Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Submitted by:
1
Certificate
This is to certify that the project report entitled “2G and 3G RF Planning” is a
bona fide record of Seminar submitted by Bhavyai Gupta as the record of
the work carried out by him under my guidance. It is being accepted in
fulfillment of the Summer Internship, in the department of Network Planning,
Idea, Noida.
Supervisor
2
Acknowledgement
Simply put, I could not have done this work without the lots of help I received
cheerfully from the whole of Idea. The work culture in Idea really motivates.
Everybody is such a friendly and cheerful companion here that work stress is
never comes in way.
I would specially like to thank Mr. Manish Rastogi, the AGM – HR of Idea,
Noida for providing me a platform for the internship. For me it was a unique
experience to be in Idea.
I would also like to thank Mr. Vishwas Yadav for providing the nice ideas to
work upon. I am also highly indebted to my mentor Mr. Inderjeet Yadav, who
seemed to have solutions to all my problems.
3
Abstract
There are now over 500 million GSM users worldwide. GSM is the most widely
used network service.
This report covers the basics of GSM and related technologies and their
architectures. The concentration of this report is the Network Planning, how
the GSM network is planned, how site is surveyed and installed. Then the
optimization of the network is briefed.
Then our focus shift towards the evolving technologies and the architecture
of 3G.
4
Table of Contents
01 Introduction to GSM 7
02 Introduction to TDMA 9
03 Evolution of GSM 10
06 2G Network Architecture 15
10 Channels 26
13 Bursts 37
14 Signaling 38
15 OSI Model 45
16 Location Update 49
18 Handover 52
19 Charging 57
5
S No. Topic Page No.
20 Services 60
22 Abis 66
23 Multiplexing 67
24 Network Planning 69
25 Optimization 95
6
Introduction to GSM
What is GSM?
Originally, GSM stood for Groupe Spécial Mobile, a group formed by the
Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) in 1982 to research the
merits of a European standard for mobile telecommunications. The GSM is
now commonly known as Global System for Mobile.
The USA, South America, in general and Japan had made a decision to
adopt other types of mobile systems which are not compatible with GSM.
However, in the USA the Personal Communication System (PCS) has been
adopted which uses GSM technology with a few variations.
The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation (1G)
analog cellular networks as it was developed using TDMA technology.
Objectives of GSM
the system must contain good security concerning both subscriber and
transmitted information
7
Advantages of GSM
encryption of speech
Enhancements to SMS
8
Call waiting
Call hold
Advice of charge
Introduction to TDMA
What is TDMA?
Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared
medium networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency
channel by dividing the signal into different time slots. The users transmit in
rapid succession, one after the other, each using its own time slot. This allows
multiple stations to share the same transmission medium while using only a
part of its channel capacity.
Characteristics of TDMA
Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell
interference
9
Evolution of GSM
10
Open Interfaces in GSM
When an interface is open, it defines strictly what is happening through the
interface and what kind of functions must be implemented between the
interfaces.
The actual network needed for establishing calls is composed of the NSS and
the BSS. The BSS is responsible for radio path control and every call is
connected through the BSS. The NSS takes care of call control functions. Calls
are always connected by and through the NSS. The NMS is the operation and
11
maintenance related part of the network and it is needed for the control of
the whole GSM network.
It is –
12
storage for messages and contacts
Check digit
13
Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)
It is the number used for routing calls to the subscriber. MSISDN is the number
normally dialled to connect a call to the mobile phone. A SIM has a unique
IMSI that does not change, while the MSISDN can change in time, i.e.
different MSISDNs can be associated with the SIM.
The serving MSC/VLR generates a temporary MSRN and associates it with the
IMSI. The roaming number is used in initiating the connection and it has the
following structure-
14
2G Network Architecture
The GSM network is divided into three subsystems – Network Switching
Subsystem (NSS), Base Station Subsystem (BSS), and Network Management
Subsystem (NMS). These three subsystems, different network elements, form
the GSM network architecture.
15
contains specific features and functions which are needed because the
phones are not fixed in one location.
Elements of NSS
The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for
GSM, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services such
as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data.
Fig: MSC
16
The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles mobility
and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of charging and
real time pre-paid account monitoring.
The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the
subscriber who is being called is currently located at. It also interfaces with
the PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed
through a G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any
MSC may provide both the gateway function and the Visited MSC function,
however, some manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which
do not have any BSSs connected to them. These MSCs will then be the
Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle.
The HLR is a central database that contains details of each mobile phone
subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be
several logical, and physical, HLRs per public land mobile network (PLMN),
though one international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be
associated with only one logical HLR (which can span several physical nodes)
at a time.
The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator.
Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to
each HLR record.
17
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The visitor location is a database of the subscribers who have roamed into
the jurisdiction of the MSC which it serves. Each main base station in the
network is served by exactly one VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be present
in more than one VLR at a time.
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or
collected from the MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors
integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is
very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface. Whenever an MSC
detects a new MS in its network, in addition to creating a new record in the
VLR, it also updates the HLR of the mobile subscriber, apprising it of the new
location of that MS.
18
Authentication is performed by the VLR at the beginning of every call
establishment, location update and call termination (at the called subscriber
side).
The GSM uses 3 algorithms for the purposes of authentication and ciphering.
These are A3, A5, and A8.
A3 – authentication
A5 – ciphering
A8 – generating ciphering key
A3 and A8 are located in the SIM module and in the Authentication Center
(AC). A5 is located in the MS and in the BTS.
Ki of the subscriber
The same information is also stored in the Mobile Subscriber's SIM. The basic
principle of GSM security functions is to compare the data stored by the
network to the data stored in the subscriber’s SIM. The IMSI number is the
unique identification of the mobile subscriber. K i is an authentication key with
a length of 32 hexadecimal digits. The algorithms A3 and A8 use these digits
as a basic value in authentication.
The Authentication Center generates information that can be used for all the
security purposes during one transaction. This information is called an
Authentication Triplet.
19
The authentication triplet consists of three numbers:
RAND
SRES
Kc
When the VLR has this kind of three-value combination and the Mobile
Subscriber authentication procedure is initiated, the VLR sends the random
number RAND through the BSS to the SIM in the mobile station. As the SIM has
(or it should have) exactly the same algorithms as used in triplet generation
on the network side, the RAND number that the SIM receives and inserts to
the algorithm should produce exactly the same SRES value as the one
generated on the network side.
The speech of the user and the ciphering key, K c, are processed by the
ciphering algorithm (A5) which produces the coded speech signal.
The equipment identity register is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a
list of mobile phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from
the network or monitored. This is designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile
phones. In theory all data about all stolen mobile phones should be
distributed to all EIRs in the world through a Central EIR.
The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this
function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR. The EIR is a
database that contains information about the identity of the mobile
equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile
stations. Some EIR also have the capability to log Handset attempts and store
it in a log file.
20
Functions of NSS
4. Signaling signaling with other networks and the BSS and PSTN
Elements of BSS
Transcoder (TC)
21
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
The BTS contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving radio signals
(transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and decrypting
communications with the base station controller (BSC). Typically a BTS for
anything other than a picocell will have several transceivers (TRXs) which
allow it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell
(in the case of sectorised base stations).
A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the "base station control function"
(BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a
TRX in compact base stations. The BCF provides an operations and
maintenance (O&M) connection to the network management system (NMS),
and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software handling
and alarm collection.
Picocell
A picocell is a small cellular base station typically covering a small area, such
as in-building (offices, shopping malls, train stations, stock exchanges, etc.), or
more recently in-aircraft. In cellular networks, picocells are typically used to
extend coverage to indoor areas where outdoor signals do not reach well, or
to add network capacity in areas with very dense phone usage, such as train
stations or stadiums. Picocells provide coverage and capacity in areas
difficult or expensive to reach using the more traditional macrocell
approach.
