2021 Metal Cutting, Metrology, Forming, Automation, Rootics by S K Mondal PDF

Metal Cutting, Metrology, Metal Forming,

Automation & Robotics
Questions & Answers-For 2021 (All Questions are in Sequence)
IES-1992-2020 (29 Yrs.), GATE-1992-2020 (29 Yrs.), GATE (PI)-2000-2020 (21 Yrs.), IAS-1994-
2011 (18 Yrs.), some PSUs questions and conventional questions IES, IAS, IFS are added.
Section‐I: Theory of Metal Cutting Questions Answers Questions Answers
Chapter-1: Basics of Metal Cutting Page-2 Page-234 Chapter-9: Forging Page-103 Page-260
Chapter-2: Analysis of Metal Cutting Page-18 Page- 236 Chapter-10: Extrusion & Drawing Page-117 Page-262
Chapter-3: Tool life, Tool Wear, Chapter-11: Sheet Metal Operation Page-131 Page-265
Economics and Machinability Page-31 Page-242 Chapter-12: Powder Metallurgy Page-151 Page-268
Section‐II: Metrology Questions Answers Section‐IV: Cutting Tool Materials Questions Answers
Chapter-4: Limit, Tolerance & Fits Page-50 Page-249 Chapter-13: Cutting tools Materials Page-160 Page-269
Chapter-5: Measurement of Lines
& Surfaces Page-64 Page-253 Section‐V: Automation, NC, CNC, FMS, Questions Answers
Chapter-6: Miscellaneous of Metrology Page-79 Page-255 CAD, CAM
Section‐III: Metal Forming Questions Answers Chapter-14: Automation Page-171 Page-270
Chapter-7: Cold Working, Recrystalization Section‐VI: Robotics Questions Answers

and Hot Working Page-84 Page-256
Chapter-15: Robotics Page-199 Page-274
Chapter-8: Rolling Page-90 Page-257
For‐2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs)

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 1 of 276 Rev.0

Manufacturing Vs Production
Manufacturing Vs Production
y Manufacturing is a process of converting raw material in URL
to finished product by using various processes, machines
Short URL
Theory of Metal Cutting
http://bit.do/skmondalies
and energy, it is a narrow term.
y Production is a process of converting inputs in to
outputs it
i is
i a broader
b d term.
Original URL
Eg ‘crude
Eg. crude oil production
production’ not ‘crude
crude oil manufacturing,
manufacturing’
h
https://drive.google.com/folder
//d i l /f ld
By S K Mondal ‘movie
movie production
production’ not ‘movie
movie manufacturing
manufacturing’ view?id 0BxfQqBdt
view?id=0BxfQqBdt-
y Manufacturing
g and production
p are often used
h66akdlWXI3RGI1d00
1 interchangeably. 2 3
R ti M f t i
Regenerative Manufacturing Basic Principle of Regenerative
Classification of Manufacturing Process
y Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw
Manufacturing
y Shaping or forming
Sh i f i materials in different forms.
9 liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
y Joining process
9 powder – e.g., selective sintering
y Removal process
9 sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
y Regenerative manufacturing Advantages:
9 wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modeling)
•Process is Independent of Part Feature
y Very
V rapid,
id accurate
t and
d used
d for
f Rapid
R id prototyping
t t i andd •No Blanks are Requires
N Bl k R i
•Toolless process
tooling.
tooling
•Easily Automation Possible
l bl
4 5 6
Machine tool
Machine tool
Machining Machining aim to A machine tool is a non portable power operated and
non‐portable
y Machining is an essential process of finishing by y Fulfill its functional requirements
reasonablyy valued device or system
y of device in which
which jobs are produced to the desired dimensions y Improve its performance energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size,
and surface finish by gradually removing the y Prolong its service. shape and surface finish by removing excess material
excess material
i l from
f the
h preformed
f d blank
bl k in
i the
h from the preformed blanks in the form of chips with the
Drawback in Machining
form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved h l off cutting
help i tools
l moved
d past the
h work
k surface.
f
y Loss of material in the form of chips
past tthee work
o susurface.
ace.
y Slow process (Low Productivity)
y Machining
g is a removal p
process.

7 8 9
Orthogonal Machining
g g
O th l M hi i
Orthogonal Machining
Whyy even a batteryy operated
p
pencil sharpener
p p cannot be
accepted as a machine tool?
Ans. In spite of having all other major features of
b
machine tools, the sharpener is of low value.
b
10 11 12
R k S f d Fl k
Rake Surface and Flank Rake angle and Clearance Angle
k l d l l IES 2011
Rake surface or face y Rake angle ( α): Angle of inclination of rake surface Which one of the following statement is NOT correct
from reference plane i.e.
i e normal to horizontal with
h reference
f to the
h purposes and
d effects
ff off rake
k angle
l
y The surface along which the chip moves upward is called
machined surface.
surface of a cutting tool?
‘ k surface’
‘Rake f ’ off tool.
l
y It allows chip flow direction. (a) To guide the chip flow direction
Flank or Relief Surface
y It p
provides keenness ((sharpness)
p ) to the cutting
g edge.
g (b) To reduce the friction between the tool flanks and
y The other surface which is relieved to avoid rubbing with the machined surface
y It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal
the
h machined
h d surface,
f is called
ll d ‘Flank’
‘ l k’ or Flank
l k Surface.
f
and reduce the power consumption. (c) To add keenness or sharpness to the cutting edges.
y It improves surface finish (d) To provide better thermal efficiency.

13 14 15
GATE‐1995; 2008 IES‐2006 Rake angle and Clearance Angle

Cutting power consumption in turning can be Consider the following statements:
C id h f ll i
y Clearance angle or Relief angle ( γ ) : Angle of
1. A large rake angle means lower strength of the
g g g
significantly reduced by
f l d db cutting edge. inclination of clearance or flank surface from the
(a) Increasing rake angle of the tool 2 Cutting torque decreases with rake angle.
2. Cutting torque decreases with rake angle fi i h d surface.
finished f
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) Increasing the cutting angles of the tool y It reduces friction and tool wear.
ear
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) Widening the nose radius of the tool ( ) Both 1 and 2
(c) B th d (d) Neither 1 nor 2
N ith y It improve tool life.
life
(d) Increasing the clearance angle y Excessive clearance angle weakens the tool.
tool
y Must be positive (30 – 150)

16 17 18
IES‐2004 IAS‐2003
Consider the following statements with respect to
C id h f ll i i h In orthogonal cutting, shear angle is the angle between
Turning
the relief angle of cutting tool: y Turning is not orthogonal cutting it is an oblique
1. This affects the direction of chip flow ( ) Shear plane and the cutting velocity
(a) cutting
2 This reduces excessive friction between the tool
2. This reduces excessive friction between the tool (b) Shear plane and the rake plane
Sh l d th k l
and work piece
(c) Shear plane and the vertical direction
3. This affects tool life
4 This allows better access of coolant to the tool
4. This allows better access of coolant to the tool ((d)) Shear plane and the direction of elongation of crystals in
p g y
work piece interface the chip
Which of the statements given above are correct?
h h f h b
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 19 20 21
Speed feed
Speed, feed, and depth of cut S
Speed,
d ffeed,
d and
d depth
d th off cutt IES‐2013
π DN
Speed (V ) =
Carbide tool is used to machine a 30 mm diameter
,m / s
60 steel
t l shaft
h ft att a spindle
i dl speed
d off 1000 revolutions
l ti per
D2 = π DN , m / min minute The cutting speed of the above turning
minute.
1
π DN
= , m / min operation
p is:
1000
(a) 1000 rpm
F d ( f ) : f in
Feed i mm/rev
/
(b) 1570 m/min
= fN mm/min
(c) 94.2 m/min
D − D2
Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning operation Depth of cut ( d ) = 1 (d) 47.1 m/min
22
2 23 24
Discussion on Rake angle

Discussion on Rake angle Positive rake (5 – 30 deg) Positive rake angles are recommended
Rake angle can be positive, negative or zero.
Rake angle can be positive negative or zero
y Machining low strength material
y Reduce cutting force
R d tti f
y Low power machine
y Reduce cutting power
y Long shaft of small diameter
y Set – up lacks strength and rigidity
y Low cutting speed
Positive Rake Zero Rake Negative Rake
y Cutting tool Material: HSS

25 26 27
Negative rake
Negative rake
y Increase edge
g strength
g Negative rake angles are recommended IES‐1993
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) For
F a negative i rake
k tool,
l the
h specific
ifi
y Increases life of the tool y Machining high strength alloy
g g g y cutting pressure is smaller than for a positive rake
tool under otherwise identical conditions.
y Increases the cutting
g force y High speed cutting
Reason (R): The shear strain undergone by the chip
y Requires high cutting speeds y With rigid set‐ up in the case of negative rake tool is larger.
( ) Both
(a) h A and d R are individually
d d ll true and d R is the
h
y Requires ample power y Cutting tool Material: Ceramic, Carbide correct explanation of A
y Heavy impact loads (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
28 29 30
IES – 2005 IES‐2015 IES – 2002

Statement (I) : The ceramic tools used in machining of
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Carbide
C bid tips i are generallyll given
i Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Negative
N i rakek is
i usuallyll provided
id d on
material have highly brittle tool tips.
negative rake angle. carbide tipped tools.
Statement (II) : Ceramic tools can be used on hard‐to hard to
Reason (R): Carbide tips are made from very hard machine work material. Reason (R): Carbide tools are weaker in
materials.
materials ( ) Both
(a) B th statement
t t t (I) and
d (II) are individually
i di id ll true
t andd compression.
compression
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the statement (II) is the correct explanation of statement (I) (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation
l off A (b) Both statement (I) and statement(II) are individually correct explanation
l off A
(b) Both
ot A aand d R aaree individually
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee true but statement(II)
( ) is not the correct explanation
p of (b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee
correct explanation of A statement (I) correct explanation of A
( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false ( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
(d) Statement (I) is false but statement (II) is true
(d) A is false but R is true (d) A is false but R is true
31 32 33
IES‐2001
GATE –
GATE – 2008 (PI)
2008 (PI) Zero rake
Zero rake For cutting of brass with single‐point cutting tool
B ittl materials
Brittle t i l are machined
hi d with
ith tools
t l y To
T simplify
i lif design
d i and
d manufacturing
f t i off the
th form
f on a lathe, tool should have
having zero or negative rake angle because it tools.
tools
(a) Negative rake angle
(a) results in lower cutting force y Increases tool strength
(b) Positive rake angle
k l
((b)) improves
p surface finish y Avoids digging
gg g of the tool into the workpiece
p
( ) Zero rake angle
(c) Z k l
((c)) p
provides adequate
q strength
g to cutting
g tool y Brass is turned with zero rake angle
g
(d) Zero side relief angle
Z id li f l
(d) results in more accurate dimensions y CI uses zero rake angle

34 35 36
IES‐1995 Types of Machining Orthogonal Cutting
h l
1 Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the
1.
Single point thread cutting tool should ideally direction of cutting velocity.
have: 2. The
h cutting edge
d is wider
d than
h the
h workpiece
k
width and extends beyond y the workpiece
p on
a) Zero rake either side. Also the width of the workpiece is
much greater than the depth of cut.
b) Positive rake
3. The chip generated flows on the rake face of the
c) Negative rake t l with
tool ith chip
hi velocity
l it perpendicular
di l t the
to th
cutting edge.
d) Normal rake
l k 4. The cutting forces act along two directions only.
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting
37 38 39
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique cutting Orthogonal Cutting Oblique cutting

1. Cutting edge of the tool 1. Cutting edge of the tool 3. The chip generated flows 3. The chip generated flows
IAS – 1994
is perpendicular to the is inclined at an angle to on the rake face of the on the rake face of the Consider the following characteristics
C id h f ll i h i i
direction of cutting
g the direction of cutting g tool with chipp velocityy tool with chip
p velocityy at g g g
1. The cutting edge is normal to the cutting velocity.y
velocity. velocity. perpendicular to the an angle to the cutting 2. The cutting forces occur in two directions only.
cutting edge.
edge edge
edge. 3. The cutting edge is wider than the depth of cut.
Th i d i id h h d h f
2. The cutting edge is wider 2. The cutting edge may or
than the workpiece
orkpiece may not wider
ma ider than the 4 The cutting forces act 4
4. 4. The cutting forces act pp g g
The characteristics applicable to orthogonal cutting
width and extends workpiece width. along two directions along three directions. would include
b
beyondd the
h workpiece
k on only.
l ( ) 1 and 2
(a) d (b) 1 and 3
d
either side. Also the 55. Tool life is more. (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
width of the workpiece is 5. Tool Life less
much greater than the
depth of cut. 40 41 42
IES ‐ 2014 IES ‐ 2012

Which
Whi h one off theh following
f ll i statements is i correct about
b During orthogonal cutting, an increase in cutting speed
D i h l i i i i d
an oblique cutting? causes
(a) Direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the (a) An increase in longitudinal cutting force
cutting edge of the tool (b) An increase in radial cutting force
(b) Only two components of cutting forces act on the (c) An increase in tangential cutting force
Geometry of single point turning tool
tooll (d) Cutting forces to remain unaffected
(c) cutt
cutting
g edge oof tthee too
tool iss inclined
c ed at aan acute aangle
ge
to the direction of tool feed
(d) Cutting
C tti edged clears
l th width
the idth off the
th workpiece
k i

43 44 45
Chip formation
Classification: (According to of a drill
the number of majorj cutting

g
edges (points) involved.)
y Single point: turning, shaping, planning, slotting
tools, Parting tools, boring tools etc.
y Double
bl point: drilling
d ll tools
l
y Multipoint:
M lti i t Milling,
Milli b
broaching,
hi h bbi
hobbing t l
tools,
saw, grinding wheel etc.
46 47 48
IES‐2006 GATE‐2017(PI)
Which of the following is a single point cutting Turning, drilling, boring and milling are
commonly used machining operations.
operations Among
tool? these, the operation(s) performed by a single
(a) Hacksaw blade point cutting tool is (are)
( ) turning
(a) t i
(b) Milling cutter
(b) drilling and milling only
(c) Grinding wheel
(c) turning and boring only
(d) Parting tool (d) boring only
49 50 51
System of Description of Tool Geometry A Single Point Turning Tool
(I) Machine reference system: ASA or ANSI
((II)) Tool reference system: ORS and NRS
y
(III) Work reference system: WRS

52 53 54
Back Rake angle (αb)
Back Rake angle (α IES ‐ 2012 Side‐rake angle (axial rake) (αs)
y It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base Statement
St t t (I):
(I) Negative
N ti rake k angles
l are preferred
f d on rigid
i id set‐
t
ups for interrupted cutting and difficult‐to machine y It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base
of the shank or holder, and is usually measured in a
materials.
materials
plane perpendicular to the base and parallel to the of the shank or holder, and is usually measured in a
Statement (II):Negative rake angle directs the chips on to the
length of the tool. machined surface plane
l perpendicular
di l to the
h base
b and
d parallel
ll l to the
h
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
y It
I affects
ff the
h ability
bili off the
h tooll to shear
h the
h work
k material
i l t
true andd Statement
St t t (II) is
i the
th correctt explanation
l ti off width.
width
Statement (I)
and form the chip.
chip (b) Both
B h Statement
S (I) and
d Statement
S (II) are individually
i di id ll y Increase in the side rake angle reduces the chip
true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of thickness in turning.
g
y In turning
gppositive back rake angle
g takes the chips
p awayy St t
Statement t (I)
from the machined surface, Whereas negative back rake (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
angle directs the chip on to the machined surface . (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
55 56 57
IES‐2003 IES‐2015 End‐relief angle ( γ e )

The
Th angle l off inclination
i li i off the
h rake
k face
f with
ih
The purpose of providing side rake angle in the y It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
respect to the tool base measured in a plane
perpendicular to the base and parallel to the width cutting tool is immediately below the end cutting edge, and a line
of the tool is called
(a) avoid work from rubbing against tool d
drawn through
h h this
hi cutting
i edge
d perpendicular
di l to
(a) Back rake angle
(b) Side
S d rake
k angle l (b) Control chip flow
flo the base.
base It is usually measured in a plane
(c) S
Side
de cutt
cuttingg edge aangle
ge (c) Strengthen tool edge perpendicular
p p to the end flank.
(d) End cutting edge angle (d) Break chips
p y The End Relief Angle
g p prevents friction on the flank
of the tool.
58 59 60
Side‐relief angle ( γ s ) End cutting edge angle, ECEA (Ce) Side cutting edge angle, SCEA (CS)

y It is the angle between the portion of the side flank • The end‐cutting‐edge angle is the amount that the y It is the angle which prevents interference as the tool enters
end‐cutting
end cutting edge slopes away from the nose of the materials (Normally 15 – 30o )
the work materials.
immediately below the side‐cutting edge, and a tool, so that it will clear the finished surface on the y Larger this angle, the greater the component of force tending
li
line d
drawn through
h h this
hi cutting
i edge
d workpiece when cutting with the side‐cutting
workpiece, side cutting t separate
to t the
th work k and
d the
th tool.
t l (May
(M induce
i d Ch tt )
Chatter)
edge. y At its increased value it will have more of its length in action
perpendicular to the base.
base
for a given depth of cut.
y It is measured in a plane perpendicular to the side • It prevents the trailing end of the cutting edge of y At its increased value it produce thinner and wider chip that
tool from rubbing against the workpiece. will distribute the cutting heat. (increase tool life)
flank.
y Zero SCEA is desirable when machining casting and forging
• A larger end cutting edge angle weakens the tool. with hard and scaly skins, because of the least amount of tool
edge should be exposed to the destructive action of the skin.
skin
For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs)
61
• It is usually kept between 8o to 15o
Page 8 of 276
62
Rev.0
63
GATE(PI)‐1990 IAS – 1996 IAS – 1995
The tool life increases with the
Th l lif i i h h Thrust force will increase with the increase in
Th f ill i i h h i i
The diameter and rotational speed of a job are 100 mm and
((a)) Increase in side cutting edge angle
g g g ((a)) Side cutting edge angle
g g g
500 rpm respectively. The high spot (Chatter marks) are (b) Decrease in side rake angle (b) Tool nose radius
f
found
d at a spacing off 30 deg
d on the
h job
b surface.
f The
h chatter
h ( ) Decrease in nose radius
(c) D i di ( ) Rake angle
(c) R k l
frequency is ((d)) Decrease in back rake angle
g ( )
(d) End cutting edge angle.
g g g
((a)) 5 Hz ((b)) 12 Hz ((c)) 100 Hz ((d)) 5500 Hz
64 65 66
IES 2010 SCEA and Lead Angle
d d l
Consider
C id the
th following
f ll i statements:
t t t Lip angle
Lip angle
In an orthogonal, single
single‐point
point metal cutting, y Lip angle or wedge angle or knife angle or cutting
as the side‐cutting edge angle is increased,
angle
g depends
p on the rake and clearance angle
g
1. The tangential force increases.
provided on the tool and determine the strength
2 The longitudinal force drops.
2. drops
of the cutting edge.
33. The radial force increases.
y A larger lip angle permits machining of harder
Which of these statements are correct?
metals,
t l allow
ll h i depth
heavier d th off cut,
t better
b tt heat
h t
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only
dissipation, increase tool life.
( ) 2 and
(c) d 3 only
l (d) 1, 2 and
d3
67 68 69
IES‐1995 IES‐2006
The angle between the face and the flank of the Assertion (A): For drilling cast iron, the tool is provided
single point cutting tool is known as with a point angle smaller than that required for a
ductile material.
a) Rake angle
Reason (R): Smaller point angle results in lower rake
b) Clearance angle angle.
c) Lip angle ( ) Both
(a) B th A and d R are individually
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th
d) Point angle. correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
( ) A is false but R is true
(d)
70 71 72
S
Some Formulae for Drilling
F l f D illi IES‐2002 Nose radius
d
D y It is curvature of the tool tip.
tip
Cone height (h) = Consider the following statements:
2 tan β
The strength of a single point cutting tool depends y It strengthen the tool nose by reducing stress
f
Uncut chip thickness (t ) = sin β upon
2 concentration.
D 1. Rake
R k angle l
Width of cut (b) = 2. Clearance angleg y It increases tool life.
2sin β
3. Lip angle
⎡ ( 2r / D ) tanψ ⎤ y It provide better surface finish.
O th
Orthogonal
l rake l (α ) = tan
k angle t −1 ⎢ ⎥ Which
hi h off these
h statements are correct?
⎣ sin β ⎦ y But too large a nose radius will induce chatter.
(a) 1 aand
d3 ((b)) 2 aand
d3
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3 y If nose radius increased cutting force and cutting power
increased.
73 74 75
IES ‐ 2012 IES‐2009 IES‐1995

Tool life increase with increase in
T l lif i i h i i Consider the following statements with respect Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i statements about
b nose radius
di
( )
(a) Cutting speed
g p to the effects of a large g nose radius on the tool:
(b) Nose radius 1. It deteriorates surface finish. 1. It improves tool life
( ) F d
(c) Feed 2. It I increases
i the
h possibility
ibili off chatter.
h 2 It reduces the cutting force
2.
( ) p
(d) Depth of cut 33. It improves
p tool life. 3. It improves the surface finish.
Which of the above statements is/are correct? Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
( ) 2 only
(a) l (b) 3 only
l ( ) 1 and
(a) d2 (b) 2 andd3
(c) 2 aandd3o onlyy (d) 1,, 2 aand
d3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
76 77 78
Tool designation or Tool Signature IES‐1994
Tool designation or Tool Signature
Tool designation or Tool Signature Tool geometry of a single point cutting tool is specified by the
(ANSI) or ASA
( ) following elements:
1
1. Back rake angle
y Its
I a convenient
i way to describe
d ib the
h tooll angles
using the standardized abbreviated system.
l byb
α b − α s − γ e − γ s − Ce − Cs − R 2. Side rake angle
3. End d cutting edged angle
l
y It is a sequence of numbers listing various angles,
angles 4. Side cutting edge angle
To remember easily follow the rule 5. Side relief angle
in degrees and the size of nose radius.
6. End relief angle
y rake, relief, cutting edge 7. Nose radius
y ASA has standardized the numerical method of
y Side will come last
Sid ill l The correct sequence of these tool elements used for
tool identification. correctly specifying the tool geometry is
y finish with nose radius (inch) ( ) 1, 2, 3, 6,
(a) 6 5, 4, 7 (b) 1, 2, 6,
6 5, 3, 4, 7
79
Page 10 of 276
80 (c) 1, 2, 5, 6, 3, 4, 7 (d) 1, 2, 6, 3, 5, 4,Rev.0
7 81
IES‐2009 IES‐1993
The following tool signature is specified for a In ASA System, if the tool nomenclature is 8‐6‐5‐5‐
ISRO‐2011
single‐point
g p cutting g tool in American system:
y A cutting tool having tool signature as 10,
10 9,
9 6,
6 6,
6 8,
8 8,
8
10‐15‐2‐mm, then
h the
h side
d rake
k angle
l will
ll be
b
10, 12, 8, 6, 15, 20, 3
g
2 will have side rake angle
Wh does
What d the
h angle l 12 represent?? ( ) 5°°
(a) (b) 6° ( ) 8°
(c) (d) 10°°
((a)) Side cutting‐edge
g g angle g (a) 10o (b) 9o (c) 8o (d) 2o
(b) Side rake angle
( ) Back
(c) k rake
k anglel
(d) Side
de cclearance
ea a ce aangle
ge
82 83 84
IES‐2018 Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
Inter conversion between ASA & ORS
i − α − γ − γ 1 − Ce − λ − R
tanα = tanαs sin λ + tanαb cos λ
Tool signature is
y Inclination angle (i)
(a) a numerical method of identification of the y Orthogonal rake angle (α )
tanαb = cos λ tanα + sin λ tan i

tool y Side relief angle
g (γ )
(b) the plan of the tool y End relief angle (γ1 )
y End cutting edge (Ce)
( ) the complete specification of the tool
(c)
(d) associated with the tool manufacturer
y Principal cutting edge angle or Approach angle
(λ = 90 – Cs )
tanαs = sin λ tanα − cos λ tan i
y Nose radius (R) (mm)
tani = − tanαs cos λ + tanαb sin λ
y For Orthogonal cutting, i = 0
y For Oblique cutting, i ≠ 0
85 86 87
Critical correlations
l l GATE‐2008 IES‐2004
When λ = 90 αs = α In
I a single
i l point i turningi tool,
l the
h side
id rake
k angle
l Match. List I with List II and select the correct answer
M h Li I i h Li II d l h
and orthogonal rake angle are equal. Φ is the using the codes given below the Lists:
When i = 0 αn = α principal cutting edge angle and its range is List I List II
When i = 0 and λ = 90 αs = αn = α 0o ≤ φ ≤ 90
. o The chip flows in the orthogonal plane.
plane A. Plan approach angle 1. Tool face
(Pure orthogonal cutting) The value of Φ is closest to B. Rake angle 2. Tool flank
(a) 00 (b) 450 C Clearance angle
C. Cl l 3. T l f
Tool face and flank
d fl k
λ is pprincipal
p cuttingg edge
g angle
g (c) 600 (d) 900 D. Wedge angle
g g 4.
4 Cutting edge
g g
i is inclination angle 5. Tool nose
α s is side rake angle ( ASA) A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 4 2 5 (b) 4 1 3 2
α is orthogonal rake angle (ORS )
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 1 4 3 5
α n is normal rake angle (NRS)
88
Page 11 of 276
89
Rev.0
90
φ
Shear angle ( ) GATE‐2001
t l V sin φ 1 During orthogonal cutting of mild steel with
r= = c = c = = y If α =0
0 a 10
10° rake angle tool,
tool the chip thickness ratio
tc l V cos((φ − α ) h was obtained as 0.4. The shear angle (in
degrees) evaluated from this data is
r cosα
and
d tanφ = ( ) 6
(a) 6.53 (b)
(b) 20.22

1 − r sinα (c) 22.94 (d) 50.00
Where
r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio ; r < 1
p g ;
h = 1/r = Inverse of chip ratio or chip reduction factor or
chip compression ratio; h > 1
hi i i h
91 92 93
GATE 2011 GATE‐2018 GATE‐2017

A single – point cutting tool with 12° rake angle is Following data correspond to an orthogonal In
I an orthogonal
h l machining i h a tooll off 90
hi i with
used to machine a steel work – p piece. The depth
p of orthogonal rake angle, the uncut chip
cut, i.e. uncut thickness is 0.81 mm. The chip Turning of a 100 mm diameter rod on a lathe. thickness is 0.2 mm. The chip thickness
thickness under orthogonal machining condition is fl t t between
fluctuates b t 0.25 mm and d 0.4 mm.
1.8 mm. The shear angle is approximately Rake angle: +15°; Uncut chip thickness 0.5
The ratio of the maximum shear angle
g to the
( ) 22°°
(a) mm, nominal chip thickness after the cut 1.25 minimum shear angle during machining is
((b)) 26° ___________
(c) 56° mm. The shear angle (in degrees) for this
(d) 76° process is _________(correct
( to two decimal
d l
places).
l )
94 95 96
GATE‐2020 IES‐1994
IES‐2014 Conventional
IES‐2014 Conventional In a turning process using orthogonal tool The
Th following
f ll i parameters
t determine
d t i the
th
A bar of 70 mm diameter is being cut model of continuous chip p formation:
geometry, a chip
h length
l h off 100 mm is obtained
b d for
f
orthogonally and is reduced to 68 mm by a 1. True feed
cutting tool.
tool In case mean length of the chip is an uncut chip length of 250 mm.
mm
2. Cutting velocity
68.9 mm, find the cutting ratio. Determine
shear
h angle
l also
l if the
h rake
k angle i 10o
l is The cutting conditions are cutting speed = 30 3 Chip thickness
3.
m/min.
/ rake angle
g = 20°. 4. Rake angle
4 g of the cutting g tool.
[10 Marks]
The shear p
plane angle
g is_______ degrees
g ((round off The parameters which govern the value of shear
angle
l wouldld include
l d
Hint: length of uncut chip = πD to one decimal place).
(a) 1,2
1 2 and 3 (b) 1,31 3 and 4
97
Page 12 of 276
98
(c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 2,3 and 4 Rev.0
99
IES ‐ 2014 IAS‐1995 Cutting shear strain ( γ )
In
I an orthogonal
h l turning
i process, the
h chip
hi thickness
hi k =
γ = cot φ + tan(φ − α )
In an orthogonal cutting, the depth of cut is halved and
0.32 mm, feed = 0.2 mm/rev. then the cutting ratio will
be
the feed rate is double. If the chip thickness ratio is
(a) 2.6
26
(b) 3.2 unaffected with the changed cutting conditions, the
cos α
(c) 1.6
actual chip thickness will be
=
sin φ cos (φ − α )
(d) 1.8
18
(a) Doubled (b) halved
(c) Quadrupled (d) Unchanged

Unchanged.
100 101 102
IAS 2015 Main

IAS‐2015 Main
In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a GATE‐2014
rake angle = 10o. The chip thickness before the cut
y If α =0
0 = 0.5
0 5 mm and the cut yields a deformed chip During
g p
pure orthogonal
g turning
g operation
p of a
thickness = 1.125 mm. hollow cylindrical pipe, it is found that the
Calculate thickness of the chip produced is 0.5 mm. The feed
(i) shear
h plane
l angle,
l given to the zero degree rake angle tool is 0.2
(ii) shear strain for the operation.
operation
mm/rev. The shear strain produced during the
Derive the formulae that are to be used while
operation is ……………….
finding out the shear plane angle and shear
strain.
strain
103
[20‐Marks] 104 105
IES ‐ 2004 IES ‐ 2009 GATE (PI)‐1990

