnologija, tehnika, oslobođenje, Hajdeger, Markuze, Jonas, tehnološka
racionalnost, tehnoestetika.
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
https://doi.org/10.22190/FUPSPH1801089C
Preliminary Communication
LIMITS OF SEXUAL FREEDOM AND THE NOTION

OF PERVERSION: IS SEXUAL ETHICS “APPLIED”? 
UDC 176.4
Nenad Cekić
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, Serbia
Abstract. This article has two main points: 1) there are no reasons why sexual ethics
should be excluded from fashionable “applied ethics” and “bioethics” investigations,
and 2) that the key concepts of “sexual discourse” – especially the concept of
“perversion” – deserves full philosophical attention. As an example, the author offers a
brief analysis of the reasons why, despite the ruling “libertarian paradigm”, the
concept of “perversion” should be kept in ordinary language.
Key words: bioethics, sexual ethics, perversion, ordinary language.
1. ABOUT THE SUBTITLE

The subtitle of this article (the question “Is sexual Ethics „applied‟?”) is purposefully
designed to draw attention to the somewhat problematic status of sexual ethics in
contemporary philosophy and theoretical discussion. A similar ambiguity is present in other
“applied” branches of ethics, too. For example, nowadays we deal with a range of various
“bioethics” that should be a branch of applied ethics. However, philosophical bioethics is,
in fact, a tiny part of the current “bioethical” investigations. “Bioethics” today looks like an
odd mixture of medicine, politics, jurisprudence, philosophy, psychology, various
multidisciplinary “case studies” and, sometimes, even ideology. Essential bioethical
problems of euthanasia, abortion, and similar topics are widely discussed by medical staff,
lawyers, policymakers and some philosophers. Sometimes the discussion does not present
itself as belonging to any particular field of intellectual discourse.1
Why is sexual ethics not (still) applied?
Received March 25, 2018 / Accepted May 28, 2018

Corresponding author: Nenad Cekić
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Ĉika Ljubina 18-20, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: nenad.cekic@gmail.com
1
Peter Singer‟s Practical Ethics (Singer 2011) is a classic in this field. On more recent controversies in
bioethics see: Liao 2016. and Wiseman 2016.

90 N. CEKIĆ
Personal sexual morality, which naturally could be a part of bioethics, is not often
discussed in bioethical circles. The reasons for that fact may fall into two categories: 1)
sexual morality is too practical, and 2) philosophy (mainly ethics) of sex involves issues
that are too theoretical to be applied. Let us consider these two provisory theses.
1) For some philosophers, sexual issues were (or still are) not serious enough to be a
part of philosophy or even a part of applied ethics. We must keep in mind that all parts of
applied ethics, including today‟s fashionable bioethics, have often been treated as the
insignificant, superficial outcome of some more fundamental moral dilemmas. In the course
of time, some topics like abortion, euthanasia, infanticide and similar problems have
become widely discussed. Finally, bioethics has become a general topic of many variations
of public discourse. However, that bioethics is often not ethics (moral philosophy) at all.
Furthermore, it seems that issues concerning personal sexual morality are not a subject of
contemporary bioethics.
2) There is no sexual ethics. Moral problems related to sexual issues are a part of
general morality and a question for normative ethical theory. Problems as problems of
the moral status of sexual perversion, sexual fidelity or limits of sexual freedom openly
occurred as philosophical issues in the philosophical literature during the 1980‟s. Sexual
ethics in the narrow sense is a philosophy that concerns: a) the meaning and use of
general and specific value terms in sexual contexts, and b) the philosophical research of
the nature of personal relationships and various decisions in sexual contexts. More than
thirty years ago, Roger Scruton in the preface to his Sexual Desire wrote: “The subject of
sexual desire has largely been ignored by the modern philosophy (Scruton [1986] 2006,
vii).” Today, it is still unclear to what particular area of expertise sexual ethics belongs.
The analysis of the phenomenon of human sexual desire is one source of sexual ethics.
The second source is the very nature of value-charged terms used in sexual morality, such
as “perversion,” “adultery,” “promiscuity” and the like. On the other hand, medical-
related moral issues about sex change operations, abortion, and similar problems are not
within the scope of sexual ethics in a narrower sense. Some sex-related political and legal
matters, such as issues regarding same-sex marriage, are not parts of sexual ethics either.
We could be ask what is then left for the sexual ethics in a narrow sense? Some
philosophers are willing to say “nothing.” There is even some evidence for that kind of
claim. Paradoxically, libertarians (broadly speaking), who started the interest in sexual
ethics, have already concluded that there is nothing particular about the morality of sex.
According to the libertarian thesis, special sexual ethics is a dangerous burden because all
problems that constitute the subject of bioethics, allegedly, could be reduced to classical
problems of normative ethics such as promise or deception. Even more, it could be
potentially dangerous to continue to use classical “sexual” notions such as “perversion.”
Libertarians claim that those terms “should be discarded.”
2. LIBERTARIANS: PERVERSION, “A CONCEPT BEST DISCARDED”