22
Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BSC provides the intelligence behind the BTSs. Typically a BSC has tens or
even hundreds of BTSs under its control. The BSC handles allocation of radio
channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones, and controls
handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of an inter-BSC handover in
which case control is in part the responsibility of the anchor MSC, from where
handover has been initiated). A key function of the BSC is to act as a
concentrator where many different low capacity connections to BTSs (with
relatively low utilization) become reduced to a smaller number of
connections towards the MSC.
Fig: BSC
The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier
frequencies, frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels
for cell border calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly
from radio planning engineering which involves modelling of the signal
propagation as well as traffic projections.
23
Transcoder (TC)
To enable the efficient transmission of the digital speech information over the
radio Air Interface the digital speech signal is compressed.
For transmission over the air interface, the speech signal is compressed by the
MS to 13Kbits/s (Full Rate) or 5.6Kbits/s (Half Rate). This compression algorithm
is known as "Regular Pulse Excitation with Long Term Prediction" (RPE-LTP).
However, the standard bit rate for speech in the PSTN is 64Kbits/s. Therefore, a
converter has to be provided in the network to change the bit rate from one
to another. This is called Transcoder.
Functions of BSS
1. Radio Path BSS takes care of Radio resources like radio channel
Control allocation and quality of radio connection
24
Cell is area covered by one or more frequency resources. Each cell identified
by Cell Global Identity (CGI). It has following subparts –
Paging
Paging is a signal that is transmitted by all the cells in the Location Area (LA).
It contains the identification of the subscriber. All the mobile stations in the LA
receive the paging signal, but only one of them recognizes the identification
and answers to it. As a consequence of this answer, a point to point
connection is established.
25
Functions of NMS
Channels
TDMA divides one radio frequency channel into consecutive periods of time,
each one called a "TDMA Frame". Each TDMA frame contains eight shorter
periods of time known as “Time Slots”. TDMA timeslots are called "Physical
Channels" as they are used to physically move information from one place to
another.
The radio carrier signal between the MS and the BTS is divided into a
continuous stream of timeslots which in turn are transmitted in a continuous
stream of TDMA frames.
When MS is turned on
26
3. With the help of synchronization signal in a TDMA Frame, the mobile
synchronizes itself to the network
Current LA identity
Synchronization information
Network identity
BTS transmits information about the TDMA frame structure in a cell and
BTS identity (Base Station Identity Code). MS synchronizes with the
frame structure within a particular cell, and ensures that the chosen BTS
is a GSM BTS. BSIC can only be decoded by an MS if the BTS belongs to
a GSM network.
27
3. BCCH- downlink, point to multipoint
When the MS has finished analysing the information on a BCH, it then has all
the information required to work with a network. However, if it roams to
another cell, it must repeat the process of reading FCCH, SCH, and BCCH in
the new cell.
If the mobile subscriber then wishes to make or receive a call, then Common
Control Channels must be used.
BTS receives access request from MS for call set-up, location update or
SMS. MS answers paging message on the RACH by requesting a
signalling channel.
At this stage, MS and BSS are ready to begin call set-up procedures. For this,
Dedicated Channels must be used.
28
1. SDCCH- bi-link, point to point
BTS switches to the assigned SDCCH, used for call set-up signalling. TCH
is assigned on here. (SDCCH is also used for SMS messages to MS). The
MS switches to the assigned SDCCH. Call set-up is performed. The MS
receives a TCH assignment information (carrier and time slot).
BTS uses this logical channel to transmit short message service cell
broadcast. MS receives cell broadcast messages.
Once call set-up procedures have been completed on the control physical
channel, the MS tunes to a traffic physical channel. It uses the TCH logical
channel. Types of Traffic Channels-
1. Full Rate-
2. Half Rate-
Transmits half rate speech (5.6Kb/s). Two Half Rate TCH can share one
physical channel, thus doubling the capacity of a cell.
29
Another form of traffic channel is the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) Traffic
Channel. The speech coding in EFR is still done at 13Kbits/s, but the coding
mechanism is different than that used for normal full rate traffic. Traffic
channels can transmit both speech and data and are bi-directional
channels.
Call to a MS
2. The BSC distribute the paging message to the BTS in the desired LA. The
BTS transmits the message over the Air interface using PCH.
4. The BSC uses AGCH to inform the MS of the signalling channel (SDCCH
and SACCH) to use.
5. SDCCH and SACCH are used for call set-up. A TCH is allocated and the
SDCCH is released.
6. The MS and BTS switch to the identified TCH frequency and time slot.
The MS generates ring tone. If the subscriber answers, the connection is
established. During the call, signals can be sent and received by the
MS using SACCH.
Radio transmission is used between the Mobile Station and the Base
Transceiver Station and the information must to be adapted to be carried
over 2Mbit/s PCM transmission through the remainder of the network.
30
Frequency Ranges of -
Uplink – MS to BTS
Downlink – BTS to MS
GSM 1800 provides 374 channels (channels number 512 to 885). Duplex
spacing is 95 MHz.
Radio transmission is used between the Mobile Station and the Base
Transceiver Station and the information must to be adapted to be carried
over 2Mbit/s PCM transmission through the remainder of the network.
In GSM 900 the duplex frequency (the difference between uplink and
downlink frequencies) is 45 MHz and in GSM 1800 it is 95 MHz
The total number of carriers in GSM 900 is 124, whereas in GSM 1800 the
number of carriers is 374.
31
Crosstalk may cause interference among frequencies and disrupt the
transmission.
It is this feature, rather than limitations of power, that limits the range of a GSM
cell to 35 km when no special extension techniques are used. By changing
the synchronization between the uplink and downlink at the base station,
however, this limitation can be overcome.
32
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
GSM uses a phase modulation technique over the air interface known as
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK).
The radio air interface has to cope with many problems such as variable
signal strength due to the presence of obstacles along the way, radio
frequencies reflecting from buildings, mountains etc. with different relative
time delays and interference from other radio sources. With such levels of
interference, complex equalisation techniques are required with GMSK.
26 TDMA frame multi frame – used to carry TCH, SACCH, and FACCH
51 TDMA frame multi frame – used to carry BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH, and
SACCH.
TDMA with 8 basic physical channels per carrier. The carrier separation is 200
kHz. A physical channel is therefore defined as a sequence of TDMA frames,
a time slot number, and a frequency hopping sequence.
33
The longest recurrent time period of the structure is called hyperframe and
has a duration of 12533.76 seconds.
34
• Multiframe is used for distribution of logical channels
The 12th frame (no. 13) in the 26-frame traffic channel multiframe is used by
the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) which carries link control
information to and from the MS–BTS. Each timeslot in a cell allocated to traffic
channel usage will follow this format, that is, 12 bursts of traffic, 1 burst of
SACCH, 12 bursts of traffic and 1 idle.
35
The duration of a 26-frame traffic channel multiframe is 120ms (26 TDMA
frames) .When half rate is used, each frame of the 26-frame traffic channel
multiframe allocated for traffic will now carry two MS subscriber calls (the
data rate for each MS is halved over the air interface). Although the data
rate for traffic is halved, each MS still requires the same amount of SACCH
information to be transmitted, therefore frame 12 WILL BE USED as SACCH for
one half of the MSs and the others will use it as their IDLE frame, and the same
applies for frame 25, this will be used by the MSs for SACCH (those who used
frame 12 as IDLE) and the other half will use it as their IDLE frame.
36
The 51-frame structure used for control channels is considerably more
complex than the 26-frame structure used for the traffic channels. The 51-
frame structure occurs in several forms, depending on the type of control
channel and the network provider’s requirements.
Bursts
Types of Bursts
1. Normal
Used to carry information on traffic and control channels.