Minimum shear strain in orthogonal turning A single point cutting tool with 120 rake angle is
In a machining
g operation
p chip
p thickness ratio
with
ith a cutting
tti tool
t l off zero rake
k angle
l is
i used for orthogonal machining of a ductile
is 0.3 and the rake angle of the tool is 10°. What
(a) 0.0
00 material.
i l Th
The shear
h plane
l angle
l f
for the
h
is the value of the shear strain? (b) 0.5 theoretically minimum possible shear strain to
(a) 0.31 (b) 0.13 (c) 1.0
occur
(c) 3.00 (d) 3.34 (d) 2.0
(a) 51 (b) 45
(c) 30 (d) None of these

106 107 108
Velocities in metal cutting h f l
Derive the expression for velocities in IES‐2004, ISRO‐2009
metal cutting. ESE‐2004 (Conv.)
metal cutting ESE 2004 (Conv ) The rake angle of a cutting tool is 15°, shear angle 45°
(i) The velocity of the tool relative to the work
and
d cutting velocity
l 35 m/min. What
h is the
h velocity
l
piece (V) is called the cutting speed.
of chip along the tool face?
(ii) The velocity of the chip relative to the work, Vs
(a) 28.5
28 5 m/min (b) 27 3 m/min
27.3
is called the shear velocity.
(c) 25.3
25 3 m/min (d) 23 5 m/min
23.5
(iii) The velocity of the chip relative to the tool, Vc,
i called
is ll d chip
hi velocity.
l it
109 110 111
IES 2016
IES‐2016
IES‐2008 IES‐2001
During the formation of chips in machining with a Consider the following statements:
C id h f ll i If α is
i theh rake
k angle
l off the
h cutting
i tool,l φ isi the
h
cutting tool, which one of the following relations In an orthogonal cutting the cutting ratio is found to be shear angle and V is the cutting velocity, then the
h ld good?
holds d 0∙75. The cutting speed is 60 m/min and depth of cut 2∙4
V V V V V V velocity of chip sliding along the shear plane is
(a) = s = c (b) = s = c mm. Which of the following are correct?
g
cos (φ − α ) cos α sin α sin (φ − α ) cos α cos α 1. Chip velocity will be 45 m/min.
given
i b
by
V V Vs
(c ) = c = (d ) V cos α = Vc sin α = Vs cos (α − φ ) 2 Chip velocity will be 80 m/min.
2. Chip velocity will be 80 m/min
cos α sin α sin (φ − α ) 3. Chip thickness will be 1∙8 mm. (a) V cos α
(b) V sin φ
cos(φ − α ) cos (φ − α )
4. Chip thickness will be 3∙2 mm.
where V is the cutting speed, Vc is the velocity of the
chip,
hi VsV is
i the
th velocity
l it att which
hi h shearing
h i t k place
takes l Select the correct answer using the code given below: V cos α V sin α
( )
(c) sin(φ − α )
(d) sin(φ − α )
along the shear plane, φ is the shear angle and α is the (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
rake angle. ( ) 2 and 3
(c) d (d) 2 and 4d
112 113 114
IES‐2003 IAS‐2002 IAS‐2000

An
A orthogonal
h l cutting
i operation
i is
i being
b i
carried out under the following conditions:
cutting speed = 2 m/s, depth of cut = 0.5 mm,
chip
hi thickness
thi k = 0.6
6 mm. Then
Th th chip
the hi
velocityy is
(a) 2.0 m/s (b) 2.4 m/s
(c) 1.0 m/s (d) 1.66 m/s

115 116 117
IAS‐1998 GATE – 2009 (PI) Common Data S‐1 GATE – 2009 (PI) Common Data S‐2
The cutting velocity in m/sec, for turning a work piece An
A orthogonal
h l turning
i operation
i is
i carried
i d out at 20 An
A orthogonal
h l turning
i operation
i is
i carried
i d out at 20
off diameter
di t 100 mm att the
th spindle
i dl speed
d off 480
8 RPM is
i m/min cutting speed,
speed using a cutting tool of rake angle m/min cutting speed,
speed using a cutting tool of rake angle
(a) 1.26
1 26 (b) 2 51
2.51 (c) 48 (d) 151 155o. The chip
p thickness is 0.4
4 mm and the uncut chip
p 155o. The chip
p thickness is 0.4
4 mm and the uncut chip
p
thickness is 0.2 mm. thickness is 0.2 mm.
The shear plane angle (in degrees) is The chip velocity (in m/min) is
(a) 26.8 (b) 27.8 (c) 28.8 (d) 29.8 (a) 8 (b) 10 (c) 12 (d) 14
118 119 120
Shear Strain Rate GATE 2012

GATE ‐2012
Details pertaining to an orthogonal metal cutting process
(Note: it is not shear strain it is rate of are given below.
shear strain i.e. flow) Chip thickness ratio 0.4
Undeformed thickness 0 6 mm
0.6
.
dγ Vs Rake angle +10°
γ= = Cutting speed 2.5 m/s
dt Thickness of primary shear zone(ts )
Mean thickness of primary shear zone 25 microns
The shear strain rate in s–1 during the process is
Thickness of shear zone can be taken as 1/10th (10%) of (a) 0.1781×105 (b) 0.7754×105
shear plane length and its maximum value is 25 micron.
micron (c) 1.0104×10
1 0104×105 4 397×105
(d) 4.397×10
121 122 123
Cause of chip formation Mechanism of chip formation in Mechanism of chip formation in

Mechanism of chip formation in
ductile material
d l l brittle material
brittle material
Shear Yielding –in ductile material
Brittle fracture – in brittle material
Fig. Development and propagation of crack
Fi D l t d ti f k
124
Page 15 of 276
125 causing chip separation. Rev.0
126
Types of chip Conditions for forming Discontinuous chip GATE‐1995
of irregular size and shape
f i l i d h
y Continuous chip
work material brittle (such as grey cast iron)
( g y ) Plain milling of mild steel plate produces
y Discontinuous chip of regular size and shape (a) Irregular shaped discontinuous chips
y Continuous chip with BUE work material –
k i l ductile but hard and work hardenable
d il b h d d k h d bl
(b) Regular shaped discontinuous chip
feed – large
g
y Serrated chip Depth of cut ‐ large (c) Continuous chips without built up edge
tool rake –
l k negative (d) Joined chips
cutting fluid – absent or inadequate
cutting fluid
With multi point cutter like milling, Broaching
127 128 129
d f f
Conditions for forming Continuous IES 2007 d f f
Conditions for forming Continuous
chip without BUE
chip without BUE During machining, excess metal is removed in the form
During machining excess metal is removed in the form
of chip as in the case of turning on a lathe. Which of the
chip with BUE
chip with BUE
y work
k material
t i l – ductile
d til following are correct? y W k t i l ductile
Work material – d til
Continuous ribbon like chip is formed when turning
y Cutting velocity – high 1
1. At a higher cutting speed y Cutting velocity medium
Cutting velocity –
2. At a lower cutting speed
y Feed‐
Feed low 3. A brittle material y Feed medium
Feed –
y Rake angle – positive and high 4. A ductile material

4 y Cutting fluid ‐ absent or inadequate.
Cutting fluid absent or inadequate
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
y Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
130 131 132
IES‐2015 Built – up – Edge (BUE) formation Built –

l up – Edge (BUE) formation
d ( )f
y In machining
h ductile
d l materiall with
h long
l chip
h tooll y With the growth of the BUE, the force also gradually
Coarse feed , low rake angle, low cutting speed and contact length, lot of stress and temperature develops in
insufficient cooling help produce the secondary deformation zone at the chip tool increased
d due
d to wedging
d action off the
h tooll tip along
l
interface.
(a) continuous chips in ductile materials with the BUE formed on it.
it
y Under such high stress and temperature in between two
clean surfaces of metals,, strong
g bonding
g mayy locallyy take y Whenever the force exceeds the bonding force of the
(b) discontinuous chips in ductile materials
place due to adhesion similar to welding.
(c)continuous chips with built
built‐up
up edges in ductile y Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the BUE,, the BUE is broken or sheared off and taken awayy byy
chip tool materials have mutual affinity or solubility. the flowing chip. Then again starts forming and grow.
materials
y The
Th weld ld material
t i l starts
t t forming
f i as an embryo
b att the
th
(d) discontinuous chips in brittle materials most favorable location and thus gradually grows. y Low cutting speed also contributes to the formation of
C d
Contd….
BUE.
133 134 135
IAS‐1997 GATE‐2002 GATE‐2009
Consider the following machining conditions: BUE will A built‐up‐edge is formed while machining Friction at the tool‐chip interface can be reduced by
f
form in
i
(a) Ductile materials at high speed (a) decreasing the rake angle
(a) Ductile material.
Ductile material (b) High cutting speed
High cutting speed.
(b) Ductile materials at low speed (b) increasing the depth of cut
(c) S
Small rake angle.
a a e a g e. (d) Small uncut chip thickness.
S a u cut c p t c ess.
( )
(c) Brittle materials at high speed ( ) Decreasing the cutting speed
(c)
(d) B i l
(d) Brittle materials at low speed
i l l d (d) increasing
i i the
h cutting
i speed
d
136 137 138
Serrated Chips
p
Effects of BUE formation Reduction or Elimination of BUE y Serrated chips also called segmented or non‐homogeneous
Harmful
H f l effect
ff Increase chips
hi are semi‐continuous
i ti chips
hi with
ith zones off low
l and
d high
hi h
y Poor surface finish. ↑ Cutting speed shear strain.
y It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tool tip ↑ Rake angle
y Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that
causing increase of cutting force i.e.
i e power consumption.
consumption
y Induce vibration. Decrease decreases sharply with temperature, such as titanium exhibit
↓ Feed this behaviour, the chips have sawtooth like appearance.
↓ Depth of cut
Good
G d effect
ff t
Use
y BUE pprotects the cutting
g edge
g of the tool i. e. increases
tool life. y Cutting fluid
C i fl id
y Change cutting tool material (as cermets).
139 140 141
When is forced chip breaking necessary and why ? IES‐1997
Assertion (A): For high speed turning of cast iron
When chips continuously form and come out very pistons, carbide tool bits are provided with chip
hot sharp and at quite high speed
hot, sharp and at quite high speed b k
breakers.
Reason (R): High speed turning may produce long,
ribbon type continuous chips which must be broken
Under the condition into small lengths which otherwise would be
y soft ductile work material
difficult to handle and may yp
prove hazardous.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
y flat rake surface with positive or near zero rake correct explanation
p of A
For (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
y Safety and convenience of the operator (c) A is true but R is false
y easy collection and disposal of chips (d) A is false but R is true

142 143 144
When a cut is made the forces acting on the metal chips are: Fc and F
and Ft
g
The two orthogonal p
components (horizontal and vertical)
Fc and Ft of the resultant force R can be measured by
using a dynamometer.
Analysis of Metal Cutting The horizontal component is the cutting force (Fc)
and the vertical component is the thrust force (Ft)
B S K M d l
By S K Mondal
1 2 3
Merchant Force Circle Diagram (MCD) ESE ‐2000 (Conventional)
The following data from the orthogonal cutting test
Special Case‐I
Special Case‐I
is available. Rake angle = 100, chip thickness ratio = y If α = 0
0
0.35, uncut chip thickness = 0.51 mm, width of cut =
3 mm,
mm yield shear stress of work material = 285
N/mm2, mean friction co‐efficient on tool face =
0.65,
6 D
Determinei
(β − α ) ((i)) Cutting
g force ((Fc)
(ii) Radial force
For orthogonal (iii) Normal
N l force
f (N) on tooll and
d
cutting only ((iv)) Shear force ((Fs )).
4 5 6
GATE ‐2010 (PI) Linked S‐1 GATE ‐2010 (PI) Linked S‐2
Special Case‐II
Special Case‐II In
I orthogonal
h l turning
i off an engineering
i i alloy,
ll it
i has
h In
I orthogonal
th l turning
t i off an engineering
i i alloy,
ll it has
h
been observed that the friction force acting at the chip‐ been observed that the friction force acting at the chip‐
y If α = 0 and μ
0 and μ = 1
1
tool interface is 402.5 N and the friction force is also t l interface
tool i t f i 402.5 N and
is d the
th friction
f i ti f
force i also
is l
perpendicular
p p to the cuttingg velocityy vector. The feed perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector. The feed
velocity
l it isi negligibly
li ibl small ll with
ith respectt to t the
th cutting
tti
velocity is negligibly small with respect to the cutting velocity. The ratio of friction force to normal force
velocity The ratio of friction force to normal force
velocity. associated
i t d with
ith the
th chip‐tool
hi t l interface
i t f i 1. The
is Th uncutt
associated with the chip‐tool interface is 1. The uncut chip thickness is 0.2 mm and the chip thickness is 0.4
chip
hi thickness
thi k i 0.2 mm and
is d the
th chip
hi thickness
thi k i 0.4
is mm. The
Th cutting
i velocity
l i isi 2 m/s. /
mm. The cutting velocity is 2 m/s. Assume that the energy gy expended
p during g machining g is
The shear force (in N) acting along the primary shear completely converted to heat. The rate of heat
plane is generation (in W) at the p
g primaryy shear p plane is
(a) 180.0 (b) 240.0 (c) 360.5 (d) 402.5 (a) 180.5 (b) 200.5 (c) 302.5 (d) 402.5
7 8 9
GATE 2015
GATE-2015
Linked Answer Questions GATE‐2013 S‐1 Linked Answer Questions GATE‐2013 S‐2
In orthogonal turning of a bar of 100 mm diameter In orthogonal turning of a bar of 100 mm diameter A single point cutting tool with 0° rake angle is
with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev, depth of cut of 4 mm with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev, depth of cut of 4 mm used in an orthogonal machining process. At a
and
d cutting
tti velocity
l it off 90 m/min,
/ i it is
i observed
b d that
th t and
d cutting
tti velocity
l it off 90 m/min,
/ i it is
i observed
b d that
th t cutting speed of 180 m/min, the thrust force is 490
the main (tangential)cutting force is perpendicular the main (tangential)cutting force is perpendicular N If the coefficient of friction between
N. bet een the tool
to friction force acting at the chip‐tool interface. to friction force acting at the chip‐tool interface.
and the chip is 0.7, then the power consumption(in
The main (tangential) cutting force is 1500 N. The main (tangential) cutting force is 1500 N.
kW) for the machining
g operation
p is _____
y The orthogonal rake angle of the cutting tool in degree is y The normal force acting at the chip‐tool interface in N is
(a) zero (b) 3.58 (c) 5 (d) 7.16 (a) 1000 (b) 1500 (c) 20oo (d) 2500
10 11 12
GATE 2017 (PI)

GATE‐2017 (PI) Merchant Theory or Analysis
Merchant Theory or Analysis
The Merchant circle diagram g showingg various forces Limitations of use of MCD Or Theory of Enrst and Merchant
associated with a cutting process using a wedge ‐ shaped 1. MCD is valid only for orthogonal cutting.
tool is given in the Figure. Assumption
p
The coefficient of 2. By the ratio F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not actual) •The work material behaves like an ideal plastics.
friction can be h h l l
•The theory involves minimum energy principle.
co‐efficient of friction.
estimated from
the
h ratioi •τs and β are assumed to be constant, independent of φ
are assumed to be constant independent of φ
f1 f3 It is based on single shear plane theory.
•It is based on single shear plane theory.
(a) (b)
f2 f4 • The normal and shear stresses are distributed uniformly
f5 f6 on the shear plane
(c ) (d )
f6 f5 •The deformation is in two dimensions only.
13 14 15
IAS – 1999
From Merchant Theory or Analysis
From Merchant Theory or Analysis
In an orthogonal cutting process, rake angle of the
π α β y Merchant
M h t theory
th gives
i hi h
higher shear
h plane
l tooll is 20° and
d friction
f angle
l is 25.5°. Using
φ= + − angle means smaller shear plane which means

lower shear force
Merchant'ss shear angle relationship,
Merchant relationship the value of
4 2 2 y Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature,

shear angle will be
((a)) 39
39.5°
5 ((b)) 42.25°
4 5
all of which mean easier machining ((c)) 47
47.75°
75 ((d)) 550.5°
5

16 17 18
GATE‐1997 ESE‐2005 Conv. IAS – 2018 Main GATE 2008 (PI) Li k d S 1
GATE ‐2008 (PI) Linked S‐1
In an orthogonal cutting experiment,
experiment an HSS tool having
In a typical metal cutting operation, using a cutting Mild steel is being machined at a cutting speed of
200 m/min with a tool rake angle of 10. The width of the following
g tool signature
g in the orthogonal
g reference
tool of positive rake angle = 10°, it was observed cut and uncut thickness are 2 mm and 0.2 mm system (ORS) has been used: 0‐10‐7‐7‐10‐75‐1. Given
that the shear angle was 20°. The friction angle is respectively If the average value of co‐efficient
respectively. co efficient of
width of cut = 3.6 mm; shear strength of workpiece
friction between the tool and the chip is 0.5 and the
shear
h stress off the
h work
k material
i l is
i 400 N/mm
N/ 2, material
i l = 460
6 N/mm
N/ 2; depth
d h off cut = 0.25 mm;
( ) 45°
(a) (b) 30°
( ) 60°
(c) 6 ° (d) 40°° Determine coefficient of friction at tool
tool‐chip
chip interface = 0.7.
07
(i) shear angle and Shear p

plane angle
g ((in degree)
g ) for minimum cutting
g force
((ii)) Cutting
g and thrust component
p of the force. is
19 20
(a) 20.5 (b) 24.5 (c) 28.5 (d) 32.5 21
GATE 2008 (PI) Li k d S 2

GATE ‐2008 (PI) Linked S‐2 GATE‐2014 GATE‐2014
In an orthogonal cutting experiment,
experiment an HSS tool having Which pair of following statements is correct for Better surface finish is obtained with a large rake
orthogonal cutting using a single‐point cutting angle because
the following
g tool signature
g in the orthogonal
g reference
t l?
tool? (a) the area of shear plane decreases resulting in the
system (ORS) has been used: 0‐10‐7‐7‐10‐75‐1. Given P. Reduction in friction angle
g increases cutting g force decrease in shear force and cuttingg force
width of cut = 3.6 mm; shear strength of workpiece Q. Reduction in friction angle decreases cutting force (b) the tool becomes thinner and the cutting force is
material
i l = 460 N/mm2; depth
6 N/ d h off cut = 0.25 mm; R Reduction
R. R d ti in i friction
f i ti anglel increases
i chip
hi thickness
thi k reduced
d d
coefficient of friction at tool
tool‐chip
chip interface = 0.7.
07 g decreases chip
S. Reduction in friction angle p thickness (c) less heat is accumulated in the cuttingg zone
(a) P and R (b) P and S (d) the friction between the chip and the tool is less
Minimum p
power requirement
q ((in kW)) at a cutting
g speed
p
( ) Q and
(c) dR (d) Q and
dS
of 150 m/min is
(a) 3.15 (b) 3.25 (c) 3.35 (d) 3.45 22 23 24
Modified Merchant Theory IES 2010 IES‐2005

The
Th relationship
l ti hi between
b t the
th shear
h angle
l Φ,
Φ
Which one of the following is the correct
τ s = τ so + kσ s g β and cutting
the friction angle g rake angle
g α
expression for the Merchant
Merchant'ss machinability
is given as
⎡ Fn ⎤ constant?
Wh
Where, σs is
i the
th normalstress
l t on shear
h plane
l ⎢σ s = ⎥ (a) 2φ + γ − α
⎣ As ⎦
(b) 2φ − γ + α
and then 2φ + β − α = cot (k )
−1
(c) 2φ − γ − α
((d)) φ + γ − α
(Where φ = shear angle,γ = friction angle
andα = rake angle)
25 26 27
h f d Sh ff
Theory of Lee and Shaffer Other Relations The force relations (VIMP)
•Based on slip line field theory. F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α
•They
h appliedli d the
h theory
h off plasticity
l i i for f an
id l i id l ti body.
ideal-rigid-plastic b d y By Stabler N = Fc cos α − Ft sin α
•They also assumed that deformation occured
on a thin
thin-shear
shear zone.
zone Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ
And derive
Fs = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
π
φ= +α − β
4 28 29 and μ =
F
= tan β 30
N
IES‐2003 IES ‐ 2014 IES‐2000

In
I an orthogonal
h l cutting
i operation
i shear
h anglel = 11.31o ,
In orthogonal cutting test, the cutting force = 900 N, cutting force = 900 N and thrust force = 810 N. Then the In an orthogonal cutting test, the cutting force and
the thrust force = 600 N and chip shear angle is 30o. shear force will be approximately ( given sin 11.31o = 0.2) thrust force were observed to be 1000N and 500 N
(a) 650 N
Then the chip shear force is respectively. If the rake angle of tool is zero, the
(b) 720 N
( ) 1079.4 N
(a) (b) 969.6 N (c) 620 N coefficient of friction in chip‐tool
chip tool interface will
ill be
(d) 680 N 1 1
( ) 479.4 N
(c) (d) 6 6N
69.6 (a) 2 ( b) 2 ( c) ( d) 2

2
31 32 33
IES‐2018 GATE – 2007 (PI) Common Data‐1

( )
GATE‐2016 While turning a 60 mm diameter bar, it was In an orthogonal machining test, test the following
observations were made
In an orthogonal cutting process the tool used has rake observed that the tangential cutting force was
Cutting force 1200 N
angle
g of zero degree.
g The measured cutting
g force and
3000 N and the feed force was 1200 N. If the tool
Thrust force 500 N
rake
k anglel is 32°, then
h theh coefficient
ff off friction
f is
thrust force are 500 N and 250 N, respectively. The Tool rake angle zero
nearly (may take sin32
sin32° = 0.53, cos32
cos32° = 0.85 and
coefficient of friction between the tool and the chip is tan32° = 0.62) Cutting speed 1 m/s
________________ Depth of cut 0 8 mm
0.8
(a) 1.37 (b) 1.46 (c) 1.57 (d) 1.68
Chip thickness 1.5 mm
Friction angle during machining will be
22 6o (b) 32.8
(a) 22.6 32 8o (c) 57.1
57 1o 67 4o
(d) 67.4
34 35 36
GATE – 2007 (PI) Common Data‐2
( ) G
GATE – 20 ( ) i k d S
2011 (PI) Linked S1 G
GATE – 20 ( ) i k d S2
2011 (PI) Linked S2
In an orthogonal machining test, test the following During orthogonal machining of a mild steel specimen During orthogonal machining of a mild steel specimen
observations were made with a cutting tool of zero rake angle, the following data with a cutting tool of zero rake angle, the following data
Cutting force 1200 N i obtained:
is bt i d i obtained:
is bt i d
Thrust force 500 N Uncut chip p thickness = 0.25 mm Uncut chipp thickness = 0.25 mm
Tool rake angle zero Chip thickness = 0.75 mm Chip thickness = 0.75 mm
Cutting speed 1 m/s Width off cutt = 2.5 mm Width off cutt = 2.5 mm
Depth of cut 0 8 mm
0.8 Normal force = 95 950 N Normal force = 95950 N
Chip thickness 1.5 mm Thrust force = 475 N Thrust force = 475 N
Th shear
The h anglel andd shear
h f
force, respectively,
ti l are Th lti t h t
The ultimate shear stress (in N/mm
(i N/ 2) of the work
) f th k
Chip speed along the tool rake face will be
5 5o, 150.21
((a)) 771.565 5 N 435o , 75
((b)) 18.435 751.04
4N material is
(a) 0.83
0 83 m/s (b) 0.53
0 53 m/s
o
(c) 9.218 , 861.64 N o
(d) 23.157 , 686.66 N (a) 235 (b) 139 (c) 564 (d) 380
(c) 1.2 m/s (d) 1.88 m/s 37 38 39
IFS 2018
IFS‐2018 IFS 2012
IFS‐2012 GATE 2019
GATE‐2019
During an orthogonal machining operation on mild An orthogonal machining operation is being carried out In an orthogonal
g machining
g with a single
g p point cutting
g
steel, the results obtained are under the following conditions :
uncut chip thickness, t1 = 0.25 mm depth of cut = 0.1 mm, tool of rake angle 10°, the uncut chip thickness and the
chip thickness, t2 = 0.75 mm chip thickness = 0.2 mm, chip thickness are 0.125 mm and 0.22 mm respectively.
width, w = 2.5 mm width of cut = 5 mm, Using Merchant’s first solution for the condition of
rake angle, α = 00° rake angle = 10o
minimum cutting force, the coefficient of friction at the
cutting force, Fc = 950 N The force components along and normal to the direction
thrust force, Ft = 475 N of cutting velocity are 500 N and 200 N respectively.
f i l i N d N i l chip tool interface is ________ (round off to two decimal
chip‐tool
i Determine the coefficient of friction between the tool
i.
Determine places).
and the chip. (i) The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip.
ii Determine
ii. D i the
h ultimate
li shear
h stress τs off the
h work k (ii) Ultimate shear stress of the workpiece material [10]
(ii) Ultimate shear stress of the workpiece material. [10]
material. [15 Marks]
40 41 42
GATE‐2006 Common Data Questions(1)

GATE‐2006 Common Data Questions(1) GATE‐2006
GATE Common Data Questions(2)
2006 Common Data Questions(2)
a o t ogo a ac g ope at o :
In an orthogonal machining operation: g g p
In an orthogonal machining operation: GATE‐2006 Common Data Questions(3)
Uncut thickness = 0.5 mm Uncut thickness = 0.5 mm In an orthogonal machining operation:
Cutting speed = 20 m/min
d Rake angle = 15°
k l C tti
Cutting speed = 20 m/min
d / i Rake angle = 15°
R k l ° Uncut thickness 0 5 mm
Uncut thickness = 0.5 mm
Width of cut = 5 mm
Width of cut 5 mm Chip thickness = 0.7 mm
Chip thickness 0.7 mm Width of cut = 5 mm
5 Chip thickness = 0.7 mm
p 7 Cutting speed = 20 m/min Rake angle = 15°
Thrust force = 200 N Cutting force = 1200 N Thrust force = 200 N Cutting force = 1200 N Width of cut = 5 mm Chip thickness = 0.7 mm
Assume Merchant's theory. A
Assume Merchant's theory.
M h t' th Thrust force 200 N
Thrust force = 200 N Cutting force 1200 N
Cutting force = 1200 N
The coefficient of friction at the tool chip interface is
The coefficient of friction at the tool‐chip interface is p g gy p
The percentage of total energy dissipated due to Assume Merchant's theory.
(a) 0.23 (b) 0.46 friction at the tool‐chip interface is The values of shear angle and shear strain,
( ) 8
(c) 0.85 (d)
(d) 0.95 (a) 30% (b) 42% respectively are
respectively, are
(c) 58% (d) 70% (a) 30.3° and 1.98 (b) 30.3° and 4.23
(c) 40.2° and 2.97 (d) 40.2° and 1.65
43 44 45
GATE‐2018 T i O ti
Turning Operation y Fc or Fz or tangential component or primary cutting
force acting in the direction of the cutting velocity,
An
A orthogonal
h l cutting
i operations
i is
i being
b i largest
l force
f andd accounts forf 99%% off the
h power
carried out in which uncut thickness is 0.010 required by the process.
mm, cutting speed is 130 m/min, rake angle is y Fx or axial component or feed force acting in the
15°° and
d width
idth off cutt is
i 6 mm. It is
i observed
b d direction of the tool feed.
feed This force is about 50% of
Fc, but accounts for only a small percentage of the
that the chip p thickness is 0.0155 mm,, the
power required
i d because
b f d rates
feed t are usually
ll small
ll
cutting force is 60 N and the thrust force is 25 compared to cutting speeds.
N The ratio of friction energy to total energy
N. y Fy or radial force or thrust force in turning acting
is______________(correct to two decimal perpendicular to the machined surface. This force is
places) about 50% of Fx i.e. 25% of Fc and contributes very
little to power requirements because velocity in the
46 47 radial direction is negligible. 48
IES‐1995 IES‐2001 IES‐1997