It is safe to say that the problem of the moral status of perversion obviously belongs
to the area of sexual morality. However, we are faced with a very strong demand (due to
the fashion or needs of “political correctness”) to simply “discard it.” Moreover, we can
also say that nowadays the “libertarian thesis” is the ruling paradigm in the current
literature on sexual ethics. The “discard variation” of basic “libertarian thesis” may be put
Limits of Sexual Freedom and the Notion of Perversion: Is Sexual Ethics “Applied”? 91
as follows: because of the confusing use of the notion of “sexual perversion” in ordinary
discourse, and the difficulties of the analysis of that term, it might be concluded that the
very idea of sexual perversion should be discarded altogether. That is, the libertarian
proposes that we discard whole (and not unusual) term of ordinary language to avoid its
possible abuse.
As Igor Primoratz in his Ethics and Sex has pointed it out, some philosophers have
actually proposed just that (Primoratz 1999, 62–65). One was Marquis de Sade. His
“sexual libertinism” was an alternative and direct challenge to the traditional view of sex
as by nature (and God) ordained to procreation, and legitimate only within marriage:
“…There is no extravagance which is not in Nature, none which she does not acknowledge
as her own,” says de Sade. Therefore “there can exist no evil in obedience to Nature's
promptings…” (de Sade 1965, 320–323).
Contemporary philosopher Michael Slote, similarly, argues that the notion of unnatural
or perverted behavior, including sexual behavior, is unuseful and should be abandoned.
Metaethically, Slote notes that “unnatural” and “perverted” have both descriptive and
expressive meaning. The first is almost impossible to capture by a single definition, while
the latter is easy to characterize: both words – “unnatural” and “perverted” express horror.
The horror points to the concealed (“real”) descriptive meaning of these words in their
ordinary use: to call a manner of acting perverted and unnatural is to say that it cannot be
found in nature. As most of mainstream “depth” psychology tells us, most of us have some
deep, unconscious and repressed impulses towards incest, homosexuality, and possibly
some forms of fetishism. For various reasons, we repress such tendencies and keep them
unconscious by determining that such behavior is unnatural or perverted: “By calling it
“unnatural” [and “perverted”] we think of it as banished to a world other than ours, and this
helps to reassure us that the impulse toward such behavior is not in us (Slote 1975, 263).”
Primoratz declines to accept Slote‟s “inapplicability thesis,” but he supports “discard
thesis.” He argues: “I cannot accept Slote's inapplicability thesis nor, for that matter, de Sade's
simplistic naturalism in sexual ethics. But I do think that the idea of unnatural or perverted sex
is best discarded. As we have seen, ordinary use is inconsistent and confusing. More
importantly, none of the philosophical accounts discussed succeeds in giving the idea a
plausible and helpful interpretation. And the philosophical accounts I have discussed cover
between them the main lines of argument the subject seems to offer. When we put them aside,
the descriptive content of the term amounts to no more than „unusual sexual preference or
behavior.‟ The term has rich evaluative connotations; but they tend to vary very much, not
only in intensity but also in quality. In view of all this, it can safely be said that the term serves
no useful purpose. We should therefore simply drop it” (Primoratz 1999, 65).
3. TWO THESES
These were summary reviews of the position and propositions of the most prominent
advocates of the “discard thesis.” Let us now consider the following two theses:
1) If we have a philosophical duty to avoid unnecessary and misleading disputes about
sexual morality and sexual ethics, we have to analyze some key value-charged notions in
traditional sexual morality. If metaethics shows anything, it is the fact that language cannot
be “reformed” by the simple “discarding” of anything. Logical empiricism tried to
“discard” the whole language of morality, but that enterprise was nothing but a spectacular
92 N. CEKIĆ
misfire. Why should we again try something that has been proven impossible? Moreover, it
seems like a philosophical duty to show a need for analytical research of language of sex by
showing conceptual uncertainties in real and potential uses of the notoriously ambiguous
notions such as perversion really is.
2) Conceptual analysis is not everything that we can do in theoretical sexual ethics.
However, it seems to be a mandatory starting point. It could clear the path ahead.
As we have just seen, the dominant liberal (or, more accurately, libertarian) paradigm
in sexual ethics tells us that the term “perversion” can result in more trouble than benefit.
The reason is that perversion is a “Janus term” with two interacting “faces.” The term
perversion has both a strong evaluative (in this case: negative) component and rather vague
descriptive “content.” Obviously, it is not the only concept of that kind in that class, but its
close relationship with the concept of sexual freedom makes its position central. On the
other hand, the term “perversion” in sexual contexts is sometimes used as a synonym for
“unnatural.” From the libertarian point of view, the potentially ambiguous use of the term
with a strong negative emotional charge could even jeopardize the freedom in the extremely
sensitive area of sexuality. That is the main reason why “…the concept of sexual perversion
is quite unhelpful and is best discarded altogether” (Primoratz 1999, 65).
To cut a long story short: if we keep the notion of perversion in philosophical service
we could exploit its emotional charge and interfere with the freedom of sexual choice
without any need for (descriptive) justification. In metaethics, that process is well-known
as a “persuasive definition” (Stevenson, 1963, 32–54).
Is this argument absolutely correct?
Sexual liberation is a fact and probably an irreversible process. But does it mean that
“The True Liberal” must discard all negative connotations in the language of sex?
4. PRIMA FACIE CASES: HOW TO NAME THAT?