2. Frequency Correction
Used for frequency synchronization of the mobile.
3. Synchronization
Used for frame synchronization of the mobile.
4. Access
Used for Random and Handover access.
5. Dummy
Used when no other channel requires a burst to be sent and carries no
information.
Bursts Used
37
Signalling
Signalling in telecommunication systems is basically a set of messages used
for setting up, supervising and clearing the call.
Functions of Signalling
To set up a call
To supervise a call
To clear a call
Drawbacks of CAS
Wastes bandwidth
The ITU came up with a new recommendation which was the Common
Channel Signalling System Number 7, abbreviated as SS7.
38
It consists of two parts- first part was responsible for transferring the message
within a signalling network and the second part was the user of these
messages.
The entire SS7 is built on the foundation of this MTP which consists of three sub-
layers.
39
Telephone User Part (TUP)
Small variations in messages within one country were allowed, which were
now called National User Part (NUP).
With the introduction of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), which
has a broader capability than the PSTN, some extra sets of messages were
required. These became known as the ISDN User Part (ISUP). Whether it’s TUP,
NUP or ISUP they are all doing the same job in helping to set up a call.
It was realised that the TUP/MTP combination alone was not sufficient when
"virtual connections" became necessary. MTP guarantees the transfer of
messages from any "signalling point" in the signalling network to any other
"signalling point", safely and reliably.
But, each message could reach the destination signalling point by using
different paths. This may cause situations where the order of messages that
are received, are different from the original sequence. When this order is
important, there is need for establishing a "virtual connection".
Virtual Connections use a "Connection Oriented" protocol that will provide
sequence numbers to enable the messages to be placed in the correct
order at the distant end.
40
MTP is capable of routing a message within one network only. The case of
setting up a call across multiple networks is not the same as signalling across
the same network. The signalling goes leg by leg according to the call. But in
the absence of a call, MTP cannot route a signalling message across multiple
networks.
Creation of another protocol layer on top of MTP which was called the
Signalling Connection and Control Part (SCCP). SCCP takes care of virtual
connections and connectionless signalling.
TUP and SCCP both use services of MTP and hence parallel to each other.
41
The additional protocol layers are-
It is used when an MSC communicates with the BSC and the MS. Since the MS
and MSC have to communicate via the BSC, there must be a virtual
connection, therefore the service of SCCP is also needed.
The authentication verification procedure and assigning a new TMSI all take
place with the standard sets of messages of BSSAP. Communication between
MSC and BSC also uses the BSSAP protocol layer.
MSC-BSC signalling
MSC-MS signalling
42
Mobile Application Part (MAP)
In MAP signalling, one MSC sends a message to an HLR, and that message
requests (or invokes) a certain result. The HLR sends the result back, which
may be the final result or some other messages might also follow (or it might
not be the last result). These invocations and results that are sent back and
forth between multiple elements using MAP need some sort of secretary to
manage the transactions. This secretary is called the Transaction Capabilities
Application Part (TCAP).
43
Protocol Name Function
Responsible for transferring an SS7
message from one network element to
MTP Message Transfer Part
another within the same signaling
network
User parts of MTP. They send, receive,
TUP Telephone User Part analyze and act on the messages
NUP National User Part delivered by MTP. All of these are Call
ISUP ISDN User Part Control Messages that help in setting up,
supervising and clearing a call
Protocol layer responsible for making
Signaling Connection virtual connections and making
SCCP
and Control Part connectionless signaling across multiple
signaling networks
Protocol layer responsible for
Base Station Subsystem
BSSAP communicating GSM specific messages
Application Part
between MSC & BSC, and MSC & MS
A GSM specific protocol for non-call-
Mobile Application
MAP related applications between NSS
Part
elements
Protocol layer responsible for providing
Transaction
service to MAP by handling the MAP
TCAP Capabilities
transaction messages between multiple
Application Part
elements.
44
Protocol Stack in BSC
The BSC only needs BSSAP, but since BSSAP needs the services of the
SCCP which in turn needs the MTP, the BSC contains MTP, SCCP and
BSSAP.
Between the BSC and the BTS, a signalling protocol is used known as LAP-D
(Link Access Procedure for the ISDN "D" channel). This is the same protocol
that is used in ISDN networks between the customer and the network.
Between the mobile station and the BTS, the same signalling protocol is used
with small modifications to cope with the characteristics of the radio
transmission medium. This protocol is known as LAP-Dm where the "m"
denotes modified.
The LAP-D message structure is similar to SS#7 but it does not support
networking capabilities, therefore, it is used for point to point connections.
Protocols for Radio Resource (RR) management are passed using LAP-Dm
and LAP-D. Other protocols for Mobility Management (MM) and Connection
Management (CM) are passed between the Mobile Station and the MSC.
45
The model groups communication functions into seven logical layers. A layer
serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a
layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the
path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to
send and receive packets that make up the contents of that path. Two
instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal connection on that
layer.
a) Physical Layer
46
physical communications channel. This channel can involve physical
cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or a wireless radio link.
The data link layer provides a reliable link between two directly
connected nodes, by detecting and possibly correcting errors that
may occur in the physical layer.
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - control error checking and packet
synchronization.
c) Network Layer
d) Transport Layer
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow
control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some
protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the
transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those
that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors
47
occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message
received from the application layer. Packetizing is a process of dividing
the long message into smaller messages.
e) Session Layer
f) Presentation Layer
g) Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which
means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with
the software application. This layer interacts with software applications
that implement a communicating component. Such application
programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer
functions typically include identifying communication partners,
determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
When identifying communication partners, the application layer
determines the identity and availability of communication partners for
an application with data to transmit. When determining resource
48
availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient
network or the requested communication exists.
Location Update
MS constantly receives information sent by the network, which includes ID of
VLR address of current area. MS stores that ID. Every time ID is broadcasted,
MS compares the ID stored with the new ID. Whenever there is a change, MS
sends a registration enquiry to the area it has just entered. The network
registers the MS in new VLR area and the HLR is informed about the new VLR
address.
location registration
generic
periodic
Location Registration takes place when MS is turned on. It is also called IMSI
attach because as soon as MS turns on, it informs VLR that it is back in service.
As a result, network sends MS LAI (Location Area Identity Number) and TMSI
(Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity Number). TMSI is transmitted so that
IMSI is not transmitted over Air Interface for security reasons.
Generic location update is performed if the stored LAI is different from the
received LAI (MS keeps receiving data through control channels). The MS
starts a Location Update process by accessing the MSC/VLR that sent the
location data. A channel request message is sent that contains the subscriber
identity and LAI stored in SIM card.
When the target MSC/VLR receives the request, it reads the old LAI which
identifies the MSC/VLR that has served the mobile phone up to this point. A
signaling connection is established between the two MSC/VLRs and the
subscriber’s IMSI is transferred from the old MSC to the new MSC. Using this
IMSI, the new MSC requests the subscriber data from the HLR and then
updates the VLR and HLR after successful authentication.
49
Periodic Location Update carried out when network does not receive any
location update from the MS in specified time. If the subscriber is moving
within a single location area, there is no need to send a location update
request.
The network broadcasts the timer value so that a MS knows the periodic
location update timer values. Therefore, when the set time is up, the MS
initiates a registration process by sending a location update request signal.
The VLR receives the request and confirms the registration of the mobile in the
same location area.
50
4. HLR determines current location of subscriber, as it has VLR address of
the subscriber
7. MSRN and MSISDN have same structure but used for different purposes.
MSISDN is used for interrogating HLR whereas is the response given by
the servicing MSC/VLR and is used for routing the call.
MSRN-
8. MSC/VLR sends MSRN to HLR. HLR does not interrogates MSRN because
MSRN is used for traffic transactions and HLR does not handle traffic.