The primary tool force used in calculating the total Power consumption in metal cutting is mainly Consider the following forces acting on a
due to finish turning tool:
power consumption in machining is the
((a)) Tangential
g component
p of the force 1. Feed force
(a) Radial force (b) Tangential force
(b) Longitudinal component of the force 2. Thrust force
(c) Axial force (d) Frictional force. (c) Normal component of the force 3. Cutting force.
(d) Friction
F i ti att the
th metal‐tool
t l t l interface
i t f Th correctt sequence off the
The th decreasing
d i order
d off
the magnitudes
g of these forces is
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 3, 1
(c) 3, 1, 2 (d) 3, 2, 1
49 50 51
IES‐1999 f d f d h
Determination of Un‐deformed chip
The radial force in single‐point tool during
Conversion Formula
Conversion Formula thickness in Turning: (VIMP)
thickness in Turning: (VIMP)
turning operation varies between We have to convert turning (3D) to Orthogonal For single point cutting tool
Cutting (2D)
((a)) 0.2 to 0.4
4 times the main cutting
g force t = f sin λ
(b) 0.4 to 0.6 times the main cutting force Fc = Fz
d
(c) 0.6 to 0.8 times the main cutting force F b=
Ft = Fxy =
Fx
= y = Fx2 + Fy2 Where sin λ
(d) 0.5 to
t 0.66 times
ti th main
the i cutting
tti force
f
sin λ cos λ t =Uncut chip thickness
f = feed
λ = 90 – Cs = approach angle
Cs = side cutting edge angle
side cutting edge angle
52
Page 23 of 276
53 l =πD Rev.0
54
GATE‐2014 ESE‐2003‐ Conventional GATE – 1995 ‐Conventional
During turning a carbon steel rod of 160 mm diameter by a
A straight turning operation is carried out using a carbide tool of geometry; 0, 0, 10, 8, 15, 75, 0 (mm) at speed of While turning a C‐15 steel rod of 160 mm diameter at
400 rpm,
p , feed
eed o
of 0.3
0.32 mm/rev
/ ev aandd 4.0 mm dept
depth o
of cut, tthe
e 315 rpm, 2.5 mm depth of cut and feed of 0.16
single point cutting tool on an AISI 1020 steel rod. following observation were made. mm/rev by a tool of geometry 00, 100, 80, 90,150, 750,
Tangential component of the cutting force, Pz = 1200 N 0(mm) the following observations were made.
0(mm), made
The feed is 0.2 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 0.5
Axial component of the cutting force, Px = 800 N
Tangential component of the cutting force = 500 N
mm The tool has a side cutting edge angle of 60o.
mm. Chi thickness
Chip thi k t) α 2 = 0.8
( ft cut),
(after 0 8 mm
mm.
Axial component of the cutting force = 200 N
For the above machining condition determine the values of
The uncut chip thickness (in mm) is ………. Chip thickness = 0.48
0 48 mm
(i) Friction force, F and normal force, N acting at the chip tool
interface. Draw schematically the Merchant’s circle diagram
(ii) Yield shears strength of the work material under this for the cutting force in the present case.
machining condition.
(iii) Cutting power consumption in kW.
55 56 57
Orthogonal Turning (λ = 90o) GATE‐2007

Fc = Fz In orthogonal turning of a low carbon steel bar
of diameter 150 5 mm with uncoated carbide
tool, the cutting velocity is 90 m/min. The feed
F F
Ft = x = x = Fx is 0.24
0 24 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 2 mm.mm
sin λ sin90
The chip thickness obtained is 0.48 mm. If the
orthogonal rake angle is zero and the principal
t = f sin λ = f sin90 = f cutting edge angle is 90°, the shear angle is
d
degree i
is
(a) 20.56
.5 ((b)) 26.56
.5
d d
b= = =d (c) 30.56 (d) 36.56
i λ sin90
sin i 90 58 59 60
GATE 2015
GATE-2015 GATE 2015
GATE-2015 GATE 2016
GATE‐2016
Orthogonal turning of mild steel tube with a tool For an orthogonal cutting operation, tool material is
An
A orthogonal
h l turning
i operation
i isi carried
i d out under
d
rake angle of 10° is carried out at a feed of 0.14 HSS, rake angle is 22o , chip thickness is 0.8 mm, speed
the following conditions: rake angle = 55°, spindle
mm/rev. If the thickness of chip produced is 0.28 mm. is 48 m/min and feed is 0.4 mm/rev. The shear plane
rotational speed
p = 4
400 rpm,
p , axial feed = 0.4
4 m/min
/
The values of shear angle and shear strain is angle (in degree) is
and radial depth of cut = 5 mm. The chip thickness, tc
a) 28°20´ and 2.19
is found to be 3 mm . The shear angle (in degrees) in
b) ° ´ and
b)22°20´ d 3.53
this turning process is _____
c) 24
24°20´
20 and 4.19
4 19
d)37°20´
37 and 55.19
9

61 62 63
G
GATE‐2003 Common Data Questions(1)
2003 C Q i ( ) GATE‐2003
GATE Common Data Questions(2)
2003 Common Data Questions(2)
GATE‐2007 A cylinder is turned on a lathe with orthogonal machining
A cylinder is turned on a lathe with orthogonal machining principle. Spindle rotates at 200 rpm. The axial feed rate
In orthogonal turning of low carbon steel pipe with is 0.255 mm p per revolution. Depth
p of cut is 0.4 4 mm. The
principle Spindle rotates at 200 rpm.
principle. rpm The axial feed rate
principal cutting edge angle of 90°, the main cutting is 0.25 mm per revolution. Depth of cut is 0.4 mm. The rake angle is 10°. In the analysis it is found that the shear
rake angle is 10
10°. In the analysis it is found that the shear angle is 27.75
27.75°
force is 1000 N and the feed force is 800 N. The shear
angle is 27.75° In the above problem, the coefficient of friction at
angle is 25°
2 ° and orthogonal rake angle is zero.
ero The thickness of the produced chip is the chip tool interface obtained using Earnest and
h hi l i f b i d i E d
Employing Merchant
Merchant’ss theory, the ratio of friction Merchant theory is
(a) 0 511 mm
(a) 0.511 mm (b) 0 528 mm
(b) 0.528 mm
(a) 0.18 (b) 0.36
force to normal force acting
g on the cutting
g tool is (c) 0.818 mm (d) 0.846 mm
(c) 0 71
(c) 0.71 (d) 0 98
(d) 0.98
((a)) 1.56
5 ((b)) 1.255 ((c)) 0.80 ((d)) 0.64
4
64 65 66
GATE ‐2019 (PI) GATE‐2008 Common Data Question (1) GATE‐2008 Common Data Question (2)

During
D i a turning
i operation
i off a specific
ifi work k Orthogonal turning is performed on a cylindrical work Orthogonal turning is performed on a cylindrical work
material havingg shear strength
g of 220 MPa under piece with shear strength of 250 MPa.
MPa The following piece with shear strength of 250 MPa.MPa The following
orthogonal cutting condition, the process parameters conditions are used: cutting velocity is 180 m/min. feed conditions are used: cutting velocity is 180 m/min. feed
are is 0.20
0 20 mm/rev.
mm/rev depth of cut is 3 mm.mm chip thickness is 0.20
0 20 mm/rev.
mm/rev depth of cut is 3 mm. mm chip thickness
Feed 0.2 mm/rev ratio = 0.5. The orthogonal rake angle is 7o. Apply ratio = 0.5. The orthogonal rake angle is 7o. Apply
M h ' theory
Merchant's h f analysis.
for l i M h ' theory
Merchant's h f analysis.
for l i
Depth of cut 1 mm
p g ( g )
The shear plane angle (in degree) and the shear g , p y,
The cutting and Thrust forces, respectively, are
R k
Rake angle
l — 5°°
force respectively are (a) 568N; 387N (b) 565N; 381N
Given chip thickness ratio as 0.5, friction angle as (a) 52: 320 N (b) 52: 400N ( )
(c) 440N; 342N
N N (d)
(d) 480N; 356N
N N
49.2° and shear angle as 25.4°. the feed force (in N) is
(c) 28: 400N (d) 28:320N
67 68 69
GATE ‐2019 Metal Removal Rate (MRR) IES ‐ 2004

In
I orthogonal
h l turning
i off a cylindrical
li d i l tube
b off wallll A medium
di carbon
b steell workpiece
k i is
i turned
d on a
thickness 5 mm, the axial and tangential cutting forces lathe at 50 m/min. cutting speed 0.8 mm/rev feed
were measured as 1259 N and 1601 N, respectively. The M l
Metal removal rate (MRR) = A
l (MRR) Ac.V
V = b t V = fdV
b V fdV and 1.5 mm depth of cut. What is the rate of metal
measured chip p thickness after machiningg was found to removal?
be 0.3 mm. The rake angle was 10° and axial feed was 100 (a) 1000 mm3/min
mm/min The rotational speed of the spindle was 1000
mm/min.
Where
(b) 60,000 mm3/min
/
rpm. Assuming the material to be perfectly plastic and Ac = cross‐section area of uncut chip (mm2)
0,000 mm3//min
(c) 20,000
M h t’s first
Merchant fi t solution,
l ti th shear
the h strength
t th off the
th V = cutting speed = π DN , mm / min (d) Can not be calculated with the given data
material is closest to
(a) 875 MPa (b) 920 MPa (c) 722 MPa (d) 200 MPa

70 71 72
GATE‐2013 IES 2016
IES‐2016 Turning
A 125 mm long, 10 mm diameter stainless steel rod is
A steell bar
b 200 mm in
i diameter
di is
i turned d at a feed
f d off
0.25 mm/rev with a depth of cut of 4 mm. The being turned to 9 mm diameter, 0.5 mm depth of cut.
rotational speed of the workpiece is 160 rpm. The The spindle rotates at 360 rpm. With the tool traversing
material removal rate in mm3/s is
at an axial speed of 175 mm/min, the metal removal rate
(a) 160 (b) 167.6 (c) 1600 (d) 1675.5
is nearly.
nearly
(a ) 2200 mm3 / min (b) 2400 mm3 / min
3
(c) 2600 mm / min (d) 2800 mm3 / min
73 74 75
Power Consumed During Cutting GATE‐2018 (PI) Specific Energy Consumption

During orthogonal machining of a job at a cutting
Power (W ) Fc
speed of 90 m/min with a tool of 10° rake angle, e= =
the cutting force and thrust force are 750 N and
( )
MRR mm / s 1000 fd
3
c 390 N, respectively. Assume a shear angle of 35°.

The power (in W) expended for shearing along
Where
Fc = cutting force (in N) the
h shear
h plane
l is ______ Sometimes it is also known as specific power
πDN
V tti
V = cutting speed = , m/s
d / consumption.
consumption
60
76 77 78
GATE(PI)‐1991 GATE‐2007 GATE‐2016 (PI)

Amount of energy consumption per unit volume of In orthogonal turning of medium carbon steel. The A cylindrical bar of 100 mm diameter is orthogonally
specific machining energy is 2.0 J/mm3. The cutting
metal removal is maximum in velocity, feed and depth of cut are 120 m/min, 0.2 straight turned with cutting velocity, feed and depth of
mm/rev and 2 mm respectively.
respectively The main cutting cut of 120 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev and 4 mm, respectively.
(a) Turning (b) Milling
force in N is
(c) Reaming (d) Grinding (a) 40 (b) 80 The specific cutting energy
energ of the work 103
ork material is 11×10
(c) 400 (d) 800 J/m3. Neglect the contribution of feed force towards
cutting
gppower. The main or tangential
g cutting
g force (in
N) is ________.

79 80 81
GATE‐2013 (PI) Common Data Question GATE 2020
GATE‐2020
A cylindrical bar with 200 mm diameter is being Example
A disc
di off 200 mm outer and d 80
8 mm inner
i diameter
di is
i turned with a tool having geometry 0° ‐9° ‐ 7° ‐ 8° ‐
faced of 0.1 mm/rev with a depth of cut of 1 mm. The When the rake angle is zero during orthogonal cutting,
15°
5 ‐ 330° ‐ 0.055 inch ((Coordinate system, y ASA))
show that
facing operation is undertaken at a constant cutting resulting in a cutting force Fc1. If the tool geometry
speed
p of 990 m/min
/ in a CNC lathe. The main is changed to 0 0° ‐ 9
9° ‐ 7 ‐ 8
8° ‐ 15
15° ‐ 0
0° ‐ 0.05 inch τs
=
(1 − μ r ) r
(tangential) cutting force is 200 N. (Coordinate system. ASA) and all other parameters pc 1+ r2
Neglecting the contribution of the feed force remain unchanged,
unchanged the cutting force changes to Fc2. Fc2 Wh τs is
Where i the
h shear
h strengrhh off the
h material
i l
towards cutting power, the specific cutting energy Specific cutting energy (in J/mm3) is Uc = U0 (t1)‐ 0.4 ,
pc = specific
p ppower of cutting
g
in J/mm3 is where
h U0 is i the
h specific
ifi energy coefficient,
ffi i and
d t1 is
i
the uncut thickness in mm. The value of percentage r = chip thickness ratio
(a) 0.2 (b) 2 (c) 200 (d) 2000
change in cutting force Fc2. i.e., μ = coefficient of friction in tool chip interface
is ⎛ Fc 2 − Fc1 ⎞ ×100 ___((round off to one decimal p place).
)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ Fc1 ⎠
82 83 84
GATE‐2014 Friction in Metal Cutting
l
Specific Cutting Pressure
Specific Cutting Pressure The
Th main i cutting
i force
f acting
i on a tooll during
d i the
h
The cutting force, Fc, divided by the cross section turning (orthogonal cutting) operation of a metal is
area of the undeformed chip gives the nominal 400 N. The turning was performed using 2 mm
cutting stress or the specific cutting pressure,
pressure pc depth
p of cut and 0.1 mm/rev/ feed rate. The specific
p
cutting pressure is
Fc Fc (a) 1000
pc = = (b) 2000
bt fd
(c) 3000
(d) 4000
85 86 87
IES‐2000
GATE‐1993 Assertion (A): In metal cutting, the normal
GATE 1992 laws of sliding friction are not applicable.
applicable
The effect of rake angle on the mean friction angle in The effect of rake angle on the mean friction angle in
machining can be explained by machining can be explained by Reason (R): Very high g temperature is
(A) sliding (Coulomb) model of friction (a) Sliding (coulomb) model of friction produced at the tool‐chip interface.
(B) sticking and then sliding model of friction (b) sticking and then siding model of friction ( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i
((C)) sticking
g friction (c) Sticking friction p
the correct explanation of A
(D) Sliding and then sticking model of friction (d) sliding and then sticking model of friction (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is
not the
h correct explanation
l i off A

88 89 90
H Di ib i i M l C i
Heat Distribution in Metal Cutting
IES‐2004 IES‐2002
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) The
Th ratio i off uncut chip
hi thickness
hi k to actuall
chip thickness is always less than one and is termed as
In a machining process, the percentage of
cutting ratio in orthogonal
h l cutting heat carried away by the chips is typically
Reason ((R): ) The frictional force is veryy high
g due to the ((a)) 55% ((b)) 25%
5
occurrence of sticking friction rather than sliding
friction
(c) 50% (d) 75%
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
correct explanation
l i off A
91 92 93
For IES Only
IES‐1998 IAS – 2003 Mean Temperature in Turning

As the cutting speed increases
A h i d i
In metal cutting operation, the approximate
ratio of heat distributed among chip,
chip tool ((a)) More heat is transmitted to the work piece and less
p Mean temperature ∞ V a f b
heat is transmitted to the tool
and work, in that order is
(b) More heat is carried away by the chip and less heat is
(a) 80: 10: 10 (b) 33: 33: 33 transmitted to the tool
Tool Material a b
( ) 20: 60: 10 (d) 10: 10: 80
(c) (c) More heat is transmitted to both the chip and the
HSS 0.5 0.375
too
tool
Carbide 0.2 0.125
(d) More heat is transmitted to both the work piece and
th t l
the tool
94 95 96
Determination of cutting heat & temperature

E
Experimentally
i t ll
HEAT
IAS – 2003
y Calorimetric method
The
Th heat
h generated d in
i metall cutting
i can conveniently
i l Dynamometer
be determined by
TEMPERATURE y Dynamometers are used for measuring Cutting forces.
forces
(a) Installing thermocouple on the job
y Decolourising
g agent
g y For Orthogonal Cutting use 2D dynamometer
(b) Installing thermocouple on the tool
y Tool‐work thermocouple
(c) Calorimetric set‐up y For Oblique
q Cutting
g use 33D dynamometer
y
y Moving thermocouple technique
M i h l h i
(d) Using radiation pyrometer
y Embedded thermocouple technique
p q
y Using compound tool
y Indirectly from Hardness and structural transformation
di l f d d l f i
y Photo‐cell technique
q
y Infra ray detection method
97 98 99
IES 2011 IES‐1993 IES‐1996
The instrument or device used to measure the Which of the following forces are measured directly by
A 'Dynamometer' is a device used for the strain gauges or force dynamometers during metal
cutting forces in machining is
measurement of cutting ?
((a)) Tachometer 1. Force exerted byy the tool on the chip p acting
g normallyy to
( ) Chip
(a) Chi thickness
thi k ratio
ti the tool face.
(b) Comparator
2. Horizontal cutting g force exerted byy the tool on the work
(b) Forces during metal cutting piece.
(c) Dynamometer
(c) Wear of the cutting tool 3. Frictional resistance of the tool against the chip flow
(d) Lactometer
L acting along the tool face.
(d) Deflection
e ec o o of thee cu
cutting
g tool
oo 4 Vertical force which helps in holding the tool in
4.
position.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
100 101
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 102
Types of Dynamometers Strain Gauge Dynamometers
Strain
S i gauge type The
Th strain,
i ε induced
i d d by b the
h force
f changes
h the
h electrical
l i l
Or resistance, R, of the strain gauges which are firmly
pasted on the surface of the tool‐holding beam as
piezoelectric type
ΔR
ΔR
= Gε
R
St i gauge type
Strain t d
dynamometerst are inexpensive
i i but
b t less
l where, G = gauge factor (around 2.0 for conductive
accurate and consistent, whereas, the piezoelectric type gauges)
are highly accurate, reliable and consistent but very
The change in resistance of the gauges connected in a
expensive
p for high
g material cost and stringent g
Wh t t
Wheatstone b id produces
bridge d voltage
lt output
t t ΔV,
ΔV through
th h
construction.
a strain measuring bridge (SMB)
103 104 105
IES‐1998 IES‐2018 IAS‐2001

Assertion
A ti (A):
(A) Piezoelectric
Pi l t i transducers
t d and
d preferred
f d
The gauge factor of a resistive pick‐up of For a strain gauge (gauge factor = 2.1 and over strain gauge transducers in the dynamometers for
cutting force dynamometer is defined as the resistance
i = 50 Ω),
Ω) subjected
bj d to a maximum
i measurement of three‐dimensional
three dimensional cutting forces.
forces
ratio of Reason (R): In electric transducers there is a significant
strain of 0.001, the maximum change in leakage of signal from one axis to the other,
other such cross
(a) Applied strain to the resistance of the wire resistance is error is negligible in the case of piezoelectric
transducers.
transducers
(b) The
h proportionall change
h in resistance to the
h (a) 0.084 Ω (b) 0.105 Ω (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
applied strain explanation of A
(c) 0.135 Ω (d) 0.156 Ω
(c) The resistance to the applied strain (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correctt explanation
l ti off A
(d) Change in resistance to the applied strain (c) A is true but R is false
106 107 108
For PSU & IES
For PSU & IES
In strain gauge dynamometers the use of how
many active gauge makes the dynamometers more
effective
( ) Four
(a) F
(b) Three
(c) Two
(d) One
109 110

Tool Failure IES ‐ 2014
Tool failure is two types The
Th fatigue
f i failure
f il off a tooll is
i due
d to
1 Slow‐death: The gradual or progressive wearing away
1. ((a)) abrasive friction,, cutting g fluid and chip
p breakage
g
of rake face (crater wear) or flank (flank wear) of the (b) Variable thermal stresses, chip breakage and variable
, ,
Tool Wear, Tool Life, Economics & cutting tool or both.
both dimensions of cut
Machinability 2. Sudden‐death: Failures leading to premature end of (c) Abrasive friction, chip breakage and variable
the tool
h l dimensions of cut
The sudden‐death type yp of tool failure is difficult to (d) Chip breakage,
breakage variable thermal stresses and cutting
predict. Tool failure mechanisms include plastic
fluid
deformation,, brittle fracture,, fatigue
g fracture or edge
g
chipping. However it is difficult to predict which of these
processes will dominate and when tool failure will occur.
p
By S K Mondal
1 2 3
Tool Wear l
Tool Wear IES 2010
(a) Flank Wear Flank wear occurs on the
(b) Crater Wear ( ) Relief face of the tool

(a)
(c) Chipping off of the cutting edge (b) Rake

R k face
f
( ) Nose
(c) N off the
th tool
t l
(d) Cutting edge
4 5 6
IES – 2007, IES‐2016 IES – 1994 Flank Wear: (Wear land)

Assertion (A): Tool wear is expressed in terms of
A i (A) T l i d i f
Flank wear occurs mainly on which of the following?
flank wear rather than crater wear.
Reason
(a) Nose part and top face y Abrasion
Ab i b hard
by h d particles
i l and
d inclusions
i l i i the
in h work
k
Reason (R): Measurement of flank wear is simple
piece.
and more accurate.
and more accurate
(b) Cutting edge only y Shearing off the micro welds between tool and work
material.
material
( ) Nose part, front relief face, and side relief face of the
(c) correct explanation of A
l f
y Abrasion by fragments of built‐up‐edge ploughing
cutting tool (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not
ot a d R a e d v dua y t ue but R s ot tthe e
against
i the
h clearance
l f
face off the
h tool.
l
(d) Face of the cutting tool at a short distance from y At low speed
p flank wear p
predominates.
( ) A is true but R is false
(c) A i t b t R i f l
y If MRR increased flank wear increased.
the cutting
g edge
g (d) A is false but R is true

7 8 9
GATE‐2014 Flank Wear: (Wear land) Flank Wear: (Wear land)
Cutting
C i tooll is
i much h harder
h d than h the
h work‐piece.
k i
Yet the tool wears out during the tool‐work
Effect Stages
interaction, because y Flank
Fl k wear directly
di l affect
ff the
h component dimensions
di i y Flank
Fl k Wear
W occurs in
i three
h stages off varying
i wear rates
produced.
(a) extra hardness is imparted to the work
work‐piece
piece due to
coolant used y Flank wear is usually the most common determinant of
tool life.
life
(b) oxide
d layers
l on the
h work‐piece
k surface
f impart extra
hardness to it
(c) extra hardness is imparted to the work‐piece due to
severe rate of strain
(d) vibration is induced in the machine tool
10 11 12
Flank Wear: (Wear land) l k ( l d)
Flank Wear: (Wear land) IES – 2004
Consider
C id theh following
f ll i statements:
Primary wear Tertiary wear
During g the third stage g of tool‐wear,, rapid
p
The region
Th i where
h the
h sharp
h cutting
i edge
d is i quickly
i kl broken
b k y The
Th region
i where
h wear progresses at a gradually
d ll
deterioration of tool edge takes place because
down and a finite wear land is established. increasing rate.
1 Flank wear is only marginal
1.
y In the tertiary region the wear of the cutting tool has
Secondary
y wear become sensitive to increased tool temperature due to 2. Flank wear is large
The region where the wear progresses at a uniform rate. high wear land. 3. Temperature of the tool increases gradually
y Re‐grinding
R i di i recommended
is d d before
b f they
h enter this
hi 4. Temperature
T t off the
th tool
t l increases
i d ti ll
drastically
region. Which of the statements g given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
( ) 1 and
(c) d4 (d) 2 and d3
13 14 15
GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE‐2008 (PI) Tool life criteria ISO Crater wear
u g machining,
During ac g, tthee wea a d ((h)) has
wear land as bee
been p otted
plotted
(A certain width of flank wear (VB) is the most common
(A i id h f fl k (VB) i h y More common in ductile materials which produce
against machining time (T) as given in the following
criterion)
figure.
figure continuous chip.
h
y Uniform wear: 0.3 mm averaged over all past
y Localized wear: 0.6 mm on any individual past
Localized wear: 0 6 mm on any individual past y Crater
C wear occurs on the
h rake
k face.
f
y At very high
hi h speed
d crater
t wear predominates
d i t
y For crater wear temperature is main culprit and tool

defuse into the chip material & tool temperature is
For a critical wear land of 1.8 mm, the cutting tool life (in
(
minute) is maximum at some distance from the tool tip.
(a) 52.00 (b) 51.67 (c) 51.50 (d) 50.00
16 17 18
Crater wear Contd….. IES – 2002 IAS – 2007
y Crater depth exhibits linear increase with time. Crater wear on tools always starts at some distance
C l l di Why does crater wear start at some distance from
Wh d di f
y It increases with MRR.
MRR from the tool tip because at that point the tool tip?
(a) Cutting fluid does not penetrate (a) Tool strength is minimum at that region
(b) Normal stress on rake face is maximum (b) Cutting fluid cannot penetrate that region
(c) Temperature is maximum (c) Tool temperature is maximum in that region
(d) Tool strength is minimum (d) Stress on rake face is maximum at that region
y Crater wear has little or no influence on cutting forces,

forces
work piece tolerance or surface finish.
19 20 21
IES – 2000 IES – 1995 Wear Mechanism

Crater wear starts at some distance from the tool tip
C di f h l i Crater wear is predominant in
C i d i i
because 1. Abrasion wear
((a)) Carbon steel tools
(a) Cutting fluid cannot penetrate that region (b) Tungsten carbide tools
2. Adhesion wear
(b) Stress on rake face is maximum at that region ( ) High speed steel tools
(c) Hi h d l l
(c) Tool strength is minimum at that region ((d)) Ceramic tools 3 Diffusion wear
3.
(d) Tool temperature is maximum at that region
4. Chemical or oxidation wear
22 23 24
IAS – 2002 IES – 1995 IAS – 1999

Consider
C id the h following
f ll i actions:i Match List I with List II and select the correct
M h Li I i h Li II d l h The
Th type off wear that
h occurs due
d to the
h cutting
i
1. Mechanical abrasion 2. Diffusion answer using the codes given below the lists: action of the particles in the cutting fluid is
3. Plastic deformation 4. Oxidation List I (Wear type) List II (Associated mechanism) referred to as
Whi h off the
Which h above
b are the
h causes off tooll wear?? A Abrasive wears
A. 1
1. Galvanic action (a) Attritions wear
((a)) 2 and 3 ((b)) 1 and 2 B. Adhesive wears 2. Ploughing action (b) Diffusion wear
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 C. Electrolytic wear 3. Molecular transfer (c) Erosive wear
D Diffusion wears
D. Diff i 4. Pl ti d f
Plastic deformation
ti (d) Corrosive wear
5. Metallic bond
Code: A B C D A B C D
( ) 2
(a) 5 1 3 (b) 5 2 1 3
25
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d)
Page 33 of 276 5 2 3 4 26
Rev.0
27
Why chipping off or fine cracks IAS – 2003 Notch Wear
developed at the cutting edge
d l d h d Consider
C id theh following
f ll i statements: y Notch wear on the trailing edge is to a great extent an
pp g of a cutting
Chipping g tool is due to
oxidation
id ti wear mechanism
h i occurring
i where
h th cutting
the tti
y Tool material is too brittle 1. Tool material being too brittle
edge leaves the machined workpiece material in the feed
2. Hot
H hardness
h d off the
h tooll material.
i l
y Weak design of tool, such as high positive rake angle 33. High g ppositive rake angle
g of the tool. direction.
Which of these statements are correct? y But abrasion and adhesion wear in a combined effect can
y As a result of crack that is already in the tool
( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d 3 (b) 1 and d3
contribute to the formation of one or several notches.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
y Excessive
E i static
i or shock
h k loading
l di off the
h tool.
l
28 29 30
IES – 1996 List the important properties of cutting tool Why are ceramics normally provided as

Notch wear at the outside edge of the depth of cut is
N h h id d f h d h f i materials and explain why each is important.
t i l d l i h hi i t t inserts for tools, and not as entire tools?
i f l d i l?
due to
y Hardness at high temperatures ‐ this provides longer Ceramics are brittle materials and has low toughness
C i b i l i l d h l h
(a) Abrasive action of the work hardened chip material
life of the cutting tool and allows higher cutting speeds. cannot provide the structural strength required for a
(b) Oxidation tool.
y Toughness ‐ to provide the structural strength needed
(c) Slip‐stick action of the chip
to resist impacts and cutting forces
(d) Chipping.
y Wear resistance ‐ to prolong usage before replacement
doesn’t chemically react ‐ another wear factor
y Formable/manufacturable ‐ can be manufactured in a
useful geometry
31 32 33
IES 2015
IES‐2015 Tool Life Criteria IES – 1992
g statements are be correct for
Which of the following
Tool life criteria can be defined as a predetermined Tool life is generally specified by
T l lif i ll ifi d b
temperature rise in metal cutting operation? ((a)) Number of pieces machined
p
numerical value of any type of tool deterioration which
1. It adversely affects the properties of tool material can be measured. (b) Volume of metal removed
( ) Actual cutting time
(c) A l i i
2. It provides better accuracy during machining Some of the ways
((d)) Any of the above
y
3. It
I causes dimensional
di i l changes
h i the
in h work‐piece
k i and
d y Actual cutting time to failure.
affects the accuracy of machining y Volume of metal removed.
Volume of metal removed
4. It can distort the accuracyy of machine tool itself.
4 y Number of parts produced.
p p
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 y Cutting speed for a given time
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 y Length of work machined.