Any list of sexual perversions is utterly arbitrary. On the other hand, the meaning of the
term “perversion” is in perpetual evolution. Let us mention some “traditional” ones:
homosexuality, sexual sadism, sexual masochism, exhibitionism, voyeurism, fetishism,
transvestism, pedophilia, necrophilia, and zoophilia…Then, the question is: how to determine
what is “in” and what is “out”?
We have already used the phrase “negative evaluative meaning” That expression is
general enough to cover all kinds of negative reactions to any “perverted” sexual activity:
moral condemnation, rage, disgust, outrage, (Michael Slote‟s?) horror and so on. Nowadays
homosexuality and bisexuality are not on the list. However, there are still some practices that
at least raise some terminological and/or moral suspicion. We can call those intuitive
judgments on some “more-than-unusual practices” – prima facie cases. Those cases are our
candidates for the “proper” use of the term “perversion.” Let us consider the following cases.
Sadism is still “in” the moral discourse of condemnatory use of “perversion” (that
“should be discarded”), but what to do with consensual mutual sadomasochism? Is it a
perversion or “unusual sexual behavior”? If the liberal “harm principle” (Mill 1977, 223–
224) is the only basis for the negative attitude towards some old or new sexual practice,
what is wrong with possible consensual necrophilia (using someone‟s body for sexual
purposes after his or her death with prior consent obtained)? What is wrong with consensual
cannibalism? If we can donate organs or whole bodies for medical purposes, why could we
not donate whole bodies, or some organs for sexual purposes? What is the moral (or
“liberal”?) reason that forbids selling our own body or body parts (post-mortem) to some
necrophiliac and cannibalistic society? (It is an almost win-win situation, is it not?) Why is
group sex the best-selling product of the porn industry? (Is there anybody to deny this?) We
could stop here and say that the term “perversion” is at least partly functional in all these
contexts because its evaluative meaning is not limited by any descriptive characteristics of
any particular sexual activity.
Now, we have a very clear problem. If we “discard” the notion of perversion, how
should we collectively name those practices which are examples of our “prima facie
cases”? Some of them are not just “unusual,” they are a little more than that. How to name
“that” (which we) “should not be doing,” without specification? “No-no,” maybe?
5. “PERVERSION” IS STILL HERE