HLR forwards MSRN to GMSC.
9. GMSC analyzes the MSRN. MSRN identifies the location of the called
subscriber. Result of this analysis is a routing information which identifies
the destination of the call.
10. The final phase of the routing process is taken care of by the serving
MSC/VLR. In fact, the serving MSC/VLR also has to receive the roaming
number so that it knows that this is not a new call, but one that is going
to terminate here – i.e. a call to which it has already allocated an
MSRN. By checking the VLR, it recognizes the number and so it is able
to trace the called subscriber
51
11. To locate the subscriber, a Paging process is initiated in the Location
Area. The mobile phone of the called subscriber recognizes the paging
signal and answers it.
Handover
Handover or Handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or
data session from one channel connected to the core network to another
channel.
when the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell
and entering the area covered by another cell the call is transferred to
the second cell in order to avoid call termination when the phone gets
outside the range of the first cell
52
when the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up
and an existing or new call from a phone, which is located in an area
overlapped by another cell, is transferred to that cell in order to free-up
some capacity in the first cell for other users, who can only be
connected to that cell
RX Level Downlink
RX Quality Downlink
Reported by BTS –
RX Level Uplink
RX Quality Uplink
Timing Advance
BTS Load
Recent Handovers
Neighbor Priority
53
Timing advance
Types of Handovers
The subscriber moves from cell 1 to cell 2. In this case the handover
process is controlled by BSC. The traffic connection with cell 1 is
released when the connection with cell 2 is set up successfully.
4. Inter MSC
54
Types of Handovers
1. Preventive
2. Rescue
3. Power Budget
If neighbor is better than serving cell by more than the margin, initiate
handover
4. Distance
55
5. Level
Uses level handover margin – generally set less than power budget
margin
If serving cell RX Level (uplink and downlink) is lower than a set value,
and neighbor cell is better than the serving cell by more than the
margin, then initiate handover
Level handovers are intended to handover the call before the signal
level gets so low that quality is affected
6. Quality
Uses quality handover margin – generally set less than level margin –
can be negative
If serving cell RX Quality (uplink and downlink) is lower than a set value,
and neighbor cell is better than the serving cell by more than the
margin, then initiate handover
Quality handovers are intended to handover the call before the quality
level gets so low that the customer notices
Handover Strategy
In high signal areas, Power Budget is always looking for a handover, but the
neighbor cell must be must stronger than the serving cell for the handover to
happen.
In low signal areas (worse than the level trigger), the neighbor cell only needs
to be somewhat stronger than the serving cell for the handover to happen.
In poor quality areas (worse than the quality trigger), the neighbor cell only
needs to be as strong as the serving cell for the handover to happen.
56
This structure allows different behavior in different without extensive
optimization of each individual cell.
The anchor MSC/VLR receives the handover information from the BSS. It
recognizes that the destination is within the domain of another MSC and
sends a Handover Request to the target MSC via the signaling network. The
target MSC answers by generating a HON and sends it to the anchor
MSC/VLR, which performs a digit analysis in order to obtain the necessary
routing information. This information allows the serving MSC/VLR to connect
the target MSC/VLR. When the two MSCs are connected, the call is
transferred to a new route.
Charging
In addition to a standard fee, subscribers have to pay for the calls they make
and the services they use. The actual charging practices vary considerably
from one network operator to another.
57
3. Charge for using Network: list of parameters that can be used as a
basis for charging the subscribers-
duration of call
destination of call
origin of call
Whom to Charge
If the called subscriber is outside the service area of his home network and is
connected to another network, then the call has to be routed to him using
the services of one or more foreign networks. In such a case, the charge will
be shared according to the following principle-
The calling subscriber pays for the connection to the number he dialed
The same principle is applied when the mobile subscriber has forwarded
incoming calls to another number. The called subscriber pays for the
forwarded call.
58
Collect call is the case in which the called subscriber pays for the call. In the
Collect Call, called subscriber has to accept the call, after which he is
responsible for all the costs.
Charging Procedure
The record containing the information about one chargeable event is called
the charging record. These records are stored primarily as charging files in the
MSC or HLR and then transferred to a separate billing center. The serving
operator controls the entire charging process. The process begins when a call
is set up and at the same time, a charging record is opened in the serving
MSC/VLR. In general the first and the last MSC involved in a call set up,
collect the charging record.
When the subscriber moves and inter MSC handover is performed, the
charging record is not transferred to the new MSC during handover. Instead,
first MSC keeps record of the call as long as it lasts.
Distributed Charging
In order to produce bills for each subscriber, Billing Centers should collect
detailed charging data from all the MSCs within the PLMN.
When two GSM operators sign a “roaming contract”, they agree how often
they will transfer charging data between each other.
59
Services
Services can be grouped as speech services, where the transmitted data is
speech and data services which covers the rest of the information types such
as text, facsimile (fax), etc.
Supplementary Services which are extra services that are not included
as basic features, but are associated with the basic services by
enhancing and/or adding extra features to the basic services
When a user subscribes for more than one basic service, he will have a
different MSISDN for every basic service to which he subscribes.
Standard Classification of Services-
These are the most common teleservices used in the GSM network.
Speech is also the basic service that each subscriber is guaranteed to. The
normal security procedures apply to all such calls except in the case of
emergency calls which are processed regardless of possible security
violations.
60
Short Message Service (SMS)
The Short Message Service (SMS) is a service enabling the mobile subscriber
to receive and/or send short (max. 160 characters) messages in text format.
3. Forwarding of
When a user sends a text message (SMS message) to another user, the
message gets stored in the SMSC (short message service centre) which
delivers it to the destination user when they are available. This is a store and
forward option.
An SMS message is stored temporarily in the SMS centre if the recipient mobile
phone is unavailable. It is possible on most mobile handset to specify an
expiry period after which the SMS message will be deleted from the SMS
centre.
The SMS sender needs to set a flag in the SMS message to notify the SMS
centre that he wants the status report about the delivery of this SMS message.
This status report is sent to the SMS sender in the form of an SMS.
The services of SMSC are not required in cell broadcasting, as the BSC is
equipped with the necessary SMSC functions. The maximum length of a cell
broadcast SMS is 93 characters.
61
Facsimile (Fax) Transmission
In the case of T61 Facsimile transmission, the receiver is either not aware that
the incoming call is addressed to the fax and so he has to establish the
nature of the call by talking with the calling party first, or the receiver knows
that it is a facsimile call but still wants to talk with the calling party. In both
cases, the nature of the transmitted information is data (group 3 facsimile)
and speech alternately (during the same call).
The T62 automatic facsimile is an automatic fax service where the receiver
has a different MSISDN for the fax service and all calls to this number are
purely data transmission calls.
Supplementary Services
62
Call forwarding unconditional
Call Hold
Call Waiting
Conference call
It is quite rare that there is a direct "line of sight" transmission between the
mobile station and the base transceiver station. In the majority of cases, the
signals arriving at the mobile station have been reflected from various
surfaces. Thus a mobile station (and the base transceiver station) receives the
same signal more than once. Depending on the distance that the reflected
signals have travelled, they may affect the same information bit or corrupt
successive bits.
1. Viterbi Equalisation –
This is generally applicable for signals that have been reflected from far
away objects. When either the BTS or MS transmits user information, the
information contained in the burst is not all user data. There are 26 bits
which are designated for a "training sequence" included in each TDMA
burst transmitted. Both the MS and BTS know these bits and by
analysing the effect the radio propagation on these training bits, the
air interface is mathematically modelled as a filter. Using this
63
mathematical model, the transmitted bits are estimated based on the
received bits. The mathematical algorithm used for this purpose is
called "Viterbi equalisation".