34 35 36
Taylor’s Tool Life Equation Values of Exponent ‘n’ IES ‐ 2012
I T l ’ l lif i VTn = C, the constants n
In Taylor’s tool life equation VT C h
Based on Flank Wear n = 0.08 to 0.2 for HSS tool and C depend upon
Causes
y Sliding of the tool along the machined surface
= 0.1 to 0.15 for Cast Alloys 1. Work piece material
y Temperature rise = 0.2 to 0.4 for
f carbide
bid tooll 2 Tool material
2. Tool material
VT n = C
3. Coolant
[IAS 1999; IES 2006]
[IAS‐1999; IES‐2006]
(a) 1, 2, and 3
= 0.5
0 5 to 0.7
0 7 for ceramic tool (b) d l
(b) 1 and 2 only
Where, V = cutting speed (m/min)
T Time (min)
T = Time (min)
[
[NTPC‐2003] 3] (c) 2 and 3 only y
n = exponent depends on tool material (d) 1 and 3 only
C = constant based on tool and work material and cutting
condition. 37 Reference: Kalpakjian 38 39
IES – 2008 IES – 2006 IES – 1999

I T l ' l lif i i VTn = constant.
In Taylor's tool life equation is VT Which
Whi h off the h following
f ll i values
l off index
i d n isi The
Th approximately
i l variation
i i off theh tooll life
lif exponent
What is the value of n for ceramic tools? associated with carbide tools when Taylor's tool life 'n' of cemented carbide tools is
(a) 0.15 to 0.25 (b) 0.4 to 0.55 equation, V.Tn = constant is applied? (a) 0.03 to 0.08 (b) 0.08 to 0.20
( ) 0.6 to 0.75
(c) 6 (d) 0.8 to 0.9
(a) 0∙1 to 0∙15 (b) 0∙2 to 0∙4 (c) 0.20
0 20 to 0.48
0 48 (d) 0.48
0 48 to 0.70
0 70
(c) 0.45 to 0∙6 (d) 0∙65 to 0∙9
40 41 42
IAS – 1998 IES 2016

IES‐2016
Match
M t h List
Li t ‐ I (Cutting
(C tti tool
t l material)
t i l) with
ith List
Li t ‐ II In a machining test,
test a cutting speed of 100 m/min GATE ‐2009 (PI)
GATE ‐2009 (PI)
(Typical value of tool life exponent 'n' in the Taylor's
V Tn = C) and select the correct answer using
equation V.T indicated the tool life as 16 min and a cutting speed I an orthogonal
In th l machining
hi i operation,
ti th tool
the t l life
lif
the codes given below the lists:
of 200 m/min indicated the tool life as 4 min. The obtained is 10 min at a cutting speed of 100 m/min,
m/min
List I
List – List II
List –
A. HSS 1. 0.18 values of n and C are while at 75 m/min cutting
g speed,
p the tool life is 330
B. Cast alloy 2. 0.12
(a) 0.5 and 200 (b) 0.25 and 200 min. The value of index (n) in the Taylor’s tool life
C. Ceramic 33. 0.255
D. Sintered carbide 4. 0.5 (c) 0.5 and 400 (d) 0.25 and 400 equation
Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4 (a) 0.262 (b) 0.323 (c) 0.423 (d) 0.521
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 4 3
43 44 45
ISRO‐2011 GATE‐2004, IES‐2000 IES – 1999, ISRO‐2013
In
I a machining
hi i operation,
i doubling
d bli the
h cutting
i In a single‐point turning operation of steel with a
A 50 mm diameter steel rod was turned at 284 rpm and 1
speed reduces the tool life to 8 th of the original
tool failure occurred in 10 minutes. The speed was value. The exponent n in Taylor's tool life equation cemented
d carbide
b d tool,
l Taylor's
l ' tooll life
l f exponent is
VTn = C,, is 0 25 If the cutting speed is halved,
0.25. halved the tool life will
changed
h d to 232 rpm and
d the
h tooll failed
f il d in
i 60
6 minutes.
i
1 1 1 1
Assuming straight line relationship between cutting (a) (b) (c ) (d ) increase by
8 4 3 2
speed
p and tool life,, the value of Taylorian
y Exponent
p is ((a)) Two times ((b)) Four times
(a) 0.21 (b) 0.133 (c) 0.11 (d) 0.233 ((c)) Eight
g times ((d)) Sixteen times
46 47 48
GATE 2016
GATE‐2016 IAS – 1995 GATE-2015
In a single point turning operation with cemented carbide
In a single point turning operation with a cemented
tool and steel work piece, it is found that the Taylor’s Under certain cutting conditions, doubling the
carbide
bid and
d steel
t l combination
bi ti h i
having a Taylor
T l
exponent is 0.25. If the cutting speed is reduced by 50% then cutting speed reduces the tool life to 1/16th of the
exponent of 0.25, if the cutting speed is halved, then
the tool life changes by ______ times. original. Taylor’s tool life index (n) for this tool‐
the tool life will become
workpiece
orkpiece combination will
ill be _______
(a) Half
(b) Two times
(c) Eight times
(d) Sixteen times
49 50 51
IAS – 2002 GATE‐2018 IES‐2015

Using the Taylor equation VTn = c, calculate the Using the Taylor's tool life equation with If n = 0.5 and C= 300 for the cutting speed and the
percentage increase in tooll life
l f when
h the
h cutting exponent n = 0.5, if the cutting speed is tool life relation, when cutting speed is reduced
speed is reduced by 50% (n = 0∙5
0 5 and c = 400) b 25%
by % , if the
h tooll life
lif is
i increased
i d by
b
reduced by 50%, the ratio of new tool life to
(a) 300% (b) 400% a) 100%
original tool life is
(c) 100% (d) 50% b)95%
)95
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 0.5 c) 78%
d)50%

52 53 54
IES‐2013 IAS – 1997 IES – 2006 conventional
A carbide tool(having n = 0.25) with a mild steel In the Taylor's tool life equation, VTn = C, the value An HSS tool is used for turning operation. The tool life is
work‐piece
k i was found
f d to
t give
i lif off 1 hour
life h 21 off n = 0.5. The
h tooll has
h a life
l f off 180 minutes at a 1 hr.
h when
h turning is carried
d at 30 m/min. The
h tooll life
lf
minutes while cutting at 60 m/min.
m/min The value of C cutting speed of 18 m/min.
m/min If the tool life is reduced will be reduced to 2.0
2 0 min if the cutting speed is
in Taylor’s
y tool life equation
q would be equal
q to: to 45 minutes, then the cutting speed will be doubled. Find the suitable speed in RPM for turning 300
(a) 200 ((a)) 9 m/min
/ ((b)) 18 m/min
/ mm diameter so that tool life is 30 min.
(b) 180 ((c)) 336 m/min ((d)) 772 m/min

(c) 150
(d) 100 55 56 57
IFS 2013
IFS‐2013
GATE‐2009 Linked Answer Questions (1) GATE‐2009 Linked Answer Questions (2) In a metal cutting experiment, the tool life was
In a machining experiment, tool life was found to vary
I hi i i l lif f d In a machining experiment, tool life was found to vary
I hi i i l lif f d
with the cutting speed in the following manner: with the cutting speed in the following manner: found to vary with the cutting speed in the
Cutting speed (m/min) Tool life (minutes) Cutting speed (m/min) Tool life (minutes) following manner :
60 81 60 81 C i
Cutting speed, V (in m/min)
d V (i / i ) Tool life, T(in min)
T l lif T(i i )
90 36 90 36
100 120
The exponent (n) and constant (k) of the Taylor's What is the percentage increase in tool life when
tool life equation are the cutting speed is halved? 130 50
(a) n = 0.5 and k = 540 (b) n= 1 and k=4860 (a) 50% (b) 200% Derive Taylor's tool life equation for this operation
(c) n = ‐1 and k = 0.74 (d) n‐0.5 and k=1.15 (c) 300% (d) 400% and estimate the tool life at a speed of 2.5 m/s. Also
estimate the cutting speed for a tool life of 80 min.
58 59 60
GATE‐2019
GATE 2019 (PI)
(PI)
In a typical turning tool life test, the following data GATE‐2010 GATE‐2019
are generated for tools A and B:
B
For tool A, Taylor’s tool life exponent (n) is 0.45 and Taylor’s tool life equation is given by VT n = C, where V is
Tool name Cutting speed
Cutting speed, V
V Tool life, T
Tool life T constant (K)
( ) is 90. Similarly
l l for
f tooll B, n = 0.3 and
dK in m/min and
d T is in min. In a turning operation, two
(in m/min) (in min)
= 60.
60 The cutting speed (in m/min) above which tool tools X and Y are used.
used For tool X,
X n = 0.3
0 3 and C = 60 and
A 200 20
B 150 58 A will have a higher tool life than tool B is for tool Y, n = 0.6 and C = 90. Both the tools will have
Assuming the same tool life exponent for the tools, ((a)) 26.77 ((b)) 4
42.55 ((c)) 80.77 ((d)) 142.9
4 9 the same tool life for the cutting speed (in m/min, round
the value of constant in the Taylor's tool life equation off to one decimal place) of ________.
(with cutting speed in m/min and tool life in min) is
_________(round off to 2 decimal places)

61 62 63
GATE 2017
GATE‐2017 Example
p
GATE‐2013 The following data was obtained from the tool‐life
Two cutting tools with tool life equations given
Two cutting tools are being compared for a cutting test:
below are being compared:
machining
hi i operation.
ti Th tool
The t l life
lif equations
ti are:
Tool 1: VT0.1 = 150 Cutting Speed, m/min:49.74 49.23 48.67 45.76 42.58
Carbide tool: VT 1.6 = 3000 Tool 2: VT0.3
0 3 = 300
Tool life, min 2.94 3.90 4.77 9.87 28.27
HSS tool: VT 0.6 = 200 Where V is cutting speed in m/minute and T is
tool life in minutes. The breakeven cutting speed Determine the constants of the Taylor tool life equation
Where V is the cutting
g speed
p in m/min and T is the
b
beyond d which
hi h Tool
T l 2 will
ill have
h a higher
hi h tool
t l life
lif is
i VTn = C
C
tool life in min. The carbide tool will provide higher ____ m/minute.
tool life if the cutting speed in m/min exceeds
(a) 15.0 (b) 39.4 (c) 49.3 (d) 60.0
64 65 66
GATE 2003
GATE‐2003
g tools could p
A batch of 10 cutting produce 500 GATE‐2018 GATE‐2017
Taylor's
T l ' tooll life
lif equation
i is
i usedd to estimate
i During
D i the h turningi off a 20 mm‐diameter
di steell bar
b
components while working at 50 rpm with a tool
the life of a batch of identical HSS twist drills at a spindle speed of 400 rpm, a tool life of 20
feed of 0.25 mm/rev and depth of cut of 1 mm. A by drilling through holes at constant feed in minute is obtained.
similar batch of 10 tools of the same specification 20 mm thick
thi k mildild steel
t l plates.
l t In I test
t t 1, a drill
d ill When the same bar is turned at 200 rpm, the tool
lasted 3300 holes at 150 5 rpm
p while in test 2,, life becomes 60 minute. Assume that Taylor
Taylor’ss tool
could
ld produce
d 122 components
t while
hil working
ki att 80
8
another drill lasted 200 holes at 300 rpm. The life equation is valid.
rpm with a feed of 0.25
0 25 mm/rev and 1 mm depth of maximum number of holes that can be made When the bar is turned at 300 rpm, the tool life
cut. How many
y components
p can be p
produced with by another drill from the above batch at 200 (in minute) is approximately
rpm is_________(correct to two decimal
one cutting tool at 60 rpm? (a) 25 (b) 32 (c) 40 (d) 50
places).
places)
(a) 29 (b) 31 (c) 37 (d) 42 67 68 69
GATE‐1999 Extended or Modified Taylor’s equation IES 2010

What is approximate percentage change is the life, t, Tool life is affected mainly with
off a tooll with

h zero rake
k angle
l used
d in orthogonal
h l ( ) Feed
(a)
cutting when its clearance angle,
angle α,
α is changed from (b) Depth
D h off cut
10o to 7o?
( ) Coolant
(c) C l t
((Hint: Flank wear rate is p
proportional
p to cot α))
(d) Cutting speed
((a)) 330 % increase ((b)) 330%, decrease
(c) 70% increase (d) 70% decrease i.e Cutting speed has the greater effect followed by feed

g p g y
and depth of cut respectively.
70 71 72
ISRO 2012
ISRO‐2012 IES – 1997 IES – 1994, 2007
What is the correct sequence q g
of the following
parameters in order of their maximum to minimum Consider the following elements: For increasing the material removal rate in turning,
influence on tool life?
1. Nose radius 2. Cutting speed without
h any constraints, what
h is the
h right
h sequence
1. Feed rate
2. Depth of cut 3. Depth of cut 4. Feed to adjust the cutting parameters?
3. Cutting speed 1
1. Speed 2
2. Feed 3
3. Depth of cut
The correct sequence of these elements in DECREASING
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
order of their influence on tool life is Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 3, 2, 1 (c) 2, 3, 1 (d) 3, 1, 2
(a) 2, 4, 3, 1
2 4 3 1 (b) 4 2 3 1
4, 2, 3, 1 (a) 11‐ 22‐ 3 (b) 22‐ 33‐ 1
(c) 2,4, 1, 3
2 4 1 3 (d) 4 2 I 3
4, 2, I, 3 ((c)) 33‐ 2‐ 1 ((d)) 1‐ 33‐ 2
73 74 75
IES – 2008 IAS – 1995 ESE‐1999; IAS ‐2010 Conventional

What are the reasons for reduction of tool life in a
Wh h f d i f l lif i Assertion
A i (A):
(A) An
A increase
i in
i depth
d h off cut shortens
h The following equation for tool life was obtained for HSS
machining operation? the tool life.
1. Temperature rise of cutting edge Reason(R): Increases in depth of cut gives rise to tool.
l A 60 min tooll life
l f was obtained
b d using the
h following
f ll
2 Chipping of tool edge due to mechanical impact
2. relatively small increase in tool temperature.
temperature cutting condition VT0.13
0 13f0.6
0 6d0.3
0 3= C.
C v = 40 m/min,
m/min f = 0.25
0 25
3. Gradual wears at tool point (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
mm, d = 2.0 mm. Calculate the effect on tool life if
4. Increase in feed of cut at constant cutting force correct explanation
l off A
(b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee speed, feed and depth of cut are together increased by
S l t th
Select the correct answer using the code given
t i th d i
below: correct explanation of A 25% and also if they are increased individually by 25%;
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 ( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
where f = feed, d = depth of cut, v = speed.
(c) 1, 3 and 4
1 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
1 2 and 4 (d) A is false but R is true
76 77 78
GATE‐2017 (PI)
( ) IES 2016 Conventional
IES‐2016 Conventional
GATE‐2016 In a machining operation with turning tool, the
Write the generalized Taylor's tool life
tool life (T) is related to cutting speed V (m/s),
(m/s)
The tool life equation for HSS tool is VT0.14 f 0.7 d0.4
feed f(mm) and depth of cut d (mm) as equation. Also write the simplified Taylor's
−2.5
2 5 −0.9
0 9 −0.15
0 15 tool life equation.
equation
= C. The tool life (T) of 30 min is obtained using the T = Cv f d During g machining g of low carbon steel with
Where, C is
Wh i a constant.
t t The
Th suggested t d values
l f
for
following cutting conditions: V = 45 m/min, f = 0.35 HSS tool, the following observations have
the cutting gp parameters are: V = 1.55 m/s,, f = 0.255
mm, d = 2.0 mm. If speed (V),
( ) feed(f)
( ) and depth of been made:
mm and d = 3 mm for normal rough turning. If Cutting speed, m/min 40 50
cut (d) are increased individually by 25%,
25% the tool the operation is performed at twice the cutting Tool Life min
Tool Life, min 40 10
life (in min) is speed and the other parameters remain
unchanged, the corresponding percentage change Derive the V‐T relationship.
((a)) 0.155 ((b)) 1.06 ((c)) 22.50
5 ((d)) 330.0 in tool life is_____________.
is
79 80 81
Tool Life Curve
l f IES 2010 Conventional IES 2010
Draw tool life curves for cast alloy, High speed steel and
D l lif f ll Hi h d l d The above figure shows a typical
ceramic tools. [2 – Marks] relationship between tool life and
cutting speed for different
materials. Match the graphs for
Ans.
Ans HSS Carbide
HSS, C bid and d Ceramic
C i tooll
materials and select the correct
answer usingi th code
the d given
i
below the lists:
C d HSS
Code: SS Carbide
C bid C
Ceramici
(a) 1 2 3
(b) 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2
1. HSS 2. Carbide 3. Ceramic 1. High speed steel 2. cast alloy and 3. ceramic tools. (d) 3 1 2
82 83 84
IAS – 2003 Effect of Rake angle on tool life Effect of Clearance angle on tool life

The tool life curves for two tools A and B are shown in
Th l lif f l A d B h i
the figure and they follow the tool life equation VTn = C. If clearance angle increased it reduces flank wear but
Consider the following statements:
d h f ll edge so best compromise is 80 for
weaken the cutting edge,
0
HSS and 5 for carbide tool.
1. Value of n for both the tools is same.
2. Value of C for both the tools is same.
3
3. Value of C for tool A will be greater than that for the tool B
Value of C for tool A will be greater than that for the tool B.
Effect of work piece on tool life
y With hard micro‐constituents in the matrix gives poor
4. Value of C for tool B will be greater than that for the tool A.
tool life.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
Whi h f th t t t i / t?
y With larger grain size tool life is better.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 only (d) 4 only
85 86 87
For IES Only
IES ‐ 2014 Chip Equivalent

Tool life Tests
Tool life Tests In
I accelerated
l d tooll life
lif tests, the
h three
h main
i types off Engaged cutting edge length
y Conventional test: Using empirical formula
g p quick and less costly tool life testing are ChipEquivalent(q) =
Plan area of cut
y Accelerated test: Estimate the tool life quickly (a) Extrapolation on the basis of steady wear;
E t
Extrapolating of steady wear rate
l ti f t d t conventional measurement of flank and crater wear; y It
I is
i used
d for
f controlling
lli the
h tooll temperature.
High speed test‐will take less time comparative performance against tool chipping
Variable speed test (b) Measurement off abrasive
b wear; multi
l –pass turning;
Multi pass turning conventional measurement of diffusion wear
Taper turning (c) Extrapolating on the basis of steady wear, multi‐pass
turning; taper turning
(d) comparative performance against tool chipping;
taper turning; measurement of abrasive wear
Refer: B.L Juneja+Nitin Seth
88 89 90
• The SCEA alters the length of the engaged cutting IES‐1996 E i f t l tti
Economics of metal cutting
edge without affecting the area of cut. As a result, the Chip
Chi equivalent
i l is
i increased
i d byb
(a) An increases in side‐cutting edge angle of tool
chip equivalent changed. When the SCEA is increased,
(b) An increase in nose radius and side cutting g
the
h chip
h equivalent
l is increased,
d without
h significantly
f l edge angle of tool
changing
h i the
th cutting
tti forces.
f ( ) Increasing
(c) I i the
th plant
l t area off cutt
• Increase
I i nose radius
in di also
l increases
i th value
the l off the
th (d) Increasing the depth of cut.
cut
chip equivalent and improve tool life.
life
91 92 93
GATE‐2016 l
Formula
For a certain job, the cost of metal cutting is Rs. Vo Ton = C
18C/V and
d the
h cost off tooling
l is Rs. 270C/(TV),
( ) where
h Optimum tool lifefor minimum cost
C is a constant,
constant V is cutting speed in m/min and T is ⎛ C ⎞⎛ 1−1 n⎞
To = ⎜⎜ Tc + t ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟
the tool life in minutes. The Taylor
Taylor’ss tool life ⎝ C m ⎠⎝ n ⎠
equation is VT0.25 = 150. The cutting speed (in Optimum tool lifefor Maximum Productivity
m/min)) for the minimum total cost is ________ (minimum production time)
⎛ 1− n ⎞
To = Tc ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
94 95 96
g g
Units:Tc – min (Tool changing time)
IES 2009 Conventional GATE‐2014
Determine
D i the
h optimumi cutting
i speed
d for
f an If the Taylor’s tool life exponent n is 0.2, and the
Ct – Rs./ servicing or replacement (Tooling
operation on a Lathe machine using the following
cost) tooll changing
h time is 1.5 min, then
h the
h tooll life
l f (in
(
information:
Cm – Rs/min (Machining cost)
Tool change time: 3 min min) for maximum production rate is ……………….
V – m/min (Cutting speed)
Tool regrinds time: 3 min
Machine running cost Rs.0.50 per min
Tooling cost (Ct) = tool regrind cost
Depreciation of tool regrinds Rs.
Rs 5.0
50
+ tool depreciation per service/ replacement
The constants in the tool life equation are 60 and
Machining cost (Cm) = labour
) labour cost + over head cost per 0.2
min

97 98 99
Example
p
ESE‐2001 Conventional A 600 mm long job of diameter 150 mm is turned with feed
In a certain machining operation with a cutting

IAS –
IAS – 2011 Main
2011 Main 0.255 mm/rev
/ p of cut 1.55 mm.
and depth
Data: Labour cost = Rs. 12.00/hr.
Determine the optimum
p speed
p for achievingg Machine overhead cost = Rs.Rs 40.00/hr.
40 00/hr
speed
d off 50 m/min, tooll life
l f off 45 minutes was maximum production rate in a machining Grinding cost = Rs. 15.00/hr.
observed When the cutting speed was increased to
observed. p
operation. The data is as follows :
G i di machine
Grinding hi overhead
h d = Rs.
R 50/hr.
/h
Machining time/job = 6 min.
100 m/min, the tool life decreased to 10 min. Idle time = 5 min
T l life
Tool lif = 90 min.
i Tool life constants are 0.22 and 475
Estimate the cutting speed for maximum Taylor's equation constants C = 100, n = 0.5 For tool: Initial cost = Rs. 60.00
Job handling time = 4 min./job Grinding time is 5 min/edge
productivity if tool change time is 2 minutes.
Tool changing time = 9 min.
min Tool change time 2 min
[10‐Marks] 9 grinds per tool before salvage.
Fi d minimum
Find i i production
d i cost
100 101 102
Answer Answer(Contd….)
( )
Tool change time (Tc ) = 2 min π DL π × 150 × 600
Tool grinding cost = 5 x (15 + 50)/60 = Rs.
Rs 5.417/edge
5 417/edge
Machining time (Tm ) = =
1000 fV 1000 × 0.25 × 199.5
= 5.669min GATE‐2020
Bars
B off 250 mm length
l h andd 25 mm diameter
di are to be
b
Initial setuptime for a batch (ti )
Tool will be used 10 times (Because first grinding not Total time (Ttotal ) = Idle time (to ) + turned on a lathe with a feed of 0.2 mm/rev. Each
needed
d d 9 regrinding
i di needed)
d d) Number of parts produced per batch ( p )
regrinding of the tool costs Rs. 20. The time
60 + 5.417 × 9
Tooling cost (Ct ) = = Rs.10.875 / use of tool Machining time (Tm )
+ Machining time (Tm ) + Tool change time (Tc ) × required
q for each tool change g is 1 min. Tool life
10 Optimum tool life (To )
Machining cost (Cm ) = Labour cost +Overhead cost per min
equation is given as VT0.2 = 24 (where cutting speed
5.669 V is m/min and tool life T is in min).
min) The optimum
= 5 + 0 + 5.669
5 669 + 2 × = 10.89
10 89min
min
= (12+40)/60 = Rs. 0.8667/min 51.58
tool cost per piece for maximum production rate is
⎛ C ⎞⎛1 − n ⎞ ⎛ t ⎞ T
O ti
Optimum life (To ) = ⎜ Tc + t ⎟ ⎜
ttooll lif C t off O
Cost ti = Cm ⎜ to + i + Tm ⎟ + (Ct + Tc × Cm ) × m
Operation R
Rs._______________ (
(round d off
ff to
t 2 decimal
d i l
⎝ Cm ⎠ ⎝ n ⎟⎠ ⎝ p ⎠ To
places).
5 667
5.667
⎛
= ⎜2 +
10 875 ⎞ ⎛ 1 − 0
10.875 0.22
22 ⎞
= 51.58 min = 0.8667 × ( 5 + 0 + 5.667 ) + (10.875 + 2 × 0.8667 ) ×
⎝ 0.8667 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.22 ⎟⎠ 51.58
= Rs.10.63 per piece
C 475
Optimum Speed (Vo ) = n = = 199.5m/min
To 51.580.22 103 104 105
C d
Contd………. F
From previous
i slide
lid
GATE‐2005 IAS – 2007 Contd…
A diagram
di related
l t d to
t machininghi i economics
i with ith
various cost components is given above. Match List I
(C t Element)
(Cost El t) with
ith List
Li t II (Appropriate
(A i t Curve)
C ) and d
select the correct answer using the code given below
th Lists:
the Li t
List I List II
(Cost Element) (Appropriate Curve)
A Machining cost
A. 1
1. Curve‐l
B. Tool cost 2. Curve‐2 Code:A B C D A B C D
C. Tool grinding cost
l d 3. Curve‐3 ( ) 3
(a) 2 4 5 ((b)) 4 1 3 2
D. Non‐productive cost
p 4.
4 Curve‐4
4 (c) 3 1 4 2 (d) 4 2 3 5
5. Curve‐5
106 107 108
Minimum Cost Vs Production Rate
Minimum Cost Vs Production Rate IES – 1999
IES 2011
The optimum cutting speed is one which should Consider
f ll i approaches h normally ll applied
li d
have: for the economic analysis of machining:
1. High metal removal rate 1. Maximum production rate
2. High
Hi h cutting
i tooll life
lif 2 Maximum profit criterion
2.
33. Balance the metal removal rate and cutting
g 3. Minimum cost criterion
tool life The correct sequence in ascending order of optimum
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 cutting speed obtained by these approaches is
(b) 1 and 2 only (a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 1, 3, 2
(c) 2 and 3 only (c) 3, 2, 1 (d) 3, 1, 2
(d) 3 onlyl
109 Vmax.production > Vmax.profit > Vmin.110 cost 111
IES – 1998 IAS – 2002 IAS – 1997

The
Th variable
i bl cost and
d production
d i rate off a machining
hi i Optimum
O i cutting
i speed
d for
f minimum
i i cost (Vc min ) In
I turning,
i the
h ratioi off the
h optimum
i cutting
i speed
d
process against cutting speed are shown in the given and optimum cutting speed for maximum for minimum cost and optimum cutting speed for
figure. For efficient machining, the range of best production rate (Vr max ) have which one of the maximum rate of production is always
cutting g speed
p would be between following g relationships?
p (a) Equal to 1
(a) 1 and 3 (a) Vc min = Vr max (b) Vc min > Vr max (b) In the range of 0.6 to 1
(b) 1 andd5 ( ) Vc min < Vr max
(c) (d) V2c min = Vr max (c) In the range of 0.1 to 0.6
(c) 2 aandd4 (d) Greater than 1
(d) 3 and 5
112 113 114
IES – 2000 IES – 2004 IES – 2002

The
Th magnitude
i d off theh cutting
i speed
d for
f maximum
i Consider
C id the
th following
f ll i statements:
t t t In
I economics i off machining,
hi i which
hi h one off the
h
profit rate must be 1. As the cutting speed increases, the cost of production following costs remains constant?
i i i ll reduces,
initially d then
h after
f an optimum
i cutting
i speed
d iti
(a) In between the speeds for minimum cost and increases (a) Machining cost per piece
maximum production rate 2. As A the
h cutting
i speed
d increases
i the
h cost off production
d i (b) Tool changing cost per piece
(b) Higher than the speed for maximum production rate also increases and after a critical value it reduces (c) Tool handling cost per piece
(c) Below the speed for minimum cost 3. Higher feed rate for the same cutting speed reduces cost (d) Tool cost per piece
of production
(d) Equal to the speed for minimum cost
4. Higher feed rate for the same cutting speed increases the
cost of production
((a)) 1 and 3 ((b)) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 3 only
115 116 117
IAS – 2007 IES 2010 Machinability‐Definition
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) The
Th optimumi cutting
i speed
d for
f theh With increasing
i i cutting
tti velocity,
l it the
th total
t t l time
ti Machinability
M hi bili can beb tentatively
i l defined
d fi d as ‘ability
‘ bili off
minimum cost of machining may not maximize the for machining g a component
p being machined’ and more reasonably as ‘ease of
profit. machining’.
(a) Decreases
Reason (R): The profit also depends on rate of
(b) Increases Suchh ease off machining
h or machining
h characters
h
production.
of any
y tool‐work p
pair is to be jjudged
g by:
y
( ) Both
d d ll true and
d R is the
h (c) Remains unaffected
y Tool wear or tool life
correct explanation of A ((d)) First decreases and then increases
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the y Magnitude of the cutting forces
correct explanation of A y Surface finish

(c) A is true but R is false y Magnitude
g of cuttingg temperature
p
118 119 y Chip forms. 120
For IES Only
Free Cutting steels Machinability Index IES ‐ 2012

The
Th usuall method h d off defining
d fi i machinability
hi bili off a
y Addition of lead in low carbon re‐sulphurised steels and
also in aluminium,
aluminium copper and their alloys help reduce
Or Machinability Rating material is by an index based on
their τs. The dispersed lead particles act as discontinuity The machinability index KM is defined by (a) Hardness of work material
and solid lubricants and thus improve machinability by KM = V606 /V60R
6 R (b) Production rate of machined parts
reducing friction, cutting forces and temperature, tool Where V60 is the cutting speed for the target material (c) Surface finish of machined surfaces
wear and d BUE formation.
f i that
h ensures tooll life
lif off 60
6 min,
i V60R is
i the
h same for
f the
h
(d) Tool life
y It contains less than 0.35%
35 lead byy weight
g . reference material.
y A free cutting steel contains If KM > 1, the machinability of the target material is
C
C‐0.07%,
% Si‐0.03%,
Si % Mn‐0.9%,
M % P‐0.04%,
P % S‐0.22%,
S % Pb‐0.15%
Pb % better that this of the reference material,
material and vice versa
121 122 123
For IES Only For IES Only
IAS – 1996 Machinability of Steel Machinability of Steel contd…