The fact is that some sexual practices have never undergone serious theoretical inquiry.
Some are still taboos. For example, the Internet is full of “creampie” and “golden shower”
movies. (It is likely that anybody who has owned a permanent e-mail address for twenty
years or more could find porn ads that include such activities in their inbox or “junk”
folder.) What reason can be given for the condemnation of those practices? There is no
“harm,” just possible offense, so why anybody makes those “forbidden” movies? Maybe
the reason for condemnation could be sheer disgust, like in case of necrophilia and
zoophilia? However, those cases are not exactly alike.
Why does nobody speak about objectophilia? It is the fact that internet via the concept
of virtual sex brought us just a step away from accepting that sex with the machines and
objects is “not very unusual.” Moreover, we are just a step away from sexual “interfaces”
that would make virtual sexual intercourse touchable. Maybe sex toys were just aids or
props. However, imagine a virtual “sex machine” analogous to famous Nozick‟s experience
machine (Nozick 1974, 42). Why should not everybody plug into it?
So, we can just make “an open list” of very and very, very unusual sexual behaviors:
sadism, necrophilia, creampie, golden shower, objectophilia…However, the list is not
closed – we can continue with coprophagia, for example. This practice is “obviously” very,
very unusual. Then, the question is: how to determine the borderline between “very” and
“very, very” unusual? Our contention is: by using the term “perversion.”
We could add another point. Libertarians are using pretty obsolete metaethical
techniques. Of, course, the difference “descriptive/evaluative” is still important. However,
contemporary metaethics offers better tools to capture the whole meaning of secondary
evaluative terms in some problematic cases, especially in case of “interplay” of descriptive
and evaluative meaning. So, the so-called “Cornell realists” offers an idea of “best
explanations” (Darwall, Gibbard and Railton 1992, 169–170). To put this idea simply:
some term may be treated as descriptive if it can be used in “best explanations.” It seems
that “perversion” satisfies that condition. Nobody would be surprised if the question “Why
he/she do that (e.g., eating human flesh, drinking urine, etc.)” is answered by the simple
“explanation”: “Because he/she is perverted.” There is no need for further explanation. End
of story.
To conclude: libertarians are right when they remind us that the term “perversion” due
to its powerful value-charge could be abused. Maybe they are right in insisting that the
94 N. CEKIĆ
“classical” definition of “perversion” should be revised. By “classical,” we mean some

definition which relies on the natural/unnatural distinction, like Thomas Nagel‟s “working
model” (his doubts included): “…if than there are any sexual perversions, they will have to
be sexual desires or practices that are in some sense unnatural, though the explanation
natural/unnatural is, of course, the main problem” (Nagel 2009, 256).
Maybe “unnatural” is not the best term to denote “perversion.” (Too much inappropriate
“connotations” are necessarily involved.) However, let us picture sex vocabulary without
the notion of perversion. A “negative” concept of perversion simply warns us that some
boundaries in sex must exist. The descriptive meaning of that term could vary, and nothing
is unusual about that. We may even say that it should vary because sexual habits are in
constant change. However, the very concept of limits in sex has a regulative, not an exact
constitutive or even cognitive function. First, any inventory of fundamental notions in any
book about sexual ethics includes many so-called “Janus terms”2 that are both evaluative
and descriptive such as “perversion” or “adultery”. The notorious ambiguity of those
notions poses the question of what kind of ethics (philosophy) is possible in the area of the
sexual relationships. It seems that if there is any philosophy of sex, it should be both
essentially theoretical and “doubly applied.” It should be a philosophy (at the basic
theoretical and the metaethical level), linked to normative ethics (the first level of
application), with a particular scope of the research ( the second tier of the application).
Furthermore, it appears that multidisciplinarity in sexual ethics is not possible in “bioethics”
manner. Moral problems that relate to sexuality are sometimes founded on the deepest
moral question as a promise-breaking or deception. Finally, sexual ethics cannot only be
reduced to general normative ethics. For example, adultery is not just a promise-breaking
practice; the question of the moral status of promiscuity is still open. Also, the notion of
perversion, despite libertarian doubts, still looks crucial for our understanding of sex. That
notion, with several others, just cannot be “discarded.”
Finally, there is some irony (and “defense”) in the current practice of using the term
perversion in the positive context. Very few people would even be offended if her or his
partner would say something like: “MMMM…You are very naughty. I never knew how
perverse you are!”
Acknowledgment: This is an article based on two presentations delivered on two international