2. Channel Coding –
3. Interleaving –
4. Frequency Hopping –
In this case two physically separated antennas receive and process the
same signal. This helps to eliminate fading dips. If a fading dip occurs at
the position of one antenna, the other antenna will still be able to
receive the signal. Since the distance between two antennas is a few
metres, it can only be implemented at the BTS.
64
Shadowing
Hills, buildings and other obstacles between antennas cause shadowing (also
called Log Normal Fading). Instead of reflecting the signal these obstacles
attenuate the signal.
Solution to Shadowing
Propagation Delay
Information is sent in bursts from the mobile station to the Base Transceiver
Station (BTS). These bursts have to arrive at the base transceiver station such
that they have to map exactly into their allocated time slots. However, the
further away the mobile station is from the BTS then the longer it will take for
the radio signal to travel over the air interface. This means that if the mobile
station or base station transmits a burst only when the time slot appears, then
when the burst arrives at the other end, it will cross onto the time domain of
the next timeslot, thereby corrupting data from both sources. This problem is
called Propagation Delay.
65
Abis
The transmission between the other network elements, in particular from Base
Transceiver Station to Base Station Controller (BSC) is called Abis.
It is physical site from where the radio transmission in both the downlink and
uplink direction takes place. The particular hardware element inside the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) responsible for transmitting and receiving these radio
frequencies is appropriately named "Transceiver (TRX)". These TRXs are then
configured into one, two or three cells. If a BTS is configured as one cell it is
called an "Omnidirectional BTS" and if it is configured as either two or three
cells it is called a "Sectorized BTS". In an omnidirectional BTS the maximum
number of TRXs is ten, and in a sectorized BTS the maximum number of TRXs is
four per sector.
Point to point connection indicates that the Base Station Controller (BSC) is
connected directly to every BTS with a 2Mbit/s PCM line. This is a simple and
effective method particularly in cases when the distance between BSC and
BTS is short.
One PCM line has ample capacity to transfer data to several BTSs
simultaneously. Therefore, it is possible to draw just one BSC - BTS connection
and link the BTSs as a chain. This technique is called Multidrop Chain. The BSC
sends all the data in one 2Mbit/s PCM line and each BTS in turn analyses the
signal, collects the data from the correct timeslots assigned for itself and
passes the signal to the next BTS.
66
Fig: BTS – BSC Connections
Multiplexing
According to GSM 900 and GSM 1800 specification, the bit rate in the air
interface is 13 Kbits/s and the bit rate at the Mobile Services Switching Centre
(MSC) and PSTN interface is 64 Kbits/s. This means that the bit rate has to be
converted at some point after the signal has been received by the BTS and
before it is sent to other networks.
The actual hardware which does the conversion from 13 Kbps to 64 Kbps and
vice versa is called a transcoder. In theory this piece of equipment belongs to
the Base Transceiver Station. However, by putting the transcoder at a
different place we can take some advantages in reducing the transmission
costs.
67
If the transcoder is placed at the BTS site (in the BSC interface), then the user
data rate from BTS to Base Station Controller (BSC) would be 64 Kbps. The
transmission for this would be similar to standard PCM line transmission with 30
channels per PCM cable. The same would also apply between BSC and
MSC.
If we put the transcoder somewhere else, say just after MSC, then also we
cannot get significant advantage. This is because although after transcoding
the bit rate reduces to 13 kbps we still have to use the PCM structure to send
the traffic channels, with 8 bits per time slot. However since after transcoding
we have a bit rate of 13 Kbps and an additional 3 Kbps (making 16 Kbps)
only two bits per time slot will be used. The other 6 bits are effectively wasted.
Independent from its actual position, the transcoder belongs to the BSS even
if it is placed next to the MSC. (When the TC is placed away from the BTS it is
called a Remote TC according to the GSM recommendations).
We saw that from the MSC data comes out at 64Kbits/s rate and from the
Transcoder it comes out at 16Kbits/s. Each PCM channel (time slot) has 2 bits
of information. It appears that we are able to put in data from other 3 PCM
lines also here by multiplexing. However there are other issues as well such as
Common Channel Signalling information, OMC data and some other
network information which cannot be transcoded. Thus we are able to
multiplex 3 PCM lines and send 90 channels in one PCM line from MSC
(transcoder) towards the BSC. The BSC is able to switch 2 bits per time slot (or
1 bit) to the correct direction.
68
Network Planning
A good geographical coverage is the basis for providing network services.
Careful network planning is thus a primary aspect of implementing GSM
networks.
3. Coverage
5. Quality of calls
69
5. Use of computer aided design system for coverage prediction,
interference analysis and frequency planning
Site Survey
A radio frequency (RF) site survey is the first step in the deployment of a
Wireless network and the most important step to ensure desired operation. A
site survey is a task-by-task process by which the surveyor studies the facility to
understand the RF behaviour, discovers RF coverage areas, checks for RF
interference and determines the appropriate placement of Wireless devices.
To provide a wireless solution that will deliver the required wireless coverage,
data rates, network capacity, roaming capability and Quality of Service
(QoS).
In a Wireless network, many issues can arise which can prevent the radio
frequency (RF) signal from reaching all parts of the facility. Examples of RF
issues include mulitpath distortion, hidden node problems, and near/far
issues.
In order to address these, you need to find the regions where these issues
occur. A site survey helps you to do this. A site survey helps define the
contours of RF coverage in a particular facility. It helps us to discover regions
where mulitpath distortion can occur, areas where RF interference is high and
find solutions to eliminate such issues. A site survey that determines the RF
coverage area in a facility also helps to choose the number of Wireless
devices that a firm needs to meet its business requirements.
70
How Site is surveyed?
Wireless site surveys are typically conducted using computer software that
collects and analyses WLAN metrics and/or RF spectrum characteristics.
Before a survey, a floor plan or site map is imported into a site survey
application and calibrated to set scale. During a survey, a surveyor walks the
facility with a portable computer that continuously records the data. The
surveyor either marks the current position on the floor plan manually, by
clicking on the floor plan, or uses a GPS receiver that automatically marks the
current position if the survey is conducted outdoors. After a survey, data
analysis is performed and survey results are documented in site survey reports
generated by the application.
All these data collection, analysis, and visualization tasks are highly
automated in modern software. In the past, however, these tasks required
manual data recording and processing.
There are three main types of wireless site surveys: passive, active, and
predictive.
71
Depending on the survey type, a number of software and software/hardware
options are available to WLAN surveyors.
Software
Passive and active surveys are performed using software and typically require
only a compatible off-the-shelf Wi-Fi adapter; no additional specialized
hardware is required. Predictive surveys require no hardware at all, as no
wireless data collection is needed. Currently, professional-level site survey
applications exist primarily for Microsoft Windows. Some site survey
applications for other platforms, including iOS and Android, also exist,
however they are limited in functionality due to the limitations of the
underlying platform API. For example, signal level measurements cannot be
obtained on iOS without jailbreaking.
Hardware
After all the installation sites have been surveyed, a detailed network plan
can be made. This includes the design of a transmission network which is
usually supplied by existing operators (leased PCM lines), or by microwave
links.
The radio environment has to be measured and tested to ensure its proper
operation and coverage after installation.
In sparsely populated areas we use powerful BTS’s which are usually mounted
on high ground to provide maximum unobstructed coverage to all directions.
This type of BTS is called Omnidirectional BTS.
In urban areas, where traffic volume is higher, the size of a cell is much smaller
and the distance between BTS’s is shorter. The standard type of BTS is also
different: the cell is divided into three sectors that have a few frequencies
each. This is called Sectorised BTS.
72
Types of Towers –
3. Pole (POL)
Telecom Service Provider pays the rent for the ground and erects his
pole from the ground level.