Assertion (A): The machinability of a material can
A i (A) Th hi bili f i l y Mainly
M i l sulfur
lf and
d lead
l d improve
i machinability
hi bili off y Leaded
L d d steel:
l Lead
L d is
i insoluble
i l bl and
d takes
k the
h form
f off
be measured as an absolute quantity. steel. dispersed fine particle and act as solid lubricants. At
Reason (R): Machinability index indicates the ease y Resulfurized steel: Sulfur is added to steel only if high speed lead melts and acting as a liquid lubricants.
with which a material can be machined As lead is toxin and p
pollutant,, lead free steel is p
produced
th
there i sufficient
is ffi i t manganese in i it.
it Sulfur
S lf f
forms
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the using Bismuth and Tin.
manganese sulfide which exists as an isolated phase
l f y Rephosphorized steel: Phosphorus strengthens the
and act as internal lubrication and chip breaker.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not
ot a d R a e d v dua y t ue but R s ot tthe
e ferrite, causing increased hardness, result in better chip
y If insufficient manganese is there a low melting iron f
formation and
d surface
f f
finish.
h
correct explanation of A sulfide will formed around the austenite grain y Calcium
Calcium‐Deoxidized
Deoxidized steel: Oxide flakes of calcium
(c) A i t b t R i f l boundary. Such steel is very weak and brittle. silicates are formed. Reduce friction, tool temp, crater
(d) A is false but R is true y Tellurium and selenium is similar to sulfur.
sulfur wear specially at high speed.
speed
124 125 126
Machinability of Steel contd… Role of microstructure on Machinability IES – 1992

y Stainless
S i l Steel:
S l Difficult
Diffi l to machine
hi due
d to abrasion.
b i Coarse microstructure leads to lesser value of τ
C i l d l l f s. Tool life is generally better when
T l lif i ll b h
y Aluminum and Silicon in steel: Reduce machinability
y ((a)) Grain size of the metal is large
g
due to aluminum oxide and silicates formation, which Therefore, τs can be desirably reduced by (b) Grain size of the metal is small
are hard and abrasive.
abrasive y Proper heat treatment like annealing of steels
P h lik li f l ( ) Hard constituents are present in the microstructure
(c) H d i i h i
y Carbon and manganese in steel: Reduce of the tool material
y Controlled addition of materials like sulphur
p ((S), lead
),
machinability
h b l due d to more carbide.
bd (Pb), Tellerium etc leading to free cutting of soft ductile (d) None of the above
y Nickel,
c e,C Chromium,
o u , molybdenum,
o ybde u , a and
d va
vanadium
ad u in metals and alloys.
metals and alloys
steel: Reduce machinability due to improved property.
y Effect
Eff t off boron
b i
is negligible.
li ibl O
Oxygen i
improve y Brittle materials are relatively more machinable.
machinability. Nitrogen and Hydrogen reduce
machinability.
127 128 129
ff
Effects off tooll rake
k angle(s)
l ( ) on IAS – 2000 Effects of Cutting Edge angle(s) on
machinability Consider the following statements:
C id h f ll i machinability
The tool life is increased byy
y The
Th variation
i ti ini the
th cutting
tti edge
d angles
l does
d nott affect
ff t
y As Rake angle increases machinability increases. 1. Built ‐up edge formation
cutting force or specific energy requirement for cutting.
cutting
2. Increasing cutting velocity
I i i l i
y But too much increase in rake weakens the cutting edge.
33. Increasing back rake angle up to certain value
g g p y Increase in SCEA and reduction in ECEA improves
Which of these statements are correct? surface finish sizeably in continuous chip formation
( ) 1 and 3
(a) d (b) 1 and 2
d
hence Machinability.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
130 131 132
Effects of clearance angle on machinability Effects of Nose Radius on machinability IES – 1992

Proper tool nose radiusing improves machinability to Ease of machining is primarily judged by
some extent through
(a) Life of cutting tool between sharpening
y increase in tool life by increasing mechanical strength
and
d reducing
d i temperature at the h tooll tip
i (b) Rigidity of work ‐piece
y reduction of surface roughness,
g , hmax
( ) Microstructure of tool material
(c)
2
f (d) Shape and dimensions of work
Sh d di i f k
Inadequate clearance angle reduces tool life and surface hmax =
finish by tool – work rubbing, and again too large
clearance reduces the tool strength
g and tool life hence
8R
8R
machinability.
133 134 135
IES – 2007, 2009 IES – 2003
Consider the following:
ISRO‐2007 Assertion
A ti (A):
(A) The
Th machinability
hi bilit off steels
t l improves
i
by adding sulphur to obtain so called 'Free
1. Tool life M hi bilit depends
Machinability d d on M hi i Steels‘.
Machining St l ‘
Reason (R): Sulphur in steel forms manganese
2. C tti f
Cutting forces (a) Microstructure,
Microstructure physical and mechanical sulphide inclusion which helps to produce thin
properties and composition of workpiece material. ribbon like continuous chip.
3
3. Surface finish
Which of the above is/are the machinability ((b)) Cutting
g forces correct
co ect eexplanation
p a at o oof A
criterion/criteria? (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
((c)) Type
yp of chip
p correct explanation of A
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 only (d) Tool life (c) A is true but R is false
(d)
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 2 only 136 137 138
IES – 2009 IES – 1998 IES – 1996

The elements which, added to steel, help in chip Consider the following criteria in evaluating
C id h f ll i i i i l i Which of the following indicate better
machinability:
f
formation d
during machining
h are machinability?
hi bilit ?
1. Surface finish 2. Type of chips
( ) Sulphur,
(a) S l h lead
l d and
d phosphorous
h h 3 Tool life
3. 4
4. Power consumption 1
1. Smaller shear angle
In modern high speed CNC machining with coated 2. Higher cutting forces
(b) Sulphur,
S l h lead
l d and
d cobalt
b lt carbide tools, the correct sequence of these criteria
in DECREASING order of their importance is
CR S G o de o t e po ta ce s 33. Longer
g tool life
(c) Aluminium,
Aluminium lead and copper
(a) 1, 2, 4, 3 (b) 2, 1, 4, 3 4. Better surface finish.
(d) Aluminium,
Aluminium titanium and copper ( ) 1, 2, 3, 4
(c) (d) 2, 1, 3, 4
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
139 140
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 and 4 141
For IES Only
IES – 1996 IES – 1995 Machinability of Titanium

Small amounts of which one of the following In low carbon steels, presence of small quantities y Titanium is very reactive and the chips tend to weld to
elements/pairs
l off elements
l is added
dd d to steell to sulphur
l h improves the
h tooll tip leading
l d to premature tooll failure
f l d to edge
due d
increase its machinability? ( ) Weldability
(a) W ld bili (b) F
Formability
bili chipping.
chipping
(a) Nickel (b) Sulphur and phosphorus ( ) Machinability

(c) M hi bilit (d) H d
Hardenability
bilit y Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity,
conductivity
(c) Silicon (d) Manganese and copper g high

causing g temperature
p rise and BUE.
y Almost all tool materials tend to react chemically

y with
titanium.

142 143 144
IES – 1992 IES ‐1995 Surface Roughness
Machining of titanium is difficult due to Consider the following work materials: y Ideal Surface ( Zero nose radius)
1 Titanium
1. 2
2. Mild steel f
(a) High thermal conductivity of titanium Peak to valley roughness (h) =
3. Stainless steel 4. Grey cast iron. tan SCEA + cot ECEA
(b) Chemical reaction between tool and work The correct sequence of these materials in terms of h f
and (Ra) = =
( ) Low tool‐chip contact area
(c)
increasing order of difficulty in machining is 4 4 ( tan SCEA + cot ECEA )
(a) 4, 2, 3, 1 (b) 4, 2, 1, 3 y Practical Surface ( with nose radius = R)
(d) None of the above
N f h b (c) 2, 4, 3, 1 (d) 2, 4, 1, 3 f2 f2
h= and Ra =
8R 18 3R
Change
g in feed ((f)) is more important
p than a change
g in nose radius
(R) and depth of cut has no effect on surface roughness.
145 146 147
IES ‐ 2002 IAS ‐ 1996 IES ‐ 1999

The
Th value
l off surface
f roughness
h 'h' obtained
b i d during
d i Given
Gi that
h In turning operation, the feed could be doubled to
the turning operating at a feed 'f' with a round nose /
S = feed in mm/rev. and
tool having radius 'r' is given as increase the
h metall removall rate. To keep
k the
h same
R = nose radius in mm,
the
h maximum i h i h off surface
height f roughness
h Hmax level of surface finish,
finish the nose radius of the tool
produced by a single‐point turning tool is given by should be
(a) S2/2R
((a)) Halved ((b)) Kept
p unchanged
g
(b) S2/4R
/ R
(c) S2/4R ((c)) doubled ((d)) Made four times
(d) S2/8R
148 149 150
GATE ‐ 1997 GATE – 2007 (PI)

( ) GATE‐2018 (PI)
A cutting tool has a radius of 1.8 mm. The feed rate A tool
t l with
ith Side
Sid Cutting
C tti Edge l off 30o and
Ed angle d A cylindrical
li d i l workpiece
k i is
i turned d at a feed
f d off 0.1
mm/rev with a perfectly sharp tool. In ASA
f h l f h f μ
for a theoretical surface roughness of is 5 m is End Cutting Edge angle of 10o is used for fine
system, the side and end cutting edge angles are
( ) 0.268 mm/rev
(a) 68 / turning with a feed of 1 mm/rev.
mm/rev Neglecting nose 15°° andd 5°,
° respectively,
ti l as shown
h i the
in th figure.
fi
radius of the tool,
tool the maximum (peak to valley) The p peak‐to‐valleyy roughness
g ((in μ
μm,, upp to one
(b) 0.187 mm/rev
8 /
decimal place) of the machined surface is ______
(c) 0.036 mm/rev
0 036 mm/rev height of surface roughness produced will be
(d) 0.0187 mm/rev
0 0187 mm/rev
(a) 0.16 mm (b) 0.26 mm
(c) 0.32 mm (d) 0.48 mm

151 152 153
GATE‐2019 GATE ‐ 2005 IES – 1993, ISRO‐2008
In
I ASA system, the h side
id cutting
i andd endd cutting
i Two
T tools
l P and d Q have
h signatures
i 5°‐5°‐6°‐6°‐8°‐30°‐0
° ° 6° 6° 8° ° For achieving a specific surface finish in single point
edge angles of a sharp turning tool are 45
45° and and 5°‐5°‐7°‐7°‐8°‐15°‐0 (both ASA) respectively. They
are used to turn components under the same turning the
h most important factor
f to be
b controlled
ll d
10°, respectively. The feed during cylindrical
machining g conditions. If hp and hQ denote the p peak‐ is
t
turning
i i 0.1 mm/rev.
is / Th centre
The t line
li average to‐valley heights of surfaces produced by the tools P
g
surface roughness ((in µ
µm,, round off to one and Q,
Q the ratio hp/hQ will be (a) Depth of cut (b) Cutting speed
decimal place) of the generated surface is o o o o
___________. tan 8 + cot15 tan15 + cot 8 (c) Feed (d) Tool rake angle
(a) (b)
tan 8o + cot 30o tan 30o + cot 8o
tan15o + cot7o tan7o + cot15o
(c ) (d )
154
tan 30o + cot7o tan7o + cot 30o 155 156
IES ‐ 2006 GATE‐2014 (PI)

( ) GATE ‐2010 (PI)
( )
In the selection of optimal cutting conditions, the A spindle
i dl speed d off 300 rpm andd a feed
f d off 0.3 During turning of a low carbon steel bar with TiN coated
mm/revolution are chosen for longitudinal turning carbide insert, one need to improve surface finish
requirement off surface
f f
finish
h would
ld put a limit
l on operation on an engine lathe. In finishing pass,
without sacrificing material removal rate. To achieve
which of the following? roughness
g on the work surface can be reduced by
y
improved surface finish, one should
(a) reducing the spindle speed
(a) The maximum feed (b) increasing the
h spindle
dl speedd (a) decrease nose radius of the cutting tool and increase
(c) reducing
educ g tthee feed
eed o
of too
tool depth of cut
(b) The maximum depth of cut
(d) increasing the feed of tool (b) Increase nose radius of the cutting tool
(c) The maximum speed
(c) Increase feed and decrease nose radius of the cutting
((d)) The maximum number of p
passes tool
157 158 (d) Increase depth of cut and increase feed 159
Cutting fluid
Cutting fluid IAS 2009 Main
IAS ‐2009 Main
GATE‐2017 y The cutting fluid acts primarily as a coolant and
Assume
A that
th t theth surface
f roughness
h profile
fil is
i secondly
dl as a lubricant,
l bi t reducing
d i the th friction
f i ti effects
ff t att y What are extreme pressure lubricants?
What are extreme‐pressure lubricants?
the tool‐chip interface and the work‐blank regions. [ 3 – marks]
g
triangular as shown schematicallyy in the figure.
g If
y Cast Iron: Machined dry or compressed air, Soluble oil Where high
Wh hi h pressures and d rubbing
bbi action
i are
the peak to valley height is 20 μm, the central line encountered, hydrodynamic lubrication cannot be
average surface roughness Ra (in μm) is for high speed machining and grinding maintained;
i i d so Extreme
E P
Pressure (EP) additives
ddi i must be
b
y Brass: Machined dry or straight mineral oil with or added to the lubricant. EP lubrication is provided by a
((a)) 5 ((b)) 6.677 ((c)) 10 ((d)) 20
without
ih EPA
EPA. number
b off chemical
h i l components such h as boron,b
y Aluminium: Machined dry y or kerosene oil mixed with phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, or combination of these.
mineral oil or soluble oil Th compounds
The d are activated
i d by
b the
h higher
hi h temperature
resulting from extreme pressure. As the temperature
y Stainless steel and Heat resistant alloy: High rises,
i EP molecules
l l b
become reactive
i and d release
l
performance soluble oil or neat oil with high derivatives such as iron chloride or iron sulfide and
concentration
i with i h chlorinated
hl i d EP additive.
ddi i f
forms a solid
lid protective
i coating.
i
160 161 162
IES ‐ 2001 IES ‐ 2012
Dry
D and d compressed
d air
i is
i used
d as cutting
i fluid
fl id for
f The most important function of the cutting fluid is to
Th i f i f h i fl id i
machining ( )
(a) Provide lubrication
(a) Steel (b) Aluminium (b) Cool the tool and work piece
(c) Cast iron (d) Brass ( ) W h
(c) Wash away the chips
h hi
( ) p
(d) Improve surface finish
163 164 165

Terminology
Metrology
y The
Th science
i off measurement.
t
y The purpose of this discipline is to establish means

,
Limit, Tolerance & Fits of determining physical quantities, such as
dimensions, temperature, force, etc.
By S K Mondal 1 2 3
Terminology Terminology
Terminology C td
Contd....
Terminology
e o ogy Contd....
y Limits of sizes: There are two extreme permissible Unilateral Limits occurs when both maximum limit and
y No a ssize:
Nominal e: S
Sizee o
of a pa
partt spec ed in tthee d
specified aw g.
drawing.
It is used for general identification purpose. sizes for a dimension of the part. The largest minimum limit are either above or below the basic size.
permissible size for a dimension is called upper or high e.g. Ø25 +0.18
+0 18
y Basic size: Size of a part to which all limits of +0.10
variation ((i.e. tolerances)) are applied.
pp Basic dimension or maximum limit, whereas the smallest size is known
Basic Size = 25.00
25 00 mm
is theoretical dimension. as lower or minimum limit. Upper Limit = 25.18 mm
y Tolerance Lower Limit = 25.10 mm
y Actual size: Actual measured dimension of the part. Tolerance = 0.08 mm
The difference between the basic size and the actual ¾The difference between the upper limit and lower
e g Ø25 -00.10
e.g. 10
size should not exceed a certain limit, otherwise it will limit. -0.20
interfere with the interchangeability of the mating ¾It is the maximum permissible variation in a Basic Size = 25.00 mm
Upper Limit = 24.90 mm
parts. dimension. Lower Limit = 24.80 mm
¾The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral. Tolerance = 0.10 mm
4 5 6
Terminology
Terminology Contd
Contd....
For Unilateral Limits,

Limits a case may occur when one of the For PSU
For PSU ISRO‐2010
limits coincides with the basic size,
Tolerances are specified E
Expressing i as 25.3 ±0.05 mm is
i a dimension
di i the
th case
e.g. Ø25 +0.20 , Ø25 0 (a) To obtain desired fits
0 ‐0.10
0.10 of
(b) because it is not possible to manufacture a size
Bilateral Limits occur when the maximum limit is above exactlyy (a) Unilateral tolerance
and the minimum limit is below the basic size. (c) to obtain higher accuracy
((b)) Bilateral tolerance
(d) to have proper allowances
h ll
e.g. Ø25 ±0.04
Basic Size = 25.00
25 00 mm ((c)) Limiting
g dimensions
Upper Limit = 25.04 mm (d) All of the above
L
Lower Li it = 24.96
Limit 6 mm
Tolerance
For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) = 0.08 mm 7
Page 50 of 276
8
Rev.0
9
Terminology
Terminology C td
Contd.... Terminology
Terminology C td
Contd....
GATE – 2010, ISRO‐2012
y Zero line: A straight
g line corresponding
p g to the basic
y Lower deviation: Is the algebraic difference between
−0.009
A shaft has a dimension,, φ35 mm
size. The deviations are measured from this line.
the minimum size and the basic size.
−0.025
0 025
y Deviation: Is the algebraic difference between a size The respective values of fundamental deviation and
y Mean deviation: Is the arithmetical mean of upper
pp tolerance are
(actual, max. etc.) and the corresponding basic size.
and lower deviations. ( ) − 0.025, ± 0.008
(a) ( ) − 0.025,0.016
(b)
y Actual deviation: Is the algebraic difference between (c) − 0.009, ± 0.008 (d) − 0.009,0.016
y Fundamental deviation: This is the deviation, either
an actuall size
i and
d the
h corresponding
di basic
b i size.
i
the upper or the lower deviation, which is nearest one
y Upper
U d i i
deviation: I the
Is h algebraic
l b i difference
diff b
between to zero line for either a hole or shaft.
the maximum size and the basic size.
size
10 11 12
Clearance Fits Use

Fit y Machine tools spindles
Hole
y Pistons of hydraulic machines
Fits: (assembly condition between “Hole” & “Shaft”) y Piston cylinder in IC engine
T l
Tolerance zones never meet

Max C
Hole – A feature engulfing a component Min C
y Inner and outer races of ball, roller and journal bearing
Shaft – A feature being engulfed by a Shaft y Clutch disks
Cl h di k
component
p y Sliding rod
y Crankshaft journals
y Bolts
Max. C = UL of hole - LL of shaft y Rivets
Min. C = LL of hole - UL of shaft y Pivots
y Latches
The clearance fits may be slide fit, easy sliding fit, running
Th l fit b lid fit lidi fit i
13 fit, slack running fit and loose running fit. 14
y Fits of parts exposed to corrosive effects 15
GATE ‐ 2007 GATE 2015

GATE-2015 GATE ‐ 2004
0 .0 5 0 In
I an interchangeable
i h bl assembly,
bl shafts
h f off size
i
A hole is specified as 4 0 mm. The mating
0 .0 0 0 +0.040
shaft
h f has
h a clearance
l f with
fit h minimum clearance
l off Holes of diameter 25 mm are assembled +0.040 +0.020
+0.020 25.000
−0.0100 mm mate with holes of size 25.000
−0.000
0 01 mm.
0.01 mm The tolerance on the shaft is 0.04
0 04 mm.
mm The +0.005 mm.
interchangeably with the pins of diameter 25 mm.
maximum clearance in mm between the hole and −0.008 The maximum p possible clearance in the assembly
y
The minimum clearance in the assembly will be will be
the shaft is
( ) 10 microns
(a) i (b) 20 microns
i
a) 0.048 mm b) 0.015 mm
(a) 0.04 (b) 0.05 (c) 30 microns (d) 60 microns
c) 0.005 mm
0 005 mm d) 0.008 mm
0 008 mm
(c) 0.10 (d) 0.11

16 17 18
IES‐2015
A hole and a shaft have a basic size of 25 mm and are to have a IAS 2015 Main
IAS‐2015 Main GATE‐2020
clearance fit with a maximum clearance of 0.02 mm and a A 20 mm diameter shaft and bearing g are to be
minimum clearance of 0.01 mm. The hole tolerance is to be 1.5 assembled with a clearance fit. The tolerance and The following data applies to basic shaft system:
times the shaft tolerance. The limits of both hole and shaft using
hole basis system will be
allowances are as under : tolerance for hole = 0.002
0 002 mm,
mm
a) low limit of hole = 25 mm, high limit of hole = 25.006 mm, Allowance = 0.002 mm tolerance for shaft = 0.001 mm,
upper limit of shaft = 24.99 mm and low limit of shaft = 24‐ allowance = 0.003 mm,
Tolerance on hole = 0.005 mm
986 mm
b) low limit of hole = 25 mm, high limit of hole = 25.026 mm, T l
Tolerance on shaft
h f = 0.003 mm basic size = 50 mm
upper limit of shaft = 24.8 mm and low limit of shaft = 24.76 Find the limits of size for the hole and shaft, if The maximum hole size is mm (round off to 3
mm decimal places).
c) low limit of hole = 24 mm, high limit of hole = 25.006 mm, (i) the hole basis system is used,
upper limit of shaft = 25 mm and low limit of shaft = 24.99 mm (ii) the shaft basis system is used.
d) low limit of hole = 25.006 mm, high Ch limit of hole = 25 mm,
upper limit of shaft = 24.99 mm and low limit of shaft = 25 mm The tolerances are disposed off unilaterally.
unilaterally
19
[10 –Marks]
20 21
Transition Fits Interference Fits

Hole
IES 2015
IES‐2015 Hole Tolerance zones never meet
Consider the following statements but crosses each other
Max C Max I
Tolerance zones always
overlap
In case of assemblyy of mating
gpparts
Shaft Shaft Min I
Max I 1. The difference between hole size and shaft size is called
allowance.
2. In transition fit, small positive or negative clearance
b
between the
h shaft
h f and
d hole
h l member
b isi employable
l bl
Max. C = UL of hole - LL of shaft Max. I = LL of hole - UL of shaft
Max. I = LL of hole - UL of shaft Which of the above statements is/are correct? Min I = UL of hole - LL of shaft
Min.
The transition fits may be tight fit and push fit, wringing ((a)) 1 onlyy ((b)) Both 1 and 2 The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit and

The interference fits may be shrink fit heavy drive fit and
fit (Gear, pulley on shaft), press fit. light drive fit.
22 (c) 2 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2 23 24
IES 2011 IES‐2013 GATE ‐ 2005

Interference fit joints are provided for: Which of the following is a joint formed by In order to have interference fit, it is essential that
i t f
interference fit ?
fits? the
h lower
l l
limit off the
h shaft
h f should
h ld be
b
(a) Assembling bush bearing in housing
(a) Joint of cycle axle and its bearing ( ) Greater
(a) G than
h the
h upper limit
li i off the
h hole
h l
(b) Mounting heavy duty gears on shafts
(b) Joint between I.C.
I C Engine piston and cylinder (b) Lesser
L th the
than th upper limit
li it off the
th hole
h l
(c) Mounting pulley on shafts
(c) Joint between a pulley and shaft transmitting power (c) Greater than the lower limit of the hole
(d) Assembly of flywheels on shafts
(d) Joint of lathe spindle and its bearing (d) Lesser than the lower limit of the hole

25 26 27
IES ‐ 2014
IES IES‐2017
Statement‐I: In interference fit, the outer diameter IES‐2015 Statement (I): In sugarcane crushing rollers, the fit
of the inner cylinder will be more than the inner Statement
S (I) : In
I interference
i f fit,
fi the
h outer diameter
di off
diameter of the hollow outer cylinder between the cast roll and the forged steel shaft is of
the shaft is greater than the inner diameter of the hole.
St t
Statement‐II:
t II These
Th fit are recommended
fits d d for
f two
t Statement (II) : The amount of clearance obtained from i t f
interference t
type.
parts frequently dismantled and assembled. the assemblyy of hole and shaft resulting g in interference fit Statement (II): This helps in removing the roll from the
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are is called positive clearance.
individuallyy true and Statement (II) is the correct shaft whenever not needed.
(a) Both statement (I) and (II) are individually true and
explanation of Statement (I) (a) Both statement (I) and (II) are individually true and
statement (II) is the correct explanation of statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are (b) Both
B th statement
t t t (I) and
d statement(II)
t t t(II) are individually
i di id ll statement (II) is the correct explanation of statement (I)
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct (b) Both statement (I) and statement(II) are individually
true but statement(II) is not the correct explanation of
explanation of Statement (I) true but statement(II) is not the correct explanation of
statement (I)
()
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement
St t t (I) is
i false
f l but
b t Statement
St t t (II) is
i true
t (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but statement (II) is true
28 29 (d) Statement (I) is false but statement (II) is true 30
GATE 2011 IAS 2011 Main

IAS‐2011 Main
GATE ‐2012 Same Q in GATE‐2012 (PI) An interference assembly,
assembly of nominal diameter 20 mm,mm
+0.015
25+−0.04
is of a unilateral holes and a shafts. The manufacturing
A hole is of dimension φ 9 +0
mm The
mm. In an interchangeable assembly,
assembly shafts of size
0.01 tolerances for the holes are twice that for the shaft.
+0.010
Permitted interference values are 0.03 0 03 to 0.09
0 09 mm.
mm
corresponding shaft is of dimension φ9 +0.001
mm. mm mate with holes of size 25++0.03
0 03
0.02
mm.
Determine the sizes, with limits, for the two mating
The resultingg assemblyy has
(a) loose running fit parts. [10‐Marks]
The maximum interference (in microns) in the assembly
(b) close
l running
i fit
fi is
(c) transition
a s o fit (a) 4
40 ((b)) 330 (c) 20 (d) 10
(d) interference fit Hint: Use unilateral hole basis system.
31 32 33
GATE‐2018 (PI) IES ‐ 2007

In
I a shaft‐hole
h f h l system, the h dimensions
di i with
ih ISRO‐2011
tolerances (in mm) are as follows: A shaft and hole pair is designated as 50H7d8
A shaft and hole pair is designated as 50H7d8.
Shaft : φ 20 +x
−x Hole : φ 20 −0.03
−y
This assembly constitutes
y
(a) Interference fit
where
h b th x and
both d y are positive
iti reall numbers.
b
Which one of the following g will pprovide an (b) Transition fit
interference fit? (c) Clearance fit
( ) x = 0.05, y = 0.040 (b) x = 0.04, y = 0.035
(a) (d) None of the above
(c) x = 0.04,
0 04 y = 0.032
0 032 (d) x = 0.02,
0 02 y = 0.035
0 035
34 35 36
IES ‐ 2006 IES ‐ 2009 IES ‐ 2008
Which of the following is an interference fit? Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i joints:
j i Consider
f ll i statements:
1. Railwayy carriageg wheel and axle g
1. The amount of interference needed to create a tight
(a) Push fit 2. IC engine cylinder and liner joint varies with diameter of the shaft.
(b) Running fit Whi h off the
Which h above
b j i
joints i /
is/are the
h result(s)
l ( ) off 2 An interference fit creates no stress state in the
2.
interference fit? shaft.
( ) Sliding fit
(c) (a) 1 only 3. The stress state in the hub is similar to a thick‐
(b) 2 only
l walled
a ed cy
cylinder
de witht internal
te a p pressure.
essu e.
(d) Shrink
Sh i k fit
fi
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 Which of the statements given above are correct?
(d) Both 1 and 2 ( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d3 (b) 1 and d 2 only
l
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
37 38 39
IES 2015
IES‐2015 IES ‐ 2004 Allowance
y It is Minimum clearance or maximum interference. It is
In
I an interference
i f fit
fi between
b a shaft
h f and
d a hub,
h b the
h state Consider
C id theh following
f ll i fits:
fi the intentional difference between the basic
of stress in the shaft due to interference fit is 1. I.C. engine
g cylinder
y and p
piston dimensions of the mating
gpparts. The allowance mayy be
2. Ball bearing outer race and housing positive or negative.
a)) onlyy compressive
p radial stress
3. Ball
B ll bearing
b i inner
i race and
d shaft
h f
b)a tensile radial stress and a compressive tangential stress Which of the above fits are based on the interference
c) a tensile tangential stress and a compressive radial stress system?
( ) 1 and
(a) d2
d)a compressive tangential stress and a compressive radial
(b) 2 and 3
stress (c) 1 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and
d3
40 41 42
GATE ‐ 2001 GATE ‐ 1998 IES ‐ 2012

Allowance in limits and fits refers to In the specification of dimensions and fits, Clearance in a fit is the difference between
(a) Maximum clearance between shaft and hole (a) Allowance is equal to bilateral tolerance (a) Maximum hole size and minimum shaft size
(b) Minimum clearance between shaft and hole (b) Allowance is equal to unilateral tolerance (b) Minimum hole size and maximum shaft size
( ) Difference between maximum and minimum size of

(c) ( ) Allowance is independent of tolerance
(c) ( ) Maximum hole size and maximum shaft size
(c)
hole (d) Allowance
All i equall to the
is h difference
diff b
between (d) Minimum
Mi i h l size
hole i and
d minimum
i i shaft
h f size
i
(d) Difference between maximum and minimum size of maximum and minimum dimension specified by the
shaft tolerance.