conferences on applied ethics: “Limits of Sexual Freedom and the Notion of Perversion,”
Sexualities and Freedom, International Network for Sexual Ethics, Ghent, Belgium, 14-16 July
2014; and “Is Sexual Ethics Applied?”, Zagreb Applied Ethics Conference 2015, Zagreb, Croatia,
29 June-1 July 2015.
REFERENCES
Darwall, G., A. Gibbard, & P. Railton. “Toward fin de siècle Ethics: Some Trends.” Philosophical Review 101
(1992): 115–189.
De Sade, M. The Complete Justine, Philosophy in the Bedroom, and Other Writings. New York, NY: Grove
Press, 1965.
Hare, R. M. Essays on the Moral Concepts. London: Macmillan, 1972.
2
Richard Hare calls those terms “secondary evaluative” (Hare 1972, 55–75). In current philosophical use those
are “thick” evaluative notions.
Liao, S. M., ed. Moral Brain: The Neuroscience of Morality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Mill J. S. On Liberty. In Collected Works on J. S Mill, edited by J. M. Robson, Vol. 18, 213–310. Toronto &
Buffalo: Toronto University Press, 1977.
Nagel, T. “Sexual Perversion”. In Philosophy and Sex, edited by R. B. Baker, and K. J. Wininger, 31–43.
Armherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2009.
Nozick, R. Anarchy, State, and Utopia. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1974.
Primoratz, I. Ethics and Sex. Oxford: Routledge, 1999
Scruton, R. Sexual Desire. London: Continuum, [1986] 2006.
Singer, P. Practical Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3rd Edition, [1980, 1993] 2011.
Slote, M. “Inapplicable Concepts and Sexual Perversion”. In Philosophy & Sex, edited by R. Baker, and F.
Elliston, 262–267. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1975.
Stevenson, Ch. Facts and Values. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963.
Wiseman, H. The Myth of the Moral Brain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
GRANICE SEKSUALNE SLOBODE I POJAM PERVERZIJE:

DA LI JE SEKSUALNA ETIKA “PRIMENJENA”?
Autor ovog članka iznosi dve teze: 1) nema razloga zbog kojih bi “seksualnu etiku” trebalo
isključiti iz danas popularne “bioetike”; i 2) da ključni pojmovi seksualne etike, kao što je pojam
“perverzije”, zaslužuju podrobnu filozofsku analizu. Kao primer potreba za takvom analizom autor
iznosi argumentaciju zašto pojam perverzije, uprkos vladajućoj “libertarijanskoj” paradigmi,
treba zadržati u upotrebi.
Kljuĉne reĉi: bioetika, seksualna etika, perverzija, svakodnevni jezik.
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Vol. 17, No 1, 2018
Contents
Gordana Đigić
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL
AND PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHERS.................................... 1 FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Vladimir Hedrih, Iva Šverko, Ivana Pedović Series
STRUCTURE OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS IN MACEDONIA AND CROATIA – Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History
EVALUATION OF THE SPHERICAL MODEL............................................................19
Vol. 17, No 1, 2018
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS • Series Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History Vol. 17, No 1, 2018
ONLINE MEDIA AS CONFLICT GENERATORS ....................................................... 37