With a database that takes into account data such as terrain, clutter, and
antenna radiation patterns, as well as an intuitive graphical interface, the
Planning tool gives RF engineers a state-of-the-art tool to:
73
Design wireless networks
Test Transmitter
Antenna
wattmeter
The transmitted power levels are then measured and collected by the Drive
test kit. This data is then loaded on the Planning tool and used for tuning
models.
Traffic modelling tool is used by the planning engineer for Network modelling
and dimensioning. It helps the planning engineer to calculate the number of
network elements needed to fulfil coverage, capacity and quality needs.
74
Site database: This includes RF data, site acquisition, power, civil, etc.
Inventory Control
Fault tracking
Finance Management
MapInfo
2. Thematic Mapping: Allows the user to shade maps, present bar & pie
charts, graduated symbols, dot density, and grids. In addition, the Prism
thematic feature that allows regions of the map to be extruded to give
the impression of height.
3. SQL Selection with Geographic Extensions: Build and save SQL queries
that access and integrate data from multiple tables. Frequently
performed queries can be written once, re-used and distributed to
others.
75
4. Charts & Graphs: Interactive graphs and charts including 3D, bubble,
column, histogram, surface, area, bar, line and pie scatter charts.
Select graph templates from thumbnail sketches. Graphing style
control includes position, tilt, rotation and pie explosion.
7. Raster Image Support: Use raster images such as scanned paper maps,
satellite images, photographs and logos to provide detailed content
layers for your maps.
8. Linked Views: View and/or edit data in multiple linked views (including
rows and columns, graphs and maps) simultaneously.
12. Crystal Reports: Use the built-in report writer from Crystal Reports to
provide additional support for your visual analysis.
15. Rotate Map Window Utility: Rotate the map window a specific number
of degrees.
76
MapInfo Snapshots
77
Fig: Other BTS along with the their coverage areas
78
Google Earth Snapshots
79
Fig: A more detailed picture showing coverage areas
80
Fig: Easily distinguishable clutter and open areas
81
Path Loss
The propagation attenuation, or path loss, is defined as the ratio between the
transmitted and received powers on each end of a radio link:
L = PT/PR
Path loss is defined in such a way that it is always greater than one. It is the
general formula for Path Loss.
Path loss can further be divided into two factors: free space loss and
additional loss. The free space loss comes from the fact that the power from
the transmitter radiates in all direction as a spherical wave.
Additional losses come from the fact that the radio waves are usually not
propagating in ideal free space. There is a nearby earth plane, precipitation
like rain, hail and snow, natural obstacles like hills, mountains and forests and
man-made obstacles like buildings and vehicles.
RX Level
82
Link Budget
A link budget is accounting of all of the gains and losses from the transmitter,
through the medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the
receiver in a telecommunication system. It accounts for the attenuation of
the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna gains,
feedline and miscellaneous losses. Randomly varying channel gains such as
fading are taken into account by adding some margin depending on the
anticipated severity of its effects. The amount of margin required can be
reduced by the use of mitigating techniques such as antenna diversity or
frequency hopping.
Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) − Losses (dB)
83
As the path loss encountered along any radio link serves as the dominant
factor for characterization of propagation for the link, radio propagation
models typically focus on realization of the path loss with the auxiliary task of
predicting the area of coverage for a transmitter or modelling the distribution
of signals over different regions.
Different models have been developed to meet the needs of realizing the
propagation behaviour in different conditions.
a) Okumura Model
Okumura model was built into three modes. The ones for urban,
suburban and open areas. The model for urban areas was built first
and used as the base for others.
Coverage
Mathematical formulation
84
where, L = median path loss in dB
LFSL = free space loss in dB
AMU = Median attenuation in dB
HMG = Mobile station antenna height gain factor.
HBG = Base station antenna height gain factor.
Kcorrection = Correction factor gain (such as type of
environment, water surfaces, isolated obstacle
etc.)
Okumura's model is one of the most widely used models for signal
prediction in urban areas. This model is applicable for frequencies in
the range 150–1920 MHz (although it is typically extrapolated up to
3000 MHz) and distances of 1–100 km. It can be used for base-station
antenna heights ranging from 30–1000 m.
b) Hata Model
In wireless communication, the Hata model for urban areas, also known as
the Okumura–Hata model for being a developed version of the Okumura
model, is the most widely used radio frequency propagation model for
predicting the behaviour of cellular transmissions in built up areas. This model
incorporates the graphical information from Okumura model and develops it
further to realize the effects of diffraction, reflection and scattering caused
by city structures. This model also has two more varieties for transmission in
suburban areas and open areas.
85
This model is suited for both point-to-point and broadcast transmissions and it
is based on extensive empirical measurements taken.
PCS is another extension of the Hata model. The Walfisch and Bertoni model is
further advanced.
Coverage
Mathematical formulation
The Hata model for suburban areas, also known as the Okumura–Hata model
for being a developed version of the Okumura model, is the most widely used
model in radio frequency propagation for predicting the behavior of cellular
86
transmissions in city outskirts and other rural areas. This model incorporates the
graphical information from Okumura model and develops it further to better
suite the need. This model also has two more varieties for transmission in
urban areas and open areas.
The Hata model predicts the total path loss along a link of terrestrial
microwave or other type of cellular communications. And is a function of
transmission frequency and the average path loss in urban areas.
This particular version of Hata model is applicable to the transmissions just out
of the cities and on rural areas where man-made structures are there but not
so high and dense as in the cities. To be more precise, this model is suitable
where buildings exist, but the mobile station does not have a significant
variation of its height. This model is suited for both point-to-point and
broadcast transmissions.
Coverage
Mathematical formulation
The Hata model for open areas, also known as the Okumura–Hata model
from its origins in the Okumura model, is the most widely used model for
predicting the behavior of cellular radio transmissions in open areas. It further
exploits the graphical information from the Okumura model. Two additional
varieties for transmission are urban areas and suburban areas.
87
The Hata model for open areas predicts the total path loss along a link of
terrestrial microwave or other type of cellular communications. It is a function
of transmission frequency and the median path loss in urban areas.
Coverage
Mathematical formulation
Dimensioning Cells
A cell is the basic ‘construction block’ of a GSM network. One cell is the
geographical area covered by one BTS. Cells are grouped under Base
Station Controllers (BSC).
Erlang is the measuring unit of network traffic. One Erlang equals the
continuous use of a mobile device for one hour.
If one hundred six-minute calls are received on a group of such circuits, then
the total traffic in that hour is six hundred minutes or 10 Erlangs.
88
some reasonable period of time. The period over which the average is
calculated is often one hour, but shorter periods (e.g., 15 minutes) may be
used where it is known that there are short spurts of demand and a traffic
measurement is desired that does not mask these spurts.
Erlang-B (sometimes also written without the hyphen Erlang B), also known as
the Erlang loss formula, is a formula for the blocking probability that describes
the probability of call losses for a group of identical parallel resources
(telephone lines, circuits, traffic channels, or equivalent).
The Erlang B formula applies under the condition that an unsuccessful call,
because the line is busy, is not queued or retried, but instead really vanishes
forever. It is assumed that call attempts arrive following a Poisson process, so
call arrival instants are independent. Further, it is assumed that the message
lengths (holding times) are exponentially distributed (Markovian system),
although the formula turns out to apply under general holding time
distributions.
89
Fig: Erlang B Table
Frequency Reuse
The next step involves the dimensioning of the Location Areas. This is carried
out according to the traffic characteristics of each area. The final phase is
the dimensioning of the Fixed Network on the basis of the traffic requirements
and dimensioning of the entire radio network.
The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the
reuse factor.
90
The reuse distance, D is calculated as
D = R (3N)1/3
Each frequency is divided into 8 slots, each having one TCH of Full rate. If TCH
of Half rates are used, then each slot would have 2 TCH of half rate. Erlang B
Table consider TCH of Full rates only. Grade of Service (GOS) is the threshold
of percentage of Call Blocks.