43 44 45
Hole Basis System
ISRO‐2010
y For hole basis system,
y , H stands for dimensions of holes
Zero Line
+0.02 whose lower deviation is zero.
Dimension of the hole is 50 mm
−0.00
y The basic size of the hole is taken as the lower limit of
+0.02
0 02
and shaft is 50 mm. size of the hole ( Maximum metal condition).
+0.00
0.00
The minimum clearance is Hole basis system y The higher limit of size of the hole and two limits of size
(a) 0.02 mm (b) 0.00 mm y The hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the for the shaft are then selected to give desired fits.
lower deviation of the hole is zero))
(c) -0.02
0 02 mm (d) 0.01
0 01 mm y The actual size of hole is always more than basic size or
y Different fits are obtained by varying the shaft size then
the limit system is said to be on a hole basis.
basis equal to basic size
si e but never
ne er less than Basic size.
si e
46 47 48
For IES Only
Shaft Basis system
Why Hole Basis Systems are Preferred?
Why Hole Basis Systems are Preferred?
y For shaft basis system,
y , h stands for dimensions of shafts y Holes can be finished by
y tools like reamers,, drills,,
Zero Line whose upper deviation is zero. broaches, and their sizes are not adjustable. The shaft
y Basic size of the shaft is taken Upper limit for the shaft ( sizes can be easily obtained by external machining.
Maximum metal condition) y If shaft basis system is used considerable no of reamers
y Lower limit of the shaft and two limits of hole are

and other precision tools are required for producing
selected to give the desired fit. different classes of holes for one class of shaft for
Shaft basis system:
y When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e.
(i e when the obtaining different fits which increases cost of
upper deviation of the shaft is zero) y Actual size of shaft is always less than basic size or equal
production.
y Different fits are obtained by varying the hole size then the to basic size
si e but never
ne er more than basic size.
si e
limit system is said to be on a shaft basis. 49 50 y It is economical 51
IES ‐ 2005 IES ‐ 2005

ISRO‐2008 Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Hole
H l basis
b i system is i generally ll Which
Whi h one off the h following
f ll i is i not correct in i hole
h l basis
b i
preferred to shaft basis system in tolerance design system of fits?
B i shaft
Basic h ft and
d basic
b i hole
h l are those
th whose
h upper for getting the required fits. (a) The hole size is kept constant.
deviations and lower deviations respectively are Reason (R): Hole has to be given a larger tolerance (b) The basic size of the hole is taken as the low limit of
band than the mating shaft. size of the hole.
(a) +ve, ‐ve
ve (b) ‐ve,
ve, +ve
( ) Both
d d ll true andd R is the
h (c) The actual size of a hole that is within the tolerance
((c)) Zero,, Zero ((d)) None of the above correct explanation of A limitsts aalways
ays less
ess tthan
a tthee bas
basicc ssize.
e.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (d) The high limit of the size of the hole and the two limits
correct explanation of A off size
i off the
th shaft
h ft are selected
l t d tot givei desired
d i d fit.
fit
52 53 54
Limits and Fits
y Limits and fits comprises 18 grades of fundamental
µ
µm
Tolerance Zone tolerances for both shaft and hole,, designated g as IT01,,
Tolerance Designation (IS)
IT0 and IT1 to IT16. These are called standard Tolerance on a shaft or a hole can be calculated by using
55 • It is defined graphically tolerances (IS
tolerances. (IS‐919)
919) But ISO 286 specify 20 grades upto table provided.
provided
by the magnitude of the IT18 T = K ×i
Tolerance Zone tolerance and by its y There are 25 (IS 919) and 28 (ISO 286) types of
20 position in relation to the Where, T is the tolerance (in µm)
fundamental deviations.
zero line.
Hole:
l A, A B, C, C CD,
C D, E, EF, F, FG, G G,
G H, J, JS, S K, M, N, P,
Standard Tolerance unit or Fundamental tolerance unit
R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z, ZA, ZB, ZC. i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D in μ m
Basic Size Shaft : a, b, c, cd, d, e, ef, f, fg, g, h, j, js, k, m, n, p, r, s, t,
u, v, x, y, z, za, zb, zc. D = D1D2 (D1 and D2 are the nominal sizes marking
y A unilateral hole basis system is recommended but if the beginning and the end of a range of
necessary a unilateral or bilateral shaft basis system may sizes,, in mm))
K = is a constant [For IT6 to IT16]
55 also be used. 56
Value of the Tolerance Grades of Tolerance
Diameter Steps
Diameter Steps IT01 IT0 IT1 IT2
Above Upto and including 0.3 + 0.008D 0.5 + 0.012D 0.8 + 0.02D ar y It is an indication of the level of accuracy.
(mm)
( ) (mm)
( ) =a r = 101/5
y IT01 to IT4 ‐ For production of gauges, plug gauges,
‐ ‐ 3 IT3
3 IT4 IT5
5 IT6
6
3 ‐ 6 ar2 ar3 ar4 = 7i 10(1.6)(ITn -IT6) measuring instruments
6 ‐
6 10 = 10i
10 ‐ 18 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 y IT5 to IT 7 ‐ For fits in precision engineering applications
188 ‐ 30 10(1.6)
( )(ITn -IT6) 10(1.6)
0( 6)(ITn -IT6) 10(1.6)
10(1 6)((ITn -IT6)) 10(1 6)(ITn -IT6)
10(1.6) IT6)
30 ‐ 50 = 16i = 25i = 40i = 64i
y IT8 to IT11 – For General Engineering
550 ‐ 80
80 ‐ 120 IT11 IT12 IT13 IT14 y IT12 to IT14 – For Sheet
h metall working
k or press working
k
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6) 10(1.6)(ITn -IT6) 10(1.6)(ITn -IT6) 10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
120 ‐ 180
180 ‐ 250 = 100i = 160i = 250i = 400i y IT15
IT to IT16
IT 6 – For
F processes like
lik casting,
i generall cutting
i
250 ‐ 315 IT15 IT16
315 ‐ 400
work
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6) 10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
400 ‐ 500 58
= 640i = 1000i 59 60
Fundamental Deviation
is chosen to locate the tolerance zone w.r.t. the zero line Shaft Fundamental Deviation
Calculation for Upper and Lower Deviation
a − (265 + 1.3D ) for D ≤ 120 mm
y For Shaft
Holes are designated by capital letter: − 3.5D for D > 120 mm
Letters A to G - oversized holes ei = es – IT
Letters P to ZC - undersized holes b − (140 + 0.85
0 85D ) for D ≤ 160 mm
es = ei + IT −1.8 D for D > 160 mm
y For Hole
F H l c − 52D 0.2 for D ≤ 40 mm
EI = ES – IT
− (95 + 0.8
0 8D ) f D > 40 mm
for
Shafts are designated by small letter: ES = EI + IT
Letters m to zc - oversized shafts d − 16 D 0.44
Letters a to g - undersized shafts
e − 11D 0.41
H is used for holes and h is used for shafts es = upper deviation of shaft
pp
whose fundamental deviation is zero
ei = lower deviation of shaft f − 5.5D 0.41
ES = upper deviation of hole g 2 5D 0.41
− 2.5
61 EI= lower deviation of hole
Page 56 of 276
62 h 0 Rev.0
63
Shaft Fundamental Deviation
j5 to j8 −
k4 to
t k7 + 0.6
0 63 D
m + ( IT 7 − IT 6) y For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lower
n + 5D 0.34
0 34
deviation
d i ti refers
f t the
to th basic
b i size.
i TheTh hole
h l H for
f which
hi h
p + IT 7 + (0 − 5) the lower deviation is zero is called a basic hole.
r Geometric mean of values of
y Similarly, for shafts, h stands for a dimension whose Basic size Hole Tolerance Zone
ei for p and s
upper deviation refers to the basic size. The shaft h for
s IT 8 + 1 to 4 for D ≤ 50 mm Shaft Tolerance Zone
IT 7 + 0.4 D for D > 50 mm
which the upper deviation is zero is called a basic
t IT 7 + 0.63
0 63D
shaft.
u IT 7 + D y A fit is designated by its basic size followed by symbols
v IT 7 + 1.25D representing the limits of each of its two components,
F d
Fundamental Deviation
t l D i ti IT#
x IT 7 + 1.6 D the hole being quoted first.
y IT 7 + 2D
y For example,
example 100 H6/g5 means basic size is 100 mm
z IT 7 + 2.5D
and the tolerance grade for the hole is 6 and for the
za IT 8 + 3.15D
shaft is 5.
5
zb IT 9 + 4 D
zc IT 10 + 5D 64 65 66
GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 IES ‐ 2008 IES‐2006 Conventional
g y 5 g p
For the given assembly: 25 H7/g8, match Group A with
Group B Consider
C id theh following
f ll i statements: Find
Fi d the
h limit
li i sizes,
i tolerances
l and
d allowances
ll for
f a
Group A
p Group B
p A nomenclature φ 550 H8/p8 /p denotes that 100 mm diameter shaft and hole pair designated by
1. Hole diameter is 50 mm. F8h10. Also specify the type of fit that the above pair
P. H I. Shaft Type belongsg to.
2. ItI is
i a shaft
h f base
b system.
Q. IT8 II. Hole Type Given: 100 mm diameter lies in the diameter step
33. 8 indicates fundamental deviation. range of 80‐120
80 120 mm.
mm The fundamental deviation for
R. IT7 III. Hole Tolerance Grade Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect? shaft designation ‘f’ is ‐5.5 D0.41
S
S. g IV Sh ft T l
IV. Shaft Tolerance Grade
G d ( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d3 The values of standard tolerances for grades of IT 8
P Q R S P Q R S (b) 1 and 2 only and IT 10 are 25i and 64i respectively.
(a) I III IV II (b) I IV III II (c) 1 and 3 only Also, indicate the limits and tolerance on a diagram.
( ) 3 only
(d) [ M k ]
[15‐Marks]
(c) II III IV I (d) II IV III I
67 68 69
IES‐2015 Conventional Selected Question IES ‐ 2002

Determine the fundamental deviation and tolerances and the In the tolerance specification 25 D 6, the letter D
A journal of nominal or basic size of 75 mm runs
li it f i f h l d h ft i i th fit
limits of size for hole and shaft pair in the fit: 25 mm H8d9.
H8d represents
The diameter steps are 18 mm and 30 mm. The fundamental
in a bearing with close running fit H8g7. Find the ((a)) Grade of tolerance
deviation for d shaft is given as ‐16D0.44. The tolerance unit is, limits of shaft and bearing also find maximum (b) Upper deviation
i = 0.45 D + 0.001D
3
and minimum clearance? 75 mm lies in the (c) Lower deviation
The tolerance grade for number 8 quality is 25i and for 9 diameter steps of 50 to 80 mm. Fundamental (d) Type of fit
quality is 40i.
deviation for shaft g is ‐2.5 D0.34
[ M k ]
[10 Marks]
70 71 72
GATE ‐ 2009 GATE – 2008 (PI) GATE ‐ 2000
What
Wh t are the th upper and d lower
l limits
li it off the
th shaft
h ft Following data are given for calculating limits of
represented by 60 f8? A fit is specified as 25H8/e8. The tolerance value for
U the
Use h following
f ll i data: d di
dimensions
i and
d tolerances
t l f a hole:
for h l Tolerance
T l unit
it i (in
(i a nominall diameter
d off 25 mm in IT8 is 33 microns
Diameter 60 lies in the diameter step of 50‐80 mm.
F d
Fundamental l tolerance
l unit,
i
µm) = 0.45
0 45 ³√D
√D + 0.001D.
0 001D The unit of D is mm.
mm Diameter and fundamental deviation for the shaft is ‐ 40
i, in μm= 0.45 D1/3 + 0.001D, where D is the step
p is 18‐30
3 mm. If the fundamental deviation for H microns. The maximum clearance of the fit in
representative size in mm;
Tolerance value for lT8 = 25i.
5 hole is zero and IT8 = 25 i, the maximum and minimum microns is
Fundamental deviation for 'f shaft = ‐5.5D0.41 limits of dimension for a 25 mm H8 hole (in mm) are (a) ‐7 (b) 7
(a) Lower limit = 59.924
59 924 mm,
mm Upper Limit = 59.970
59 970 mm
(b) Lower limit = 59.954 mm, Upper Limit = 60.000 mm (a) 24.984, 24.967 (b) 25.017, 24.984 (c) 73 (d) 106
(c) Lower
Lo er limit = 59.970
9 9 0 mm,
mm Upper Limit = 60.016
60 0 6 mm
(c) 25.033, 25.000 (d) 25.000, 24.967
(d) Lower limit = 60.000 mm, Upper Limit = 60.046 mm 73 74 75
GATE ‐ 2003 GATE‐2010 (PI) GATE‐2016 (PI)

The dimensional limits on a shaft of 25h7 are A small bore is designated as 25H7. The lower The limits of a shaft designated as 100h5 are 100.000 mm
( ) 25.000, 25.021 mm
(a) (minimum) and upper (maximum) limits of the bore and 100.014 mm. Similarly, the limits of a shaft
(b) 25.000, 24.979 mm are 25.000 mm and
d 25.021 mm, respectively.
ti l When
Wh the
th designated as 100h8 are 100.000 mm and 100.055 mm. If
(c) 25.000,
25 000 25.007
25 007 mm bore is designated as 25H8, then the upper (maximum) a shaft is designated as 100h6,
100h6 the fundamental deviation
de iation
limit is 25.033 mm. When the bore is designated as
(d) 25.000, 24.993 mm (in μm) for the same is
25H6, then the upper (maximum) limit of the bore (in
(a)‐22 (b) zero (c) 22 (d) 24
mm)) is
( ) 25.001 (b) 25.005 (c)
(a) ( ) 25.009 (d) 25.013
76 77 78
Recommended Selection of Fits GATE – 1996, IES‐2012 IES ‐ 2000

The fit on a hole‐shaft system is specified as H7‐ Which one of the following tolerances set on inner
s6.The
6 Th type
t off fit is
i di
diameter
t and
d outer
t diameter
di t respectively
ti l off headed
h d d
(a) Clearance fit jig bush for press fit is correct?
(b) Running fit (sliding fit) ((a)) G77 h 6 ((b)) F77 n6
((c)) Push fit ((transition fit)) (c) H 7h 6 (d) F7j6
(d) Force fit (interference fit)

79 80 81
For IES Only
GATE ‐ 1992 IES ‐ 2005 Selective Assembly

Two shafts A and B have their diameters specified as
T h f A d B h h i di ifi d The
Th tolerance
t l specified
ifi d by
b theth designer
d i for
f the
th
100 ± 0.1 mm and 0.1 ± 0.0001 mm respectively. diameter of a shaft is 20.00 ± 0.025 mm. The shafts y All the parts (hole & shaft) produced are measured
produced
d d by
b three
th diff
different t machines
hi A B and
A, d C
Which of the following statements is/are true? have mean diameters of 19∙99 mm, 20∙00 mm and and graded into a range of dimensions within the
(a) Tolerance in the dimension is greater in shaft A 20.01 mm respectively,ti l with
ith same standard
t d d tolerance groups.
(b) The relative error in the dimension is greater in shaft deviation. What will be the percentage rejection for
A th shafts
the h ft produced
d d by
b machines
hi A B and
A, d C? y Reduces
d the
h cost off production
d
(c) Tolerance in the dimension is greater in shaft B (a) Same for the machines A, Band C since the standard
deviation is same for the three machines Process capability
(d) The relative error in the dimension is same for shaft y No.of group =
(b) Least for machine A Tolerance desired
A and shaft B
d h f
(c) Least for machine B
(d) Least
L t forf machine
hi C
82 83 84
For IES Only
Interchangeability
y Interchangeability,
g y a maintainabilityy design
g factor, is Tolerance Sink
quite closely related to standardization and is realized
ISRO‐2008 y A design engineer keeps one section of the part blank
through standardization. I t h
Interchangeability
bilit can be
b achieved
hi d by
b (without tolerance) so that production engineer can
y If the variation of items are within certain limits, all
(a) Standardization d
dump all
ll the
h tolerances
l on that
h section
i which
hi h becomes
b
parts of equivalent size will be equally fit for operating in
machines and mechanisms and the mating parts will (b) Better process planning most inaccurate dimension of the part.
part
give the required fitting.
(c) Simplification y Position of sink can be changing the reference point.
point
y This facilitates to select at random from a large number
of parts for an assembly and results in a considerable (d) Better product planning y Tolerance for the sink is the cumulative sum of all the
saving in the cost of production, reduce assembly time,
tolerances and only like minded tolerances can be added
replacement and repair becomes very easy.
easy
85 86 i.e. either equally bilateral or equally unilateral. 87
GATE ‐ 2003 GATE ‐ 1997 GATE 2015

GATE-2015
In the assembly shown below, the part dimensions are:
Three
Th blocks
bl k B1 , B2 andd B3 are
to be inserted in a channel of ±0.01
L 1 = 22.0 mm
width S maintaining a
minimum gap of width T = ±0.005
0 125 mm,
0.125 mm as shown in Figure.
Figure L2 = L3 = 10.0
10 0 mm
For P = 18. 75 ± 0.08;
Q = 25.00 ± 0.12; Assuming normal distribution of part dimensions
Assuming normal distribution of part dimensions,
R = 28.125 ± 0.1 and the dimension L 4 in mm,
S = 72.35 + X, (where all a) 2.00±0.008 b) 2.00±0.012
dimensions are in mm), the
±0 016
±0.016
tolerance
l X is c) 2.00
) d) 2.00±0.020
d) ±0 020
((a) + 0.38
) 3 ((b) ‐
) 0.38
3 ((c) + 0.05
) 5 ((d) ‐0.05
) 5

88 89 90
GATE‐2013 GATE ‐ 2017 GATE ‐ 2019
A cylindrical
li d i l pin
i off mm diameter
di is
i A circular
i l shaft
h f having
h i diameter
di 65 00+−0.01
65.00 0 01
mm is
i
Cylindrical pins of 25++0.020
0.010 mm diameter are p
electroplated. Plating
g thickness is mm. manufactured byy turning gpprocess.
0.05
electroplated in a shop. Thickness of the Neglecting the gauge tolerance, the diameter (in mm, up A 50 μm thick coating of TiN is deposited on the shaft.
to 3 decimal points accuracy) of the GO ring gauge to Allowed variation in TiN film
plating is 30 ±2.0 micron. Neglecting gage inspect the plated pin is_________ thickness is ± 5 μm. The minimum hole diameter (in
tolerances, the size of the GO gage in mm mm)) to just provide
d clearance
l f is
fit
(a) 64.95 (b) 65.0
65.01
t iinspectt the
to th plated
l t d components
t iis
(c) 65.12 (d) 65.10
(a) 25
25.042
042 (b) 25
25.052
052 (c) 25
25.074
074 (d) 25.084
25 084
91 92 93
GATE – 2007 (PI)
( ) GATE ‐ 2000 GATE ‐ 2017
A slot
l isi to be
b milled
ill d centrally
ll on a block
bl k with
ih a The
Th standard
d d deviation
d i i off linear
li dimensions
di i P
Diameter of a hole after plating needs to be controlled dimension of 40 ± 0.05 mm. A milling cutter of 20 and Q are 3 μm and 4 μm, respectively. When
mm width is located with reference to the side of
between 30++0.050
0.010 mm. If the plating thickness varies
assembled, the standard deviation (in μm ) of the
the block within ± 0.02 mm. The maximum offset in
between 10 - 15 microns, diameter of the hole before mm between the centre lines of the slot and the
resulting
lti linear
li di
dimension
i (P + Q) is_________
i
plating
l ti should
h ld be
b block is
(a) ± 0.070 (b) 0.070
(a) 30++0.070
0.030 mm (b) 30++0.065
0.020 mm (c) ± 0.020 (d) 0.045
(c) 30++0.030
0.080
mm (d) 30++0.040
0.070
mm
94 95 96
Limit Gauges
Limit Gauges
y Plug gauge: used to check the holes.
holes The GO plug gauge is
the size of the low limit of the hole while the NOT GO plug
ISRO‐2008 GATE‐2019
gauge corresponds to the high limit of the hole.
hole Plug gauges are used to The most common limit gage used for
y Snap, Gap or Ring gauge: used for gauging the shaft and (a) Measure the diameter of the workpieces inspecting the hole diameter is
male
l components. The Th Go G snap gauge is i off a size
i (b) Measure the diameter of the holes in the
corresponding to the high (maximum) limit of the shaft,
(a) Master gage
workpieces
p
while
hil theh NOT GO gauge corresponds d to theh low
l (b) Plug
Pl gage
(minimum limit). (c) Check the diameter of the holes in the
workpieces (c) Ring gage
(d) Check the length of holes in the workpieces (d) Snap gage
Fig. Plug gauge Fig. Ring and snap gauges 97
98 99
• Bilateral system: in this
Allocation of manufacturing tolerances
ll i f f i l Example system, the GO and NO GO
y Unilateral system: gauge tolerance
t l zone lies
li
Size of the hole to be checked 25 ± 0.02 mm
gauge tolerance zones are
entirely within the work tolerance zone. bisected by the high and
y work tolerance zone becomes smaller by the sum of the
H
Here, Hi
Higher
h lilimit
it off hole
h l = 25.02
25 02 mm low limits off the work
gauge tolerance.
tolerance Lower limit of hole = 24.98
24 98 mm tolerance zone.
Work tolerance = 0.04 mm

∴ Gauge tolerance = 10% of work tolerance = 0.004 mm
Taking example as above:
+0.004 +0.002
∴ Dimension of 'GO' Plug gauge = 24.98 mm ∴ Dimension of 'GO' Plug gauge = 24.98 mm
−0.000
0 000 −0.002
0 002
+0.000 +0.00
0.002
Dimension of 'NOT GO' Plug gauge = 25.02 mm Dimension of 'NOT GO' Plug gauge = 25.02 mm
100 −0.004 101 −0.002 102
GATE ‐ 2014 GATE ‐ 2004 GATE 2015

GATE-2015
A GO‐NOGO
GO NOGO plug l gauge isi to beb designed
d i d for
f GO and d NO‐GO
NO GO plug
l gages are to be
b designed
d i d for
f a Which one of the following statements is TRUE?
measuring a hole of nominal diameter 25 mm with a 0.05
hole 200.01 g tolerances can be taken as 10%
0 01 mm. Gage a) The ‘GO’
GO gage controls the upper limit of a hole
hole tolerance of ± 0.015 mm. Considering 10% of of the hole tolerance. Following ISO system of gage
work tolerance to be the g gauge
g tolerance and no design sizes of GO and NO
design, NO‐GO
GO gage will be b)The ‘NO GO’ gage controls the lower limit of a shaft
wear condition, the dimension (in mm) of the GO respectively c) The ‘GO’ gage controls the lower limit of a hole
plug gauge as per the unilateral tolerance system is ( ) 20.010 mm and
(a) d 20.050 mm
+0.003 +0.000 d)The ‘NO GO’ gage controls the upper limit of a hole
(b) 20.014
0.0 4 mm aand
d 20.046
0.046 mm
−0.003 −0.006
(a ) 24.985 (b) 25.015 (c) 20.006 mm and 20.054 mm
+0.03 +0.003 (d) 20.014 mm and d 20.054 mm
−0.03 −0.000
(c) 24
24.985
985 (d ) 24
24.985
985
103 104 105
GATE ‐ 1995 GATE – 2006, VS‐2012

y Wear allowance: GO gauges which constantly rub
g g y
Checking
Ch ki the
h diameter
di off a hole
h l using
i GO‐NO‐GO
GO NO GO A ringi gauge is i used d to measure against the surface of the parts in the inspection are
gauges is an, example of inspection by ((a)) Outside diameter but not roundness subjected to wear and loose their initial size.
…..(variables/attributes) (b) Roundness but not outside diameter y The size of go plug gauge is reduced while that of go
The above statement is ( ) Both
(c) B h outside
id diameter
di and
d roundness
d snap gauge increases.
i
(a) Variables ((d)) Onlyy external threads y To increase service life of gauges wear allowance is
g g
(b) Attributes added to the go gauge in the direction opposite to
(c) Cant say wear. Wear allowance is usually taken as 5% of the
(d) Insufficient data work tolerance.
y Wear allowance is applied to a nominal diameter
W ll i li d i l di
before gauge tolerance is applied.

106 107 108
For IES Only
y Taking example of above:
∴Wear Allowance = 5% of work tolerance = 0.002 mm T l ’ Pi i l
Taylor’s Principle Limit Gauges
Nominal size of GO plug gauge = 24.98
24 98 + 0.002
0 002 mm Gauge For Measuring
This principle states that the GO gauge should always be
+0.004 Snap Gauge External Dimensions
∴ Dimension
Di i off 'GO' Plug
Pl gauge = 24.982
24 982 mm so designed
d d that
h it will
ll cover the
h maximum metall
−0.000 Plug Gauge
g g Internal Dimensions
condition (MMC) of as many dimensions as possible in
+0.000 Taper Plug Gauge Taper hole
Dimension of 'NOT GO' Plug
g ggauge
g = 25.02 mm the same limit gauges, whereas a NOT GO gauges to
−0.004
0 004 Ring Gauge External Diameter
cover the minimum metal condition of one dimension
G G
Gap Gauge G d G
Gaps and Grooves
only.
Radius Gauge Gauging radius
Thread pitch Gauge
p g External Thread
109 110 111
Feeler Gauge GATE‐2016
PSU Match the following:
A f l
A feeler gauge is used to check the
i d t h k th P. Feeler gauge
P Feeler gauge II. Radius of an object
Radius of an object
Q. Fillet gauge II. Diameter within limits by
(a) Pitch of the screw comparison
(b) Surface roughness R. Snap gauge III. Clearance or gap between
components
(c) Thickness of clearance S. Cylindrical plug
S C li d i l l IV I id di
IV. Inside diameter of
t f straight
t i ht
(d) Flatness of a surface gauge hole
(a) P‐III, Q‐I, R‐II, S‐IV (b) P‐III, Q‐II, R‐I, S‐IV
112 113
(c) P‐IV, Q‐II, R‐I, S‐III (d) P‐IV, Q‐I, R‐II, S‐III 114
Why is a unilateral tolerance
Why is a unilateral tolerance Preferred Number
Preferred Number Preferred Number Contd.
Preferred Number ….. C td
y A designed product needs standardization. y These are named as Renard series.
preferred over bilateral tolerance ?
preferred over bilateral tolerance ? y Motor speed, engine power, machine tool speed and y Many other derived series are formed by multiplying or
y This system is preferred for Interchangeable manufacturing.
manufacturing feed, all follows a definite pattern or series. dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc.
y This also helps in interchangeability of products. y Typical values of the common ratio for four basic G.P.
y It is easy and simple to determine deviations.
deviations series
i are given
i b l
below.
y It has been observed that if the sizes are put in the form
y It helps
p standardize the GO g
gauge
g end of ggeometric p progression,
g
with a definite sequence.
, then wide ranges
g are covered R5 : 11.58
58 :1
:1.0,1.6,
0 1 6 22.5,...
5 ( 10,
5
10 100, 5
1000 )
100 1000,.... 5
0 1 25 1 6 ( 10 1000,....)
y Helpful for operator because he has to machine the upper 10 10 10
y These numbers are called preferred numbers having R10 : 1.26
1 26 :1
:1.0,1.25,1.6,... 10, 100
100, 1000
limit of the shaft and the lower limit of the hole knowing common ratios as,
fully well that still some margin is left for machining before 5
10 ≈ 1.58, 10
10 ≈ 1.26, 20
10 ≈ 1.12 and 40 10 1.06 R 20 : 1.12
1 12 :1 0 1 12 1 4 ( 10
:1.0,1.12,1.4,... 20
10, 100,20
1000 )
100 1000,.... 20
the part is rejected.

rejected y Depending on the common ratio,
ratio four basic series are R 40 : 1.06 1 0 1 06 1 12 ( 10
1 06 :1.0,1.06,1.12,... 40
10, 100 1000,....)
40
100, 1000 40
formed; these are R5 , R10 , R20 and R40

115 116 117
Snug fit
IES‐2013 conventional
IES‐2013 conventional e ca Sta da d ssoc at o o e a ce Syste
American Standard Association Tolerance System
Tolerance = 0.0004D
1/3
and Deviation = 0
1. Heavy force shrunk fit
W it the
Write th amountt off allowance
ll and
d tolerance
t l 2. M di f
Medium force fit
fi Medium force fit :
that is permitted by the following classes of fit 3. Tight fit 1/3 1/3
Tolerance = 0.0006D
0 0006D and Deviation = 0.0005
0 0005D − 0.0006
0 0006 D
4. Wringing fit
as p
per ANSI class 4 : Snug
g fit and class 7 5
5. Snug fit y Snug fit is applicable where no shake is permissible
S fi i li bl h h k i i ibl
:Medium force fit. Also mention applications. 6. Medium fit y Medium force fit is applicable for shrink fit on cast iron
7. Free fit
8. Loose fit
118 119 120
121