THE CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY AND A BRIEF
OVERVIEW OF THE ATTEMPTS OF ITS IMPLEMENTATION IN SERBIA............55
Maroje Višić
TECHNOAESTHETICS: SOME REMARKS ON THE COVERGENCE
OF AESTHETICS AND TECHNOLOGY......................................................................71
Nenad Cekić
LIMITS OF SEXUAL FREEDOM AND THE NOTION OF PERVERSION:
IS SEXUAL ETHICS “APPLIED”?................................................................................ 89
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FACTA UNIVERSITATIS UNIVERSITY OF NIŠ ISSN 1820-8495 (Print)

Vol. 17, No 1, 2018

Jelena Dinić, Irena Tasković

Scientific Journal FACTA UNIVERSITATIS

SERIES Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History

SERIES PHILOSOPHY, SOCIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY AND HISTORY

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL AND

Received March 27, 2018 / Accepted May 27, 2018

© 2018 by University of Niš, Serbia | Creative Commons License: CC BY-NC-ND

2.2. Research sample

2.3. Variables and instruments

2.4. Research procedure

2.5. Data processing

variables. Correlations among variables related to personal and professional teachers’

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 Descriptive measures of the examined variables

3.2. Intercorrelations among examined variables

Table 2 Intercorrelations among examined personal and professional

3.3. Prediction of teachers’ classroom management styles

Table 3 Regression of Big Five personality dimensions, empathy dimensions

The regression analysis confirmed expectations based on the previously presented

3.4. Prediction of teachers’ self-efficacy by the measures of personal characteristics

Table 4 Regression of Big Five personality dimensions, empathy dimensions and

POVEZANOST LIČNIH I PROFESIONALNIH

nastavnika u upravljanju razredom izdvajaju se neke dimenzije ličnosti (otvorenost, prijatnost i

STRUCTURE OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS IN MACEDONIA

Vladimir Hedrih1, Iva Šverko2, Ivana Pedović1

Received November 25, 2017 / Accepted May 22, 2018

© 2018 by University of Niš, Serbia | Creative Commons License: CC BY-NC-ND

Holland's hexagon, like any hexagon, is a two-dimensional figure which therefore

SPHERICAL MODEL OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS

Fig. 1 Spherical model of vocational interests – upper hemisphere, horizontal cross-section at

SPHERICAL MODEL OF VOCATIONAL INTERESTS

Fig. 2 Spherical model of vocational interests – lower hemisphere, horizontal cross-section at

2.3. Data collection procedure

Tucker’s coefficients of congruence were used to assess the similarity of component

3.2. Fundamental dimensions of vocational interests

Table 5 Unrotated factor structure of Holland’s types of vocational interests: factor

Table 7 Unrotated factor structure of Holland’s types of vocational interests: factor

STRUKTURA PROFESIONALNIH INTERESOVANJA

ONLINE MEDIA AS CONFLICT GENERATORS 

Ivana Stamenković, Miljana Nikolić, Dušan Aleksić

Received July 10, 2017 / Accepted May 22, 2018

© 2018 by University of Niš, Serbia | Creative Commons License: CC BY-NC-ND

2. THE RECONSTRUCTION OF NATIONAL IDENTITIES IN TIMES OF CRISIS AND CONFLICT

3. THE MEDIA AS THE CREATORS OF A REPRESENTATION OF THE OTHER

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Quantitative analysis

4.2. The qualitative analysis

Figure 1 Photo: Twitter

mrznja-520978 - published on 19 April 2017, analysed on 4. May 2017.

ONLAJN MEDIJI KAO GENERATORI KONFLIKATA

THE CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY AND

Jelena Dinić, Irena Tasković

Abstract. The basis of the advancement of contemporary society comprises the

Received September 21, 2017 / Accepted May 22, 2018

© 2018 by University of Niš, Serbia | Creative Commons License: CC BY-NC-ND

“As the ocean „waves,‟ the universe „peoples.‟

2. THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

3. THE AWAKENING OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS IN THE WORLD

4. MONITORING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Today, a number of composite indicators are used to monitor sustainable development,