Traffic that can be handled by one BTS with a particular number of TRX with
specified GOS (usually 2%) is determined by Erlang Table. It is theoretical
traffic value that BTS can handle. With the use of Half rate TCH, capacity to
handle traffic would increase, but the quality of service would decrease.
Idea implements Nokia Architecture in BSS. BTS that Idea use were
manufactured by a joint venture of Nokia and Seimens called Nokia Seimens
Network. But after the possession of Idea by Microsoft, it is done by Nokia
only.
It is very much possible that BSS is manufactured by some company and NSS
is manufactured by other company. In that case, NMS for both will be
different. But the BSS and the NSS will still be compatible so that they can
communicate with each other and the OSS.
Drive Testing
91
Fig: 2G drive testing
92
wide variety of the physical and virtual parameters of mobile cellular service
in a given geographical area.
93
Drive testing requires a mobile vehicle outfitted with drive testing
measurement equipment. These equipments are usually highly specialized
electronic devices that interface to OEM mobile handsets. This ensures
measurements are realistic and comparable to actual user experiences.
Drive test equipment typically collects data relating to the network itself,
services running on the network such as voice or data services, radio
frequency scanner information and GPS information to provide location
logging.
The data set collected during drive testing field measurements can include
information such as:
1. Signal intensity
2. Signal quality
3. Interference
4. Dropped calls
5. Blocked calls
6. Anomalous events
7. Call statistics
94
Site Audit
Analysis of invoices, lines, rates, tariffs, taxes, plans, usage, call volume,
systems, and contracts resulting in cost reduction, proper invoicing and
optimization of telecommunication systems often conducted by an
independent telecommunications consultant or firm.
Optimization
Reasons for Optimization –
Maintain/Improve QoS
95
Performance Management Cycle
96
KPIs to be monitored –
Fig: KPIs
All cell resources are available but calls are failing, then we have a call drop
scenario. This could be caused by software errors, congestion, C7 link failures,
HW problems or many other reasons.
If a call is abnormally disconnected, a Clear Request is sent to the MSC .If the
Call is disconnected in a normal Fashion then Clear Message with cause
code Call Control is sent. It is important to establish what types of calls are
failing, and over what percentage of the network it is occurring.
97
SD Blocking
SD blocking means that you are not getting SD resource for the call
origination. When MS connects with NW then RACH and AGCH are provided.
After AGCH, SDCCH is provided but if SDCCH is not provided at this time due
some problems or due to unavailable of SD by BSC, it’s called as SD Blocking.
There are no of reasons for that. If such a case arises the customer will not be
able to originate any call.
If all the SD resources are full and not available for SD assign then it comes
under congestion. If at a particular time call is attempted and it fails then it
known as Blocking.
Solutions to SD Blocking
Check LAC boundary, if location update is more, then change the LAC
of that site and set C2 and HYS.
Use report number 182 in the OSS to analyses SD Blocking reasons and
130 for SD congestion.
SD Drop
If SD drop is high, look on parameters like – overshooting, shift the SD time slot,
may be hardware issue, interference, change the values of RXP, PMAX, may
be issue of uplink or downlink issue in that cells for UL put a TMA in that cell
and for DL provide tilt, re-orient that antenna.
98
Solutions to SD Drop
The best way to find the real issues for Interference makes Drive Test.
TCH Blocking
When TCH is not allocated to the user after SD allocation, it is TCH Blocking. It
is the failed call attempts which the MS user can notice. It takes place due to
lack of TCH Resource.
If TRX addition not possible, try to share the traffic of that cell with the
neighboring cell by changing tilt or orientation.
99
TCH Drop
If a cell is picking call from long distance, check the sample log
according to TA.
Site Orientation.
If Handover success rate degrades, call drop rate will take place.
Solutions to HOSR
The best way to find the real issues for HO fail make Drive Test. By DT it is
very easy to find the fail between cells.
100
3rd Generation
The third generation, 3G, is expected to complete the globalisation process
of the mobile communication. The trend is that 3G will mostly be based on
GSM technical solutions due to the reason: the GSM as technology
dominates the market and great investments made to GSM should be utilised
as much as possible.
Access to the Internet will become more important and executives will want
to access corporate databases from virtually anywhere. New services will be
required in addition to speech and data, therefore network operators will
offer video and other multimedia applications.
101
Fig: 3G Specification Bodies
102
The initial scope of 3GPP was to make a globally applicable third-generation
(3G) mobile phone system specification based on GSM specifications within
the scope of the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 project of
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The scope was later
enlarged to include the development and maintenance of:
Global system means global business and this is why there has been a lot of
pressure to select or emphasise certain solutions more than others. This
political debate actually delayed the specification work remarkably and
finally an organisation taking care of harmonisation issues was established.
This organization, OHG aims to find a common understanding concerning the
global issues. The results of this organisation are used as inputs in 3GPP work as
well as in 3G future implementations.
The aim of OHG work is to affect the specifications so that all the radio
access variants are compatible with all the variants meant for switching; this
will ensure true globality for 3G.
103
IMT-2000 / cdma2000 are the names for the American 3G variant. In
the American variant, the TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
scenario which is at least partially based on the enhanced GSM (EDGE)
is also considered as an alternative.
GSM systems will evolve towards the UMTS by progressively introducing new
techniques to provide higher bandwidth. These steps are as follows –
Traditionally TDMA timeslot provided a bit rate of 9.6 Kbps; however a new
modified air interface brings the speed up to 14.4 Kbps. With HSCSD, a
combination of up to four TDMA timeslots could be used to provide data
transfer rate at 57.6 Kbps.
With the higher transmission speeds provided by GPRS, end users will find that
file downloads are faster, applications that were previously not possible now
become possible and the overall attractiveness of the data services will
increase.
104
SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node)
The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is a router that maintains the location
information of the mobile station and the Gateway GPRS Support Node
(GGSN) enables the data packets to be passed on to other packet switching
networks.
EDGE will provide a bridge from GSM into the 3 rd Generation mobile networks.
It will use an advanced GSM modulation technique to provide data speeds
of 384Kbits/s but still using the existing 200 kHz GSM channel.
The extra capacity is achieved by increasing the data capacity of a single
GSM timeslot from 9.6 Kbps to 48 Kbps and possibly up to nearly 70 Kbps
under good radio conditions.
EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, such as an Internet
connection.
105
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)
Data is transmitted together with error correction bits. Minor errors can thus
be corrected without retransmission; see forward error correction.
If retransmission is needed, the user device saves the packet and later
combines it with retransmitted packet to recover the error-free packet as
efficiently as possible. Even if the retransmitted packets are corrupted, their
combination can yield an error-free packet. Retransmitted packet may be
either identical (chase combining) or different from the first transmission
(incremental redundancy).
106
Each user device continually transmits an indication of the downlink signal
quality, as often as 500 times per second. Using this information from all
devices, the base station decides which users will be sent data in the next
2ms frame and how much data should be sent for each user. More data can
be sent to users which report high downlink signal quality.
The amount of the channelization code tree, and thus network bandwidth,
allocated to HSDPA users is determined by the network. The allocation is
"semi-static" in that it can be modified while the network is operating, but not
on a frame-by-frame basis. This allocation represents a trade-off between
bandwidth allocated for HSDPA users, versus that for voice and non-HSDPA
data users. The allocation is in units of channelization codes for Spreading
Factor 16, of which 16 exist and up to 15 can be allocated to the HS-DSCH.
When the base station decides which users will receive data in the next
frame, it also decides which channelization codes will be used for each user.
This information is sent to the user on one of up to 4 HS-SCCHs, which are not
part of the HS-DSCH allocation previously mentioned, but are allocated
separately. Thus, for a given 2ms frame, data may be sent to a number of
users simultaneously, using different channelization codes.