Accuracy & Precision
Accuracy & Precision
y Accuracy ‐ The ability of a measurement to match the actual
(true) value of the quantity being measured. The expected
ability for a system to discriminate between two settings.settings
Smaller the bias more accurate the data.
y P i i
Precision ‐ The
Th precision
i i off an instrument
i i di
indicates i
its
Measurement of Lines & Surfaces ability to reproduce a certain reading with a given accuracy
‘OR’ it
i is
i the
h degree
d off agreement between
b repeated d results.
l
y Precision data have small dispersion
p ( spread
p or scatter ) but
may be far from the true value.
y A measurement can be accurate but not precise,
precise precise but
not accurate, neither, or both.
y A measurementt system
t i called
is ll d valid
lid if it is
i both
b th accurate t
By S K Mondal 1 and precise. 2 3
GATE‐2017 (PI) Repeatability Reliability of measurement

Reliability of measurement
y It is a quantitative characteristic which implies
Accuracy
A off a measuringi instrument
i is
i y It is the ability of a measuring system to reproduce confidence in the measured results depending on
output readings when the same input is applied to it whether or not the frequency
q y distribution
expressed as
consecutively,
i l under
d theh same conditions,
di i and
d in
i the h characteristics of their deviations from the true values
(a) true value – measured value same direction. of the corresponding
p g q
quantities are known. It is the
(b) measured value ‐ true value y Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that probability that the results will be predicted.
t
true value-measured
l d value
l during a Mechanical cycle,
cycle a process does not stop at the
(c) 1- same location, or move through the same spot each
true value
ti
time. Th variation
The i ti range is
i referred
f d to
t as repeatability.
t bilit
true value-measured value
(d)1+
true value Which of these targets represents A change in one variable, such as wind,
accurate shooting? Precise alters the results as shown. Dose this
shooting?
h ti ? Reliable
R li bl shooting?
h ti ? show
h which
hi h shooting
h ti was the
th mostt
reliable?
4 5 6
Calibration y Drift: It is a slow change of a metrological characteristics of a Errors

y It
I is
i the
h setting
i or correcting
i off a measuring
i device
d i measuring instruments y Systematic
S i errors or fixed
fi d errors (Bias):
(Bi ) Due
D to faulty
f l
usually by adjusting it to match or conform to a y Resolution: It is the smallest change of the measured
quantity
tit which
hi h changes
h th indication
the i di ti off a measuring
i or improperly calibrated instruments.
instruments These may be
dependably known value or act of checking.
instruments
y Calibration determines the performance characteristics reduced or eliminated byy correct choice of instruments.
y Sensitivity: The smallest change in the value of the
of an instrument, system or reference material. It is
measured variable to which the instrument respond is Eg.
g calibration errors, Errors of technique
q etc.
usuall achieved
usually achie ed by
b means of a direct comparison against sensitivity. It denotes the maximum changes in an input
measurement standards or certified reference materials. signal
g that will not initiate a response
p on the output.
p y Random errors: Random errors are due to non‐specific
y It is very widely used in industries. y Rule of 10 or Ten‐to one rule: That the discrimination cause like natural disturbances that may occur during
y A calibration certificate is issued and,
and mostly,
mostly a sticker is (resolutions) of the measuring instrument should divide the
provided for the instrument. tolerance of the characteristic to be measured into ten parts. the experiment. These cannot be eliminated.
In other words,
words the gauge or measuring instrument should be Eg. Errors stemming from environmental variations, Due
E E i f i l i i D
10 times as accurate as the characteristic to be measured. 8
7
Page 64 of 276 to Insufficient sensitivity of measuring system
Rev.0
9
Linear measurements Vernier Caliper
y A vernier scale is an auxiliary scale that slides along the main
Some
S off the
h instruments
i used
d for
f the
h linear
li scale.
measurements are: y The vernier scale is that a certain number n of divisions on
y Rules (Scale) the vernier scale is equal in length to a different number
y Vernier (usually one less) of main
main‐scale
scale divisions.
divisions
y Micrometer (Most widely used, Working Standard) nV = (n −1)S
where
h n = number
b off divisions
d on the
h vernier scale
l
y Height gauge
V = The length
g of one division on the vernier scale
y Bore
B gauge
and S = Length of the smallest main‐scale division
y Dial indicator
y Least count is applied to the smallest value that can be read
y Slip gauges or gauge blocks (Most accurate, End directly by use of a vernier scale.
Standard) y Least count = S − V = 1 S
n Vernier Caliper
10 11 12
ISRO‐2010 M t i Mi t
Metric Micrometer
The
Th vernier
i reading
di should
h ld not be
b taken
k at its
i face
f ISRO‐2008 y A micrometer allows a measurement of the size of a
value before an actual check has been taken for Th least

The l t countt off a metric
t i vernier
i caliper
li body. It is one of the most accurate mechanical devices
(a) Zero error having 25 divisions on vernier scale, matching in common use.
(b) Its calibration with 24

4 divisions of main scale ((1 main scale y It consists a main scale and a thimble
divisions = 0.5 mm) is Method of Measurement

((c)) Flatness of measuring
g jjaws
(a) 0.005 mm (b) 0.01 mm Step‐I: Find the whole number of mm in the barrel
((d)) Temperature
p equalization
q
(c) 0.02 mm (d) 0.005mm Step‐I: Find the reading of barrel and multiply by 0.01
13 14
Step‐III: Add the value in Step‐I and Step‐II 15
y Bore Gauge: used for measuring bores of different

ISRO‐2009, 2011
ISRO‐2009 2011 g g from small‐to‐large
sizes ranging g sizes.
y Provided with various extension arms that can be
I a simple
In i l micrometer
i t with
ith screw pitch
it h 0.5 added for different sizes.
sizes
mm and divisions on thimble 50, the reading
corresponding
p g to 5 divisions on barrel and 12
divisions on thimble is
(a) 2.620 mm (b) 2.512 mm

Micrometer (c) 2.120 mm (d) 5.012 mm

16 17 18
y Dial indicator: Converts a linear GATE – 2008 S‐1
displacement into a radial pp cat o s o d a d cato c ude:
Applications of dial indicator include:
A displacement
di l sensor (a
( dial
di l indicator)
i di ) measures the
h
movement to measure over a y centering workpices to machine tool spindles lateral displacement of a mandrel mounted on the taper
small
ll range off movement for
f theh hole inside a drill spindle. The mandrel axis is an
plunger. y offsetting lathe tail stocks extension of the drill spindle
p taper
p hole axis and the
y The typical least count that can be protruding portion of the mandrel surface is perfectly
y aligning a vice on a milling machine
obtained with suitable gearing cylindrical Measurements are taken with the sensor
cylindrical.
dial indicators is 0.01 mm to 0.001 y checking dimensions placed at two positions P and Q as shown in the figure.
mm.
mm Th readings
The di are recorded
d d as Rx = maximum
i d fl ti
deflection
y It is possible to use the dial minus minimum deflection, corresponding to sensor
indicator as a comparator by position at X, over one rotation.
mounting g it on a stand at anyy
suitable height. Principle of a dial indicator
19 20 21
GATE – 2008 contd… from S‐2
d f GATE – 2014(PI) S‐1
( ) GATE – 2014(PI) S‐2
( )
If Rp= RQ>0, >0 which one of the The
Th alignment
li test This
Thi test inspects
i whether
h h the h
following would be consistent with the
observation? “Spindle square with ((a)) spindle
p vertical feed axis is p perpendicular
p to the base
(A) The drill spindle rotational axis is base plate” is applied plate
coincident with the drill spindle
p taper
p to the radial drilling g
hole axis (b) axis of symmetry of the cylindrical spindle is
machine. A dial perpendicular to the base plate
(B) The drill spindle rotational axis
i
intersects the
h drill
d ill spindle
i dl taper hole
h l indicator is fixed to
the cylindrical spindle (c) axis of symmetry, the rotational axis and the vertical
axis at point P
and
d the
th spindle
i dl is i feed
eed aaxiss o
of tthee sp
spindle
d e aaree aall co
coincident
c de t
(C) The
Th drill
d ill spindle
i dl rotational
t ti l axis
i is
i
parallel to the drill spindle taper hole rotated to make the (d) spindle rotational axis is perpendicular to the base
axis plate
l t
indicator
d touch h the
h
(D) The drill spindle rotational axis
intersects the drill spindle taper hole base p
plate at different
axis at point Q points
22 23 24
Slip Gauges or Gauge blocks y Come in sets with different number of pieces in a given To make up a Slip Gauge pile to 41.125 mm
y These
Th are small
ll blocks
bl k off alloy
ll steel.
l sett to
t suit
it the
th requirements
i t off measurements.
t y A Slip
Sli Gauge
G pile
il is
i sett up with
ith the
th use off simple
i l
y Used in the manufacturing
g shops
p as length
g standards. y A typical
yp set consisting
g of 88 p
pieces for metric units is maths.
y Not to be used for regular and continuous shown in.
y Decide what height
g y you want to set up,
p in this
measurement.
measurement y To
T build
b ild any giveni di
dimension,
i it is
i necessary to t
y Rectangular blocks with thickness representing the identifyy a set of blocks,, which are to be pput together.
g case 41.125mm.
dimension of the block. The cross‐section of the block y Number of blocks used should always be the smallest. y Take away the thickness of the two wear gauges,
iss usua
usuallyy 332 mm x 9 mm..
y Generally
G ll the
h top and d bottom
b Sli Gauges
Slip G i the
in h pile
il and then use the gauges in the set to remove
y Are hardened and finished to size. The measuring
are 2 mm wear g gauges.
g This is so that theyy will be the
surfaces
f off the
th gauge blocks
bl k are finished
fi i h d to
t a very high
hi h each place of decimal in turn,
turn starting with the
degree of finish, flatness and accuracy. only ones that will wear down, and it is much cheaper
lowest.
to replace
l two gauges than
h a whole
h l set.
25 26 27
To make up a Slip Gauge pile to 41.125 mm A M t i li t (88 Pi )
A Metric slip gauge set (88 Pieces)
41.125
-4.000 Slip gauges size or Increment, mm
Increment mm Number of
______
37.125 range, mm Pieces
-1.005
1 00
_______ 1.005 ‐ 1
36.120 1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
-1.020
1 020
_______ 1.010 to 1.490 0.010 49
35.100
-1.100
1 100 0 500 to 9.500
0.500 to 9 500 0 500
0.500 19
_______
34.000 10 to 100 10.000 10
-4.000
4 000
_______
30.000
-30.000
30 000
_______
0.000
28 29 30
ISRO‐2010 Comparators
A master gauge is ISRO‐2008 y Comparator is another form of linear measuring
method, which is quick and more convenient for
(a) A new gauge St d d to
Standards t be
b used
d for
f reference
f purposes in
i checking
h ki largel number
b off identical
id ti l dimensions.
di i
(b) An international
te at o a reference
e e e ce sta
standard
da d laboratories and workshops are termed as y Duringg the measurement, a comparator
p is able to g
give
the deviation of the dimension from the set dimension.
(c) A standard gauge for checking accuracy of (a) Primary standards y Cannot measure absolute dimension but can only
gauges used on shop floors
compare two dimensions.
(d) A gauge used by experienced technicians ((b)) Secondaryy standards
y Highly reliable.
((c)) Tertiaryy standards y To magnify the deviation, a number of principles are
used such as mechanical, optical, pneumatic and
(d) Working standards
electrical.
electrical
31 32 33
GATE – 2007 (PI)
( ) Mechanical Comparators
Mechanical Comparators
y The Mikrokator principle
Which one of the following instruments is a
greatly magnifies any
comparator
t ? d i ti
deviation i size
in i so that
th t
even small deviations
(a) Tool Maker
Maker’ss Microscope produce
d l
large d fl
deflections off
the p
pointer over the scale.
(b) GO/NO GO gauge
(c) Optical Interferometer
(d) Dial Gauge
Fig. (IES,
For 2021 Principle of a comparator
GATE & PSUs)
34
Page 67 of 276
35
Rev.0
36
Sigma Mechanical Comparator y The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported
The Sigma Mechanical Comparator uses a partially between
b the
h bending
b di plates
l at the
h top and d bottom
b
portion as shown in Figure (a)
wrapped
d band
b d wrapped
d about
b a driving
d d
drum to turn a y The bar is restricted to move in the vertical direction.
pointer needle.
needle The assembly provides a frictionless y A knife edge is fixed to the bar. bar The knife edge is
attached to the sapphire plate which is attached to the
movement with a resistant pressure provided by the
moving
i block.
bl k
springs. y The knife edge g extorts a force on the moving g block
through sapphire plate.
y Moving block is attached to the fixed block with the help
of crossed strips as shown in Figure (b).
37 38 39
y When the force is applied on the moving block, it will Optical Comparators

give
i an angular l deflection.
d fl i Mechanical Comparators
Mechanical Comparators y These
Th devices
d i use a plunger
l to rotate a mirror.
i A light
li h
y A Y‐arm which is attached to the moving g block transmits y The Eden‐Rolt Reed system
y uses a beam is reflected off that mirror, and simply by the
the rotary motion to the driving drum of radius r. virtue of distance, the small rotation of the mirror can
pointer attached to the end of two
y This deflects the pointer and then the reading is noted.
noted be converted to a significant
g translation with little
reeds. One reed is pushed by a friction.
¾If l = Distance from hinge pivot to the knife edge
¾L = Length of y‐arm plunger, while the other is fixed. As
¾R = Driving drum radius one reed
d moves relative
l ti tot the
th other,
th
¾D Length of the pointer
the pointer that they are commonly
¾Then the total magnification = (L/l) *(D/R)
attached to will deflect.
40 41 42
Pneumatic Comparators Pneumatic Comparators
In this system,
system Mechanical amplification = 20 /1 , And,
And
y Flow type:
p
Optical amplification
p 550 /1 x 2
y The float height is essentially proportional to the air
that
h escapes from
f the
h gauge head
h d
It is multiplied by 2, because if mirror is tilted by an angle
y Master
M t gauges are used
d to
t find
fi d calibration
lib ti points
i t on
δθ, then image will be tilted by 2 x δθ. Thus overall
magnification
ifi i off this
hi system the scales
= 2 x (20/1) ( 50/1 )=2000

) 2000 units y The input pressure is regulated to allow
magnification adjustment

43 44 45
Angular Measurement Bevel Protractor
This involves the measurement of angles of tapers and y Is part of the machinist's combination square.
similar
l surfaces.
f The
h most common angular
l measuring y The flat base of the protractor helps in setting it firmly
tools are: on the
h workpiece
k i and
d then
h byb rotating
i the
h rule,
l iti is
i
y Bevel protractor possible to measure the angle.
angle It will typically have a
y Sine bar discrimination of one degree.

g
A Vernier Bevel Protractor
46 47 48
Sine Bar
Sine Bar
y When a reference for a non‐square angle is required, a sine bar
can be used.
ISRO‐2011
y Basically a sine bar is a bar of known length.
length When gauge blocks A sine
i bar
b is
i specified
ifi d by
b
are placed under one end, the sine bar will tilt to a specific
(a) Its total length
angle.
y Knowing the height differential of the two rollers in alignment (b) The size of the rollers
with the workpiece ,the angle can be calculated using the sine
(c) The centre distance between the two rollers
formula.
y A sine bar is specified by the distance between the centre of the (d) The distance between rollers and upper surface
two rollers, i.e. 100 mm, 200 mm, & 300 mm. the various part of
sine bar are hardened before grinding & lapping. H
s in θ =
49
L 50 51
( )
GATE ‐2012 (PI) GATE‐2018 GATE‐2019 (PI)
In
I a sine
i bar,
b let
l h denote
d height
h i h off slip
li gauge andd L be
b
A sine bar has a length of 250 mm. Each roller has The height (in mm) for a 125 mm sine bar to
the distance between the rollers. The relationship
a diameter of 20 mm. During taper angle measure a taper of 27o32' on a flat work piece between error in angular measurement (dθ) and errors
in the slip
pggauge
g combination ((dh)) and in the spacing
p g of
measurement of a component, the height from the is___________(correct to three decimal the rollers (dL) is
⎛ dh dL ⎞
surface
f plate
l to the
h centre off a roller
ll isi 100 mm. places). (a ) dθ = sin θ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ h L ⎠
Th calculated
The l l t d taper
t angle
l (in
(i degrees)
d ) is
i ⎛ dh dL ⎞
(b) dθ = cos θ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ h L ⎠
( ) 21.1
(a) (b) 22.8
8 ( ) 23.6
(c) 6 (d) 68.9
68 ⎛ dh dL
d ⎞
(c) dθ = tan θ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ h L ⎠
⎛ dh dL ⎞
(d ) dθ = cot θ ⎜ − ⎟
52
Page 69 of 276
53
⎝ h L ⎠ Rev.0
54
Dis‐advantages Thread Measurements y The parameters that are normally measured are:
y 1. Sine bars cannot be used for conveniently for y Threads are normally specified by the major diameter.
Th d ll ifi d b h j di y Major diameter
y Though there are a large variety of threads used in
g g y y Micrometer
measuring angles h 45o
l more than engineering, the most common thread encountered is
y Pitch diameter
y 2. Misalignment
Mi li off workpiece
k i with
i h sine
i b
bar may the metric V thread shown in Fig.
the metric V‐thread shown in Fig
y Floating Carriage micrometer
sometimes introduce considerable errors.
errors y Wire method (Three wire and two wire)
y Pitch
y Screw pitch gauge
y Pitch measuring machine
y Thread form
y Optical projector
55 56 57
Three-Wire Method The Three-Wire Method of Measuring Threads y Distance W over the outer edge
⎛ α⎞ p α
y Three wires of equal diameter placed in thread, two W = D p + d ⎜1 + cosec ⎟ − cot
⎝ 2⎠ 2 2
on one side and one on other side
For ISO metric thread,, α = 60 and D p = D − 0.6496 p
y Standard micrometer used to measure distance over W = D + 3d − 1.5156 p
wires (M) y Best wire size
y Different sizes and pitches of threads require p α
d= sec
diff
different
t sizes
i off wires
i 2 2
For ISO metric thread, α = 60
D p = pitch diameter or Effective diameter
d = 0.5774 p
58 p = pitch of thread , and α = thread angle 59 60
y Pitch
Pit h Diameter
Di t or Eff
Effective
ti Di
Dia.
Two-Wire Method Dp = T + P
p ⎛α ⎞ ⎛ α ⎞
GATE –
GATE – 2011 (PI)
2011 (PI)
y Two wires of equal diameter placed in thread, two on =T + cot ⎜ ⎟ − d ⎜ cosec − 1⎟
2 ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ The best wire size (in mm) for measuring
one side and one on other side T = Dimensions under the wire = D − ( Dm − Ds ) effective diameter of a metric thread
D = Diameter
i t off master
t or standard
t d d cylinder
li d (included angle is 60o) of 20 mm diameter and
Dm = Micrometer reading over standard cylinder with two wire 2.5 mm pitch using two wire method is
D s = Micrometer reading over the plug screw gauge with the wire (a) 1.443
P = Pitch value (b) 0.723
0 723
y Best wire size (c) 2.886
p α (d) 2.086
d= sec
2 2
61 62 63
GATE‐2013 IES‐2017 (Pre)
( ) GATE 2011 (PI)
GATE – 2011 (PI)
To measure the effective diameter of an external
A metric thread of pitch 2 mm and thread A metric thread of pitch 2 mm and thread
metric thread (included angle is 60o) of 3.5 mm
angle 60 inspected for its pitch diameter angle 60o is inspected for its pitch diameter
pitch, a cylindrical standard of 30.5 mm diameter
using 3‐wire method. The diameter of the using the 3‐wire method. The indicated and two wires of 2 mm diameter each are used. The
best size wire in mm is diameter of the wire will be nearly micrometer readings over the standard and over the
(a) 0.866 (b) 1.000 (c) 1.154 (d) 2.000 (a) 0.85 mm (b) 1.05 mm wires are 16.532 mm and 15.398 mm, respectively.
Th effective
The ff ti diameter
di t (in
(i mm)) off the
th thread
th d is
i
(c) 1.15 mm (d) 2.05 mm
(a) 33.3
33.366 ( ) 330.397
(b) .397
64 65
(c) 29.366 (d) 26.397 66
GATE 2019 (PI)
GATE – 2019 (PI) Surfaces
Considering
C id i included
i l d d angle
l θ off the
h thread
h d to be
b 60°
6 ° y No surface is perfectly smooth, but the better the
using the Best‐Wire method
method, the difference surface
f quality,
l the
h longer
l a product
d generally
ll lasts,
l
between the effective diameter ((E)) and the and the better is performs.
performs
dimension under the wire (T) for M10 x 1.0 mm Measurement of Surfaces
fS f y Surface texture can be difficult to analyse
closest to
q
quantitatively.
y
(a) 0.289 (b) 0.578 (c) 0.867 (d) 0.982
y Two surfaces may
y be entirelyy different, yyet still p
provide
the same CLA (Ra) value.
67 68 69
y Surface geometry can be quantified a few different
ways.
ways y Roughness
g g
height: is the p
parameter with which
generally the surface finish is indicated. It is specified
either as arithmetic average value or the root mean
square value.
y Roughness
R h width:
idth isi the
th distance
di t parallel
ll l to
t the
th
nominal part surface within which the peaks and
valleys, which constitutes the predominant pattern of
y Real surfaces are rarely so flat, or smooth, but most
Real surfaces are rarely so flat or smooth but most the roughness.
g
commonly a combination of the two. y Roughness width cut‐off: is the maximum width of
the surface that is included in the calculation of the
roughness height.

70 71 72
Lay
y Waviness: refers to those surface irregularities that have Diagram Symbol Description
a greater spacing than that of roughness width.
width Parallel lay: Lay parallel to
y Determined by the height of the waviness and its the Surface. Surface is
width. produced
d d b
by shaping,
h i
y The greater the width,
width the smoother is the surface and planning etc.
thus is more desirable. Perpendicular lay: Lay
y Lay
L di
direction:
i i the
is h direction
di i off the
h predominant
d i perpendicular to the
surface pattern produced on the workpiece by the tool Surface. Surface is produced
marks. b shaping
by h i and d planning
l i
y Flaw: are surface irregularities that are present which are Crossed lay: Lay angular in
y y g
random and therefore will not be considered. both directions.
Surface is produced by
73 74
knurling, honing. 75
Lay Contd..
Diagram Symbol Description Representation of Surface Roughness
Multidirectional lay: Lay
multidirectional. Surface is
produced
d d by b grinding,
i di
lapping, super finishing.
Circular lay:
Approximately circular
relative to the center.
S f
Surface i produced
is d d by b
facing.
Radial lay: Approximately
radial relative to the center
of the nominal surface. 76 77 78
INDICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURE

GATE‐2017 (PI) GATE 2020 S1
GATE‐2020 S1
y
The basic symbol g of
consists of two legs The figure below shows a symbolic representation
unequal length inclined at approximately A machined
hi d surface
f with
ith standard
t d d symbols
b l
60’ to the line representing the considered of the surface texture in a perpendicular lay
surface indicatingg the surface texture is shown in the
orientation
i t ti with
ith indicative
i di ti values
l (I through
th h VI)
The symbol must be represented by thin line
Figure. (All dimensions in the Figure are in marking the various specifications whose
If the removal of material by machining is
required, a bar is added to the basic symbol,
micrometer).
micrometer) d f
definitions are listed
l d below.
b l
The waviness height g ((in micrometer)) of the P: Maximum Waviness Height (mm);
If the removal of material is not permitted,
surface is Q: Maximum Roughness Height (mm);
a circle is added to the basic symbol
symbol.
( )1
(a) (b) 50 R: Minimum Roughness Height (mm);( )
When special surface characteristics have to (c) 60 (d) 120 S: Maximum Waviness Width (mm)
be indicated, a line is added to the longer arm of
any of the above symbols, T: Maximum Roughness Width (mm);
U: Roughness Width (mm);
Basic symbol : only be used alone when its meaning is explained by a note
79 80 81
Roughness Roughness Grade Roughness Symbol
Ra (μm) Number Surface Roughness expected from manufacturing processes
GATE 2020 S2
GATE‐2020 S2 50 N12 ‐
The correct match between the specifications and 25
2 N11
the symbols (I to VI) is: ∇
12.5 N10
6.3 N9
32
3.2 N8 ∇∇
1.6 N7
0.8 N6
04
0.4 N5 ∇∇∇
(a) I‐R, II‐P,III‐U, IV‐S, V‐T, VI‐Q 0.2 N4
(b) I‐U, II‐S,III‐Q, IV‐T, V‐R, VI‐P 0.1 N3
(c) II‐R,
R, II
II‐Q,
Q, III
III‐P,IV‐S,
P,IV S, V
V‐U,
U, VI
VI‐T
T 0 05
0.05 N2 ∇∇∇∇
(d) I‐0, II‐U,III‐R, IV‐T, V‐S, VI‐P 82 0.025 N1 83 84
Surface Roughness expected from manufacturing processes

IES ‐ 1992 y Waviness height ‐ the distance from a peak to a valley
Which
Whi h grade
d symbol
b l represents surface
f rough
h off y Waviness width ‐ the distance between peaks or
broaching? valleys
y
(a) N12 (b) N8 y Roughness width cutoff ‐ a value greater than the
(c) N4 (d) N1 maximum roughness width that is the largest
separation of surface irregularities included in the
measurements. Typical
T i l values
l are (0.003”,
( ” 0.010”,”
0.030”, 0.100”, 0.300”)
y Lay ‐ the direction the roughness pattern should
follow
y Stylus travel is perpendicular to the lay specified.
85 86 87
Geometric Tolerance symbol
y GATE‐2018 (PI)
Match the geometric tolerances with their correct
M h h i l i h h i GATE 2007(PI)
GATE ‐2007(PI)
symbols:
The geometric tolerance that does NOT need a datum
P. Flatness 1.
for its specification is
Q. Perpendicularity 2. ((a)) Concentricityy ((b)) Runout
((c)) Perpendicularity
p y ((d)) Flatness
R Concentricity
R. Concentricity 3
3.
S. Roundness (Circularity) 4.
(a) P – 1, Q –
Q 33, R – 44, S – 2 (b) P – 33, Q –
Q 1, R – 4
4, S – 2
(c) P – 3, Q – 1, R – 2, S – 4 (ds) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S –894
88 90
Evaluation of Surface Roughness Determination of Mean Line Determination of Mean Line
1. Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean y M‐System: After plotting the characteristic of any y E‐System: (Envelop System) A sphere of 25 mm
surface a horizontal line is drawn by joining two points.
points diameter is rolled over the surface and the locus of its
deviation denoted as Ra. This line is shifts up and down in such a way that 50% centre is being traced out called envelope. This envelope
area is above the line and 50% area is below the line is shifted in downward direction till the area above the
2. Root mean square value (Rg) : rms value
line is equal to the area below the line. This is called
3. Maximum peak to valley roughness (hmax) mean envelope
l and
d the
h system off datum
d i called
is ll d E‐
E
system.
4. The average of the five highest peak and five deepst
valleys
ll i the
in th sample.
l
5 The average or leveling depth of the profile.

5. profile
91 92 93
h
Arithmetical l Average: GATE 2016 (PI)
GATE‐2016 (PI) IES 2019 Prelims
IES 2019 Prelims.
y Measured for a specified area and the figures are added The roughness profile of a surface is depicted below.
A graph is drawn to a vertical magnification of 10000
together and the total is then divided by the number of
measurements taken to obtain the mean or arithmetical and horizontal magnification of 100 and the areas
average (AA). above and below the datum line are as follows:
y It is also sometimes called the centre line average or CLA
Above 150mm2 80mm2 170mm2 40mm2
value. This in equation
q form is g
given byy
1
L
Ra = ∫ y ( x) dx ≅
1
∑y =
∑a + ∑b Below 80mm2 60mm2 150mm2 120mm2
L ×V × H The average roughness Ra for sampling length of 0.8
i
L0 N mm will be
Where Σa = Sum of all area above mean line. Σb = Sum (a) 1.14 μm (b) 1.10 μm
of all area below mean line.
line L = Length,
Length V = Vertical (c) 1.06 μm (d) 1.02 μm
magnification, H = Horizontal magnification. 94 The surface roughness parameter Ra (in μm) is _______ 95 96
y The other parameter that is used sometimes is the root
IES ‐ 2006
mean square value of the deviation in place of the ISRO‐2011 The M and E‐system in metrology are related to
arithmetic average , This in expression form is
g p
CLA value and RMS values are used for measurement measurement of:
f
1
RRMS =
N
∑y 2
i
of
(a) Metal hardness
( ) Screw
(a) S threads
h d (b) Fl
Flatness
( ) Angularity
(c) A l it (d) S f
Surface fi i h
finish
(b) Sharpness of tool edge
(c) Surface dimensions
(d) Surface roughness
Fig. Surface roughness parameters
97 98 99
IES ‐ 2007 IES ‐ 2008 IES 2010
What is the dominant direction of the tool marks or What term is used to designate the direction of the Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
using the code given below the lists:
scratches
h in a surface
f texture having
h a directional
d l predominant
d surface
f pattern produced
d d b
by List I List II
(Symbols for direction of lay) (Surface texture)
quality called?
quality, machining operation?
(a) Primary texture (b) Secondary texture (a) Roughness (b) Lay
(c) Lay (d) Flaw (c) Waviness (d) Cut off
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 3 2 1 4
100 101 (c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 3 1 2 4102
IES ‐ 2008 Methods of measuring Surface Roughness

h d f i S f h
ISRO‐2010 There are a number of useful techniques for measuring
Surface roughness on a drawing is represented by
surface roughness:
(a) Triangles
y Observation and touch ‐ the human finger
g is veryy
(b) Circles
perceptive to surface roughness
(c) Squares
y stylus based equipment ‐ very common
(d) Rectangles
y Interferometry ‐ uses light wave interference patterns
(discussed later)
103 104 105
Observation Methods Stylus Equipment
y Human perception is highly relative. y Uses a stylus that tracks small changes in surface
y To give the human tester a reference for what they are h i ht and
height, d a skid
kid that
th t follows
f ll l
large changes
h i surface
in f
height.
touching,
hi commercial
i l sets off standards
d d are available.
il bl
y The relative motion between the skid and the stylus
y is
y Comparison
C i should
h ld b
be made
d against
i t matched
t h d
measured with a magnetic circuit and induction coils.
identical processes.
processes
y One example of this is the Brown & Sharpe Surfcom
y One method of note is the finger nail assessment of
unit.
roughness and touch method.

106 107 108
Profilometer Contact profilometers
y A diamond stylus is moved vertically in contact with a
y Measuring instrument used to measure a surface's
sample
l and
d then
th moved
d laterally
l t ll across the
th sample
l for
f
profile, in order to quantify its roughness.
a specified distance and specified contact force.
y Vertical resolution is usually in the nanometre level,
yAp
profilometer can measure small surface variations in
though
h h lateral
l l resolution
l is usually
ll poorer.
vertical stylus displacement as a function of position.
y The radius of diamond stylus ranges from 20
nanometres to 25 μm.
109 110 111
Non‐contact Profilometers Advantages of optical Profilometers Optical Flats

y Optical‐grade
O ti l d clear
l fused
f d quartz
t or glass
l structures
t t
y Because the non‐contact profilometer does not touch
y An optical profilometer is a non‐contact method for lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or
the
h surface
f the
h scan speeds
d are dictated
d d by
b the
h light
l h b th sides.
both id
providing much of the same information as a stylus
y Used with a monochromatic light to determine the
reflected from the surface and the speed of the flatness of other optical surfaces by interference.
based profilometer.
acquisition electronics. y When a flat surface of another optic p is p placed on the
y There are many different techniques which are optical flat, interference fringes are seen due to
y Optical
p profilometers do not touch the surface and
p te e e ce in tthee ttinyy gap bet
interference between
ee tthee ttwoo su
surfaces.
aces.
currently
tl being
b i employed,
l d such
h as laser
l ti
triangulation
l ti
therefore cannot be damaged by surface wear or y The spacing between the fringes is smaller where the
(triangulation sensor),
sensor) confocal microscopy and digital gap is changing more rapidly,
rapidly indicating a departure
careless operators. from flatness in one of the two surfaces, in a similar
holography.
g p y way to the contour lines on a map.
map
112 113 114
GATE‐2018 (PI)
Which one of the following instruments makes
use of the principle of interference of light?
(a) Optical flat
(b) Auto‐collimator
(c) Optical projector
(d) Coordinate measuring machine
g

115 116 117
For IES Only
GATE 2016
GATE‐2016
y When the fringes are perfectly straight and same fringe Two optically flat plates of glass are kept at a small
width for dark and bright band we conclude that the anglel θ as shown
h in
i the
th figure.
fi Monochromatic
M h ti light
li ht
is incident vertically.
surface is perfectly flat.
flat
y For convex surface the fringes curve around the point of
contact.
y For concave surface the fringes curve away from the
point of contact.
λ
The distance of air gap between two successive fringes is given by =
2
nλ If the wavelength of light used to get a fringe
Distance of air ggap g of n th order is =
p of interference fringe
2 spacing of 1 mm is 450 nm,nm the wavelength of light
118 (in nm) to get a fringe spacing of 1.5 mm is _______119 120
Optical flat as a comparator

Optical flat as a comparator GATE ‐ 2003
nλ l
Δh = Two
T slip
li gauges off 10 mm width
id h measuringi 1.000 mm
and 1.002 mm are kept side by side in contact with each
2 other lengthwise. An optical flat is kept resting on the
Wh l = separation of edges
Where slip
pggauges
g as shown in the figure.
g Monochromatic light
g
of wavelength 0.0058928 mm is used in the inspection.
n = number of fringes / cm
The total number of straight fringes that can be observed
Δh = The difference of height between gauges on both slip gauges is
λ = wevlength of monochomatic light
(a) 2 (b) 6
(c) 8 (d) 13
121 122 123
Parallelism Error
Parallelism Error
y In case of large‐length
g g slip
p g g
gauges, the p
parallelism of GATE – 2011 (PI)
surfaces can also be measured by placing the gauge on a Observation of a slip gauge on a flatness
NPL Flatness rotary table in a specific position and reading number 1 interferometer produced fringe counts numbering
Interferometer can be taken. 10 and 14 for two readings. The second reading is
set up by 180o. Assume that
taken by rotating the set‐up
y The
Th number b off fringes
fi obtained
bt i d is
i the
th result
lt off the
th angle
l
that the gauge surface makes with the optical flat. (n1) both faces of the slip gauge are flat and the
y Then the table is turned through 180o and reading wavelength
l h off the
h radiation
di i i 0.5086
is 86 µm. The
Th
number 2 can be taken. (n2) parallelism error (in µm) between the two faces of
the slip gauge is
y The change in distance between the gauge and optical
fl = λ/2
flat λ/ (a) 0.2543
0 2543 (b) 1.172
1 172
Parallelism Error =
( n2 − n1 ) × λ (c) 0.5086 (d) 0.1272
4
124 125 126
Talysurf
y It
I is
i based
b d upon measuring
i the
h generated
d noise
i due
d to
dry friction of a metallic blade which travels over the
surface under consideration.
y If the frictional force is made small enough to excite
the blade, and not the entire system, then the noise
will
ill be proportional to surface roughness,
roughness and
independent of the measured specimen size and
material.
l
y The specimen surface roughness was measured by a
widely used commercial instrument (Talysurf 10), and
the prototype transducer.
transducer
127 128

Cli t
Clinometer Clinometer
y An
A optical
i l device
d i for
f measuring
i elevation
l i angles
l above
b
horizontal.
y Compass clinometers are fundamentally just magnetic
compasses held with their plane vertical so that a
Miscellaneous of Metrology plummet or its equivalent can point to the elevation of
the sight line.
line
y The clinometer can read easily and accurately angles of
elevation that would be very difficult to measure in any
other simple and inexpensive way.
y A fairly common use of a clinometer is to measure the
h i ht off trees.
height t
By S K Mondal 1 2 3
A t lli t
Autocollimator y Visual autocollimators are used for lining up laser rod Autocollimator
y An opt ca instrument
optical st u e t for
o non‐contact
o co tact measurement
easu e e t o
of
ends
d andd checking
h ki the
th face
f parallelism
ll li off optical
ti l
small angles or small angular tilts of a reflecting surface.
windows and wedges.
Straightness flatness,
Straightness, flatness squareness,
squareness parallelism.
parallelism
y Used to align components and measure deflections in y Electronic and digital autocollimators are used as
optical or mechanical systems. angle
l measurementt standards,
t d d for f monitoring
it i angular l
y An autocollimator works by projecting an image onto a movement over long periods of time and for checking
target mirror, and measuring the deflection of the angular position repeatability in mechanical systems.
returned image against a scale,
scale either visually or by y Servo
S autocollimators
t lli t are specialized
i li d compactt forms
f
means of an electronic detector. of electronic autocollimators that are used in high
y A visual autocollimator can measure angles as small as speed servo feedback loops for stable platform
0.55 arcsecond,, while an electronic autocollimator can be applications.
pp
up to 100 times more accurate.
4 5 6
GATE ‐ 1998
Auto collimator is used to check
GATE –
GATE – 2009 (PI)
2009 (PI) GATE –
GATE – 2014
( ) Roughness
(a) A autocollimator
An t lli t is i used
d to
t Th flatness
The fl t off a machine
hi b d can be
bed b
(b) Flatness
Fl t (a) measure small angular displacements on flat measured using
(c) Angle surface (a) Vernier calipers
(d) Automobile balance. ((b)) compare

p known and unknown dimensions ((b)) Auto collimator
((c)) measure the flatness error ((c)) Height

g g gauge
g
(d) measure roundness error between centers (d) Tool maker’s microscope

7 8 9
Optical Square ISRO‐2010
y An
A Optical
O ti l square consists
i t off a small
ll cylindrical
li d i l metal
t l box,
b Optical
O i l square is i
about 5 cm in diameter and 12.5 cm deep, in which two
mirrors are placed at an angle of 45o to each other and at ((a)) Engineer's
g square
q having 90o
g stock and blade set at 9
right angles to the plane of the instrument. (b) A constant deviation prism having the angle of
y One mirror(horizon glass) is half silvered and other(index deviation between the incident ray and reflected ray, ray
glass) is wholly silvered. equal to 90o
y Th optical
The ti l square belongs
b l t a reflecting
to fl ti instruments
i t t which
hi h (c) A constant deviation prism having the angle of
measure angles by reflection. Angle between the first
incident ray and the last reflected ray is 90o deviation
dev at o bet
between
ee tthee incident
c de t ray
ay aand
d reflected
e ected ray,
ay,
y Used to find out the foot of the perpendicular from a given equal to 45o
point
i t to
t a line.
li (d) Used
U d tot produce
d i t f
interference fi
fringes
y Used to set out right angles at a given point on a line in the
fi ld
field.
y Two mirrors may be replaced by two prisms. 10 An Optical Square 11 12
Laser Scanning Micrometer IES ‐ 1998

Match List‐I
List I with List‐II
List II and select the correct answer using the
y The LSM features a high scanning rate which allows codes given below the lists:
inspection
p of small workpiece
p even if theyy are fragile,
g , List‐I List‐II
at a high temperature, in motion or vibrating. (Measuring Device) (Parameter Measured)
A. Diffraction grating 1. Small angular deviations on long
y Applications : flat surfaces
B. Optical flat 2. On‐line measurement of moving
y Measurement of outer dia. And roundness of p
parts
cylinder, C. Auto collimators 3. Measurement of gear pitch
D. Laser scan micrometer4. Surface texture using interferometer
y Measurement of thickness of film and sheets,
sheets 5. Measurement off very smallll
y Measurement of spacing if IC chips, displacements
Code: A B C D A B C D
y Measurement of forms, (a) 5 4 2 1 (b) 3 5 1 2
y Measurement of gap between rollers.
rollers ((c)) 3 5 4 1 ((d)) 5 4 1 2
13 14 15
Laser interferometer
Laser interferometer
y Laser interferometers represent the ultimate feedback
GATE‐2014
device for high‐precision motion control application. Which one of the following instruments is widely
y The
h combination
b off high
h h resolution
l and
d outstanding
d used to check and calibrate geometric features of
accuracyy has made it the ideal transducer for wafer machine tools during their assembly?
steppers, flat panel inspection, and high‐accuracy laser (a) Ultrasonic probe
micromachining.
y A laser interferometer system employs a highly stabilized (b) Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
li ht source and
light d precision
i i optics
ti to
t accurately
t l measure ( ) Laser interferometer
(c) f
distances.
(d) Vernier calipers
y An additional advantage is that interferometers measure
distances directly at the workpiece.

16 17 18
Ultrasonic Probe
Ultrasonic Probe Ultrasonic Probe
Ultrasonic Probe McLeod gauge
y Ultrasonic sensors are used in many
y fields. y Low accuracy,
y, low reliabilityy due to reflection of a
transmitted signals. y Used
d to measure vacuum by
b application
l off the
h
y Key features of ultrasound transducers change depending on
principle of Boyle's law.
the propagation medium (solid,
(solid liquid,
liquid or air).
air) y Limited range
y Works on the principle, "Compression of known
y Most important application is distance measurement. y In the short fixed distance and controlled atmosphere
volume of low p pressure ggas to higher
g pressure and
p
y Common applications associated with distance measurement ((temperature and
d humidity)
h idi ) excellent
ll performance
f can be
b measuring resulting volume & pressure, one can
are achieved. calculate initial p
pressure usingg Boyle's
y Law equation."
q
¾ Presence detection y Depending upon application different types of transdures are y Pressure of gases containing vapours cannot normally
¾ Identification of objects used. Most commonlyy used 4 40 KHz ceramic based measured with a McLeod gauge, gauge for the reason that
¾ The measurement of the shape and orientation of workpiece.
transducers. compression will cause condensation .
¾ Collision
C lli i avoidance
id y A pressure from
f 0.01 micron
i t 50 mm Hg
to H can beb
¾ Room surveillance measured. Generally McLeod gauge is used for
¾ Liquid level and flow measurement calibration
lib ti purpose.
19 20 21
Planimeter LVDT
y A device used for measuring the area of any plane y Acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer,
surface by tracing the boundary of the area.
y g y a common type yp of electromechanical transducer that
can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to
which it is coupled mechanically into a corresponding
electrical signal.
y LVDT linear
li position
i i sensors are readily
dil available
il bl that
h
can measure movements as small as a few millionths of
an inch up to several inches, but are also capable of
measuring
easu g pos positions
o s up to
o ±20 inches
c es ((±0.5
.5 m).
).
y A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT)
i a type
is t off electrical
l t i l transformer
t f used d for
f measuring i
22 23 angular displacement. 24
LVDT GATE ‐ 1992 Tool Maker’s Microscope

Match
M t h the
th instruments
i t t with
ith the
th physical
h i l quantities
titi they
th An essential part of engineering inspection,
measure:
measurement and calibration in metrology gy labs.
I
Instrument M
Measurement
Hence is used to the following:
(A) Pilot‐tube (1) R.P.M. of a shaft
y Examination of form tools, tools plate and template
(B) McLeod Gauge (2) Displacement
((C)) Planimeter (3) Flow velocityy
gauges, punches and dies, annular grooved and
(D) LVDT (4) Vacuum
threaded
h d d hobs
h b etc.
(5) Surface finish y Measurement of g glass ggraticules and other surface
(6) Area marked parts.
C d A
Codes:A B C D A B C D y Elements
El t off external
t l thread
th d forms
f off screw plug
l
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 3 4 6 2 gauges, taps, worms and similar components.
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4 y Shallow bores and recesses.
25 26 27
GATE ‐ 2004 Telescopic Gauges
Telescopic Gauges
y Used to measure
easu e a bo e s ssize,
bore's e, by ttransferring
a se g tthee
Match
M h the h following
f ll i
internal dimension to a remote measuring tool.
Feature to be inspected Instrument
y They
Th are a direct
di t equivalent
i l t off inside
i id callipers
lli and
d
P Pitch and Angle errors of screw thread 1. Auto Collimator
require the operator to develop the correct feel to
Q Flatness error of a surface plate 2.
2 Optical Interferometer obtain repeatable results.
R Alignment error of a machine slide way 3. Dividing Head
andd Dial
Di l Gauge
G
S Profile of a cam 4. Spirit
p Level
5. Sine bar
6 Tool maker
6. maker'ss Microscope
(a) P‐6 Q‐2 R‐4 S‐6 (b) P‐5 Q‐2 R‐1 S‐6
(c) P‐6 Q‐4 R‐1 S‐3 (d) P‐1 Q‐4 R‐4 S‐2
28 29 30
GATE ‐ 1995 C di t M i M hi
Coordinate Measuring Machine
g ,
Advantages,
List
Li I List
Li II (CMM)
y can automate inspection process
((Measuring g instruments)) ((Application)
pp ) y An instrument that locates point coordinates on three
st u e t t at ocates po t coo d ates o t ee
y less prone to careless errors
l l
(A) Talysurf 1. T‐slots dimensional structures mainly used for quality control
applications
applications. y allows direct feedback into computer system
p y
(B) Telescopic
Tl i gauge 2. Fl
Flatness
y The highly sensitive machine measures parts down to Disadvantages,
((C)) Transfer callipers
p 33. Internal diameter
the fraction of an inch. y Costly
C l
(D) Autocollimator 4. Roughness
y Specifically, a CMM contains many highly sensitive air y fixturing
g is critical
Codes:A
d B C D A B C D
bearings on which the measuring arm floats. y requires a very good tolerance model
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4
31 32 33
GATE ‐ 2010 GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE ‐2008 (PI)
An experimental setup is planned to determine the taper of
A taper hole
h l is
i inspected
i d using
i a CMM,
CMM with i h a probe
b
workpiece as shown in the figure. If the two precision rollers
of 2 mm diameter. At a height, Z = 10 mm from the
have radii 8 mm and 5 mm and the total thickness of slip
bottom, 5 points are touched and a diameter of gauges inserted between the rollers is 15.54 mm, the taper
circle ((not compensated
p for p
probe size)) is obtained angle θ is
as 20 mm. Similarly, a 40 mm diameter is obtained
(a) 6 degree
at a height Z = 40 mm.
mm the smaller diameter (in mm)
(b) 10 degree
of hole at Z = 0 is
(c) 11 degree
( ) 13.334
(a)
(d) 12 degree
(b) 15.334
(c) 15.442 10
( ) 15.542
(d)
34 35 36
GATE 2014
GATE ‐2014
The diameter of a recessed ring was measured by using two GATE‐2016 GATE‐2018 (PI)
spherical
h i l balls
b ll off diameter
di d2 = 60
6 mm andd d1 = 40 mm as For the situation shown in the figure below the In
I a V‐thread,
V h d a wire i isi fitted
fi d such
h that
h it i makes
k
shown in the figure. expression for H in terms of r, R and D is
contact with the flank of the thread on the pitch
The distance
H2 = 35.55 line as shown in the figure. If the pitch p of the
H2 H1 (a) H = D + r2 + R2
mm and d1 Diameter th d is
thread i 3 mm and d the
th included
i l d d anglel is
i 60°,
6 ° the
th
H1 = 20.55 C
(b) H = (R + r) + (D + r) diameter ((in mm,, up
p to one decimal p
place)) of the
mm. Th
The
diameter (D, H (c) H = (R + r) + D2 − R2 wire is ______
A B
i mm)) off the
in th R (d) H = (R + r) + 2D(R + r) − D2
ring gauge is
………….
Recessed Ring
D
37 38 39
d2 Diameter
GATE 2020 S1
GATE‐2020 S1 GATE 2020 S2
GATE‐2020 S2
wo rollers
Two o e so of d a ete s D1 ((in mm)) a
diameters and d D2 ((in mm)) W c
Which o e o
one of tthe
e following
o ow g iss tthe e co ect
correct
are used to measure the internal taper angle in the relationship to evaluate the angle α as shown in the
V‐groove of a machined component.
component The heights H1 figure?
(in mm) and H2 (in mm) are measured by using a ( H1 − H 2 )
h i ht gauge after
height ft i
inserting
ti th rollers
the ll i t the
into th (a) sin α =
( D1 − D2 )
same V‐groove as shown in the figure.
( D1 − D2 )
( b ) sin α =
2 ( H1 − H 2 ) − ( D1 − D2 )
( D1 − D2 )
( c ) cos α =
2 ( H1 − H 2 ) − 2 ( D1 − D2 )
( H − H ) − ( D1 − D2 )
( d ) cos ecα = 1 2
2 ( D1 − D2 )
40 41 42

Four Important forming techniques are:
Four Important forming techniques are: Terminology
Semi‐finished product
y Rolling:
g The pprocess of pplasticallyy deformingg metal byy
y Ingot:
I is
i the
h first
fi solid
lid form
f off steel.
l
passing it between rolls.
y Bloom: is the p product of first breakdown of ingot
g has square
q
y Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two cross section 6 x 6 in. or larger
g
Metal Forming opposing dies so that the die shapes are imparted to the
work.
y
y
Billet: is hot rolled from a bloom and is square,
side or larger.
Sl b is
Slab: i the
th hot
h t rolled
ll d ingot
i t or bloom
bl
square 1.5
1 5 in.
rectangular
t
in on a
l cross
y Extrusion: The work material is forced to flow section 10 in. or more wide and 1.5 in. or more thick.
through a die opening taking its shape
y Drawing: The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by

pulling it through a die opening (bar drawing) or a series
By S K Mondal off die
di openings
i ( i drawing)
(wire d i )
Ingot Bloom Billet
1 2 slab 3
Terminology Plastic Deformation Bulk Deformation Processes

Mill product y Deformation beyond elastic limits. y These processes involve large amount of plastic
deformation.
deformation
y Plate is the product with thickness > 5 mm y Due to slip, twining, grain fragmentation,
y The cross‐section of workpiece
p changes
g without
y Sheet is the product with thickness < 5 mm and width > movement of atoms and lattice distortion. volume change.
600 mm y The ratio cross‐section area/volume is small.
y Strip is the product with a thickness < 5 mm and width y For

F mostt operations,
ti h t or warm working
hot ki
conditions are preferred although some operations
< 600
6 mm are carried out at room temperature.
4 5 6
Sheet‐Forming Processes Strain Hardening GATE‐1995

y In
I sheet
h metall working
ki operations,
i the
h cross‐section
i off
workpiece does not change—the material is only y When metal is formed in cold state, there is no A test specimen is stressed slightly beyond the yield
subjected to shape changes. recrystalization of grains and thus recovery from grain point and then unloaded. Its yield strength
y The
Th ratio
i cross‐section
i area/volume
/ l i very high.
is hi h distortion or fragmentation does not take place. (a) Decreases
y Sheet metalworking operations are performed on thin y As grain deformation
d f proceeds,
d greater resistance to this
h
(less than 5 mm) sheets, strips or coils of metal by means (b) Increases
off a set off tools
l called
ll d punch
h and
d die
di on machine
hi toolsl action results in increased hardness and strength i.e.
ie
(c) Remains same
called stamping presses. strain hardening.
(d) Become equal to UTS
y They are always performed as cold working operations.

7 8 9
IES‐2013
Statement (I): At higher strain rate and lower y Rx temp.
temp depends on the amount of cold work a material
temperature structural steel tends to become brittle. Recrystallisation Temperature (Rx temp.) has already received. The higher the cold work, the lower
Statement (II): At higher strain rate and lower y “The
“Th minimum
i i temperature at which
hi h the
h completed
l d would
ld be
b the
h RxR temp.
temperature
p the yyield strength
g of structural steel tends recrystallisation of a cold worked metal occurs within a y Rx temp.
temp varies between 1/3 to ½ melting paint.
paint
to increase. specified period of approximately one hour”.
y For Pure metal Rx temp. = 0.3 x Melting temp.
( ) Both
(a) B th Statement
St t t (I) and
d Statement
St t t (II) are individually
i di id ll y Rx temp.
temp decreases strength and increases ductility.
ductility (Kelvin).
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of y If working
g above Rx temp.,
p , hot‐working
g p
process
Statement (I)
() y For Alloy Rx temp.
temp = 0.5
0 5 x Melting temp.
temp (Kelvin).
(Kelvin)
whereas working below are cold‐working process.
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually y Rx temp.
p of lead and Tin is below room temp.
p
y It
I involves
i l replacement
l off cold‐worked
ld k d structure by
b a
true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of y Rx temp. of Cadmium and Zinc is room temp.
new set of strain‐free, approximately equi‐axed grains to
Statement (I)
replace all the deformed crystals. Contd. y Rx temp. of Iron is 450oC and for steels around 1000°C
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true y Finer
Fi i the
is h initial
i i i l grain
i size;
i lower
l will
ill be
b the
h Rx
R temp
10 11 12
IES 2018
IES‐2018 IES 2016
IES‐2016 Grain growth
h
y
Recrystallization p
temperature is one at which The recrystallization behaviour of a particular metal
y Grain growth follows complete crystallization if the materials
(a) crystals first start forming from molten metal alloy is specified in terms of recrystallization
left at elevated temperatures.
p
when
h cooled l d temperature, which is typically 1/3rd of the absolute
y Grain growth does not need to be preceded by recovery and
(b) new spherical crystals first begin to form melting temperature of a metal or an alloy and depends recrystallization; it may occur in all polycrystalline materials.
ll ll l ll l
from the old deformed ones when that strained on several factors including
g the amount of y In contrary to recovery and recrystallization, driving force
metal is heated 1. cold working and purity of the metal and alloy for this process is reduction in grain boundary energy.
(c) the allotropic form changes 2. hot working and purity of the metal and alloy y In practical applications, grain growth is not desirable.
((d)) crystals
y grow bigger
g gg in size Which of the above is/are correct? y Incorporation of impurity atoms and insoluble second phase
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only particles are effective in retarding grain growth.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 y Grain growth is very strongly dependent on temperature.
13 14 15
Malleability
ll b l
y Malleability is the property of a material whereby it can
y Working below recrystalization temp.
b shaped
be h d when
h cold
ld by
b hammering
h or rolling.
ll
y A malleable
ll bl material
i l is
i capable
bl off undergoing
deformation without fracture.
fracture
d i plastic
l i
g
Cold Working
y A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
essential to be so strong.
g
y Lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium are

some materials in order of diminishing malleability.
16 17 18
Advantages of Cold Working
d f ld k Disadvantages of Cold Working
d f ld k
1. Better accuracy, closer tolerances 1. Equipment of higher forces and power required
2. Better surface finish 2. Surfaces of starting work piece must be free of scale and

S f f t ti k i t b f f l d
dirt
3. Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
3. Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming
4. Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable that can be done
directional properties in product 4. In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow
5 No heating of work required (less total energy)
5. further deformation
55. Some metals are simply not ductile enough to be cold
py g
19
worked. 20 21
Advantages of Hot Working
1. The porosity of the metal is largely eliminated.
y Working above recrystalization temp.
2. The grain structure of the metal is refined.
3
3. The impurities like slag are squeezed into fibers and
distributed throughout
g the metal.
4. The mechanical properties such as toughness,
percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area, and
H t W ki g
Hot Working resistance to shock and vibration
the refinement of grains.
g
ibration are improved
impro ed due to
22 23 24
Micro Structural Changes in a Hot

Micro‐Structural Changes in a Hot IES 2016
IES‐2016
Dis‐advantages of Hot Working Statement (I) : Pursuant to p
plastic deformation of
1. It requires expensive tools. Working Process (Rolling)
Working Process (Rolling) metals, the mechanical properties of the metals get
changed.
2. It produces poor surface finish, due to the rapid
Statement (II) : Mechanical properties of metals
oxidation and scale formation on the metal surface.
surface d
depend d on grain
i size
i also
l which
hi h gets
t changed
h d by
b
33. Due to the p
poor surface finish, close tolerance plastic deformation.
cannot be maintained. (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and
Statement ((II)) is the correct explanation
p of Statement ((I).
)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but
Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I).
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false.
(d) Statement
St t t (I) is
i false
f l but
b t Statement
St t t (II) is
i true
t
25 26 27
Annealing
g
•Annealing relieves the stresses from cold working – three W F i
Warm Forming Isothermal Forming
h l
y Deformation produced at temperatures intermediate to
stages: recovery,
recovery recrystallization and grain growth.
growth hot and cold forming is known as warm forming. y During hot forming, cooler surfaces surround a hotter
•During recovery, physical properties of the cold‐worked
material
i l are restored
d without
ih any observable
b bl change
h i
in y Compared to cold forming,
forming it reduces loads,
loads increase interior and the variations in strength can result in non‐
interior, non
microstructure. material ductility. uniform deformation and cracking of the surface.
y Compared to hot forming, it produce less scaling and
y For temp.‐sensitive materials deformation is performed
decarburization, better dimensional precision and
smoother surfaces. under isothermal conditions.
y Warm forming
f i i a precision
is i i f i
forging operation
i carried
i d y The
Th dies
di or tooling
li must be
b heated
h d to the
h workpiece
k i
out at a temperature range between 550–950°C. It is temperature,
p , sacrificing
g die life for p
product q
quality.
y
useful for forging of details with intricate shapes, with
desirable grain flow, good surface finish and tighter y Close tolerances, low residual stresses and uniform metal
28
dimensional tolerances. 29
flow.
30
IES 2011 GATE‐2003 GATE‐2002, ISRO‐2012

Assertion (A): Lead, Zinc and Tin are always hot Cold
C ld working
ki off steell is i defined
d fi d as working
ki Hot
H rolling
lli off mildild steell is
i carried
i d out
worked. ((a)) At its recrystallisation
y temperature
p ((a)) At recrystallisation
y temperature
p
Reason (R) : If they are worked in cold state they (b) Above its recrystallisation temperature (b) Between 100°C to 150°C
cannot retain their mechanical properties.
properties ( ) Below
(c) B l itsi recrystallisation
lli i temperature ( ) Below
(c) B l recrystallisation
lli i temperature
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the ((d)) At two thirds of the melting g temperature
p of the ((d)) Above recrystallisation
y temperature
p
correct explanation of A metal
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
( ) A is true but
(c) b R is false
f l
31 32 33
ISRO 2010
ISRO‐2010 IES – 2006 IES – 2004
Materials
M t i l after
ft cold
ld working
ki are subjected
bj t