3G Network Structure
The obvious lack of GSM systems is and was the bandwidth offered to the
enduser. In the beginning the bandwidth offered to the end-user was
reasonable but later on when the technology developed and the end-user
requirements increased and new services such as the Internet became more
common the bandwidth became inadequate.
This was the main reason for starting the specification for the next generation
cellular networks.
107
Fig: 3G Network Principle Diagram
The abbreviation RAN comes from the words Radio Access Network and the
term CN means Core Network. The multiple access method used in RAN is
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, WCDMA. The RAN is limited with
open interfaces in order to guarantee multi-vendor scenarios. Also the
interfaces within the CN and between the CN and the other networks can be
considered as open but there may be several national limitations /
enhancements / extensions present. The 3G network can also be presented
as a collection of Management Layers, which cover certain parts of the
network.
The 3G network will have the means and readiness for data transfer in all
forms. The traffic to be delivered through 3G can be divided into two
categories being Circuit Switched and Packet Switched. The Circuit Switched
traffic normally has a high real-time requirement (i.e. no delay or the delay
occurring must be constant). Normal speech and Video Phoning are
examples of this kind of traffic. The Packet Switched traffic normally does not
108
have such exact real-time requirements and a good example of this kind of
traffic is an Internet connection.
UMTS will also employ TD-CDMA (Time Division-Code Division Multiple Access)
for low mobility indoor applications using Time Division Duplex (TDD) similar to
cordless technologies. Together, these two elements of the air interface (FDD
and TDD) are known as UTRA (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access).
Release 99
Bearer Services
64 kbps circuit switch
384 kbps switched
Location Services
Call Service: compatible with GSM, based on USIM
Voice Quality Features
Release 4
Edge Radio
Multimedia Messaging
Improved Location Services
IP Multimedia Services
TD – SCDMA
Release 5
IP Multimedia Subsystem
IPv6, IP transport in UTRAN
Improvements in GERAN, MExE, etc
Release 6
WLAN integration
Multimedia broadcast and multicast
109
Improvements in IMS
HSUPA
Fractional DPCH
Release 7
Enhanced L2
64 QAM, MIMO
Voice over HSPA
CPC – continuous packet connectivity
FRLC – Flexible RLC
Release 8
Release 9
Fig: FDD
110
In TDD, TX and RX is on the same frequency but on different times.
Fig: TDD
For the 3rd generation mobile systems, a high bit rate is required for multi-
media data. Therefore, the spreading code must be of a higher bit rate.
CDMA uses a bandwidth of 1.25MHz but the W-CDMA systems for UMTS will
occupy a bandwidth of approximately 5MHz.
111
In the W-CDMA system the spreading codes are used to spread out the data
signal to cover the whole wideband spectrum which is allocated for the data
transfer.
The data rates of 144Kbits/s and 384Kbits/s are achievable within this
bandwidth and can provide reasonable capacity 2Mbit/s peak rate under
limited conditions.
The large 5MHz bandwidth can resolve more multipaths than narrower
bandwidths. This will increase diversity and improve performance. Wider
bandwidths of 10, 15 and 20MHz may be proposed in the future to support
high data rates more effectively.
3G Network Architecture
UMTS can in many aspects be looked upon as an extension to GSM and
GPRS. The greatest changes are related to the access part of the network.
The access network, called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Network (UTRAN), consists
of base stations and base stations controllers.
The base stations are called Node B. A Node B can support FDD mode, TDD
mode or dual-mode operation. Several base stations are managed by a
Radio Network Controller (RNC).
The RNC is responsible for the Handover decisions that require signalling to
the UE.
Node B
Node B is a term used in UMTS equivalent to the BTS (base transceiver station)
description used in GSM.
Since WCDMA often operates at higher frequencies than GSM (2,100 MHz as
opposed to 900 MHz for GSM), the cell radius can be considerably smaller for
WCDMA than for GSM cells as the path loss is frequency dependent. WCDMA
now has networks operating in the 850–900 MHz band. In these networks, at
112
these frequencies, the coverage of WCDMA is considered better than that of
the equivalent GSM network.
A full cell site has a cabinet, an antenna mast and actual antenna. An
equipment cabinet contains e.g. power amplifiers, digital signal processors
and backup batteries.
Node B Setup –
A full cell site has a cabinet, an antenna mast and actual antenna. An
equipment cabinet contains e.g. power amplifiers, digital signal processors
and backup batteries. What you can see by the side of a road or in a city
center is just an antenna. However, the tendency nowadays is to
camouflage the antenna (paint it the colour of the building or put it into an
RF-transparent enclosure). Smaller indoor nodes may have an antenna built
into the cabinet door.
113
A Node B can serve several cells, also called sectors, depending on the
configuration and type of antenna. Common configuration include omni cell
(360°), 3 sectors (3×120°) or 6 sectors (3 sectors 120° wide overlapping with 3
sectors of different frequency).
The Radio Network Controller (or RNC) is a governing element in the UMTS
radio access network (UTRAN) and is responsible for controlling the Node Bs
that are connected to it. The RNC carries out radio resource management,
some of the mobility management functions and is the point where
encryption is done before user data is sent to and from the mobile.
Soft Handover
Soft handover or soft handoff refers to a feature used by the CDMA and W-
CDMA standards, where a cell phone is simultaneously connected to two or
more cells (or cell sectors) during a call. If the sectors are from the same
physical cell site (a sectorised site), it is referred to as softer handoff. This
technique is a form of mobile-assisted handover, CDMA cell phones
continuously make power measurements of a list of neighboring cell sites,
and determine whether or not to request or end soft handover with the cell
sectors on the list.
114
Hard handover is a typical Handover mechanism in a communication
network which is designed to work by first breaking off from the initial
connection with a base station before switching to another base station. This
is done in order to retain communications in a session for mobile users after
incurring a non-perceptible and insignificant brief interruption. A Hard
handoff is also referred to as “Break-before-Make” handover.
Cell Radius
Path Loss =
= 69.55 + 26.16 * log(fc) – 13.82 * log(hb) + [44.9 – 6.55 * log(hb)] log(R) –a(h m)
where,
115
Differences between 2G and 3G
Parameter 2G 3G
License fees is low. Network License fees is high. Network
Cost construction and construction and
maintenance is also low. maintenance is also high.
Lower data speeds, and less High data speeds, and more
Data
compatible with functions of compatible with newer
Transmission
smartphone. technology.
Data
236 kbps (UL and DL) 21Mbps(DL) and 5.7Mbps (UL)
Speed
Basic services and Mobile TV, video transfers and
Features
supplementary services GPS
Frequency
200kHz 5MHz
Band Width
Security Low High
116
A Visit to the Cell Site
During the course of the internship, I was allowed to visit the Base Transceiver
Station (BTS), and inside its shelter, and I was briefed about all the network
equipments.
Fig: BTS
The BTS of used here was manufactured by NSN. This model was called
Flexi Edge BTS. It can support a maximum of 24 TRX.
117
2. Power Interface Unit
It stops the fluctuations of AC. Its output is smooth AC. Its output is fed
to SMPS.
3. SMPS
Fig: SMPS
4. Battery bank
Its output is -48V. Battery Bank is used to supply power in the time
interval of main power cut and switching to the power supplied by
Diesel Generator. It can supply power for 4-5 hours. -48V is kept as a
standard for “Cathodic Protection”.
118
Fig: Battery Bank
5. Duplexer
119
On the Tower
1. Microwave Antenna
120
To transmit or receive data from other sites, like from a BTS to other BTS
or from a BTS to a BSC. Frequencies has no relation with size of the
microwave antennas. Microwave antennas used for Line of Sight
communications only.
2. GSM Antennas
3. Grounding
Grounding used to protect the site from current leakage. Site always
installed on a proper concrete support pillar.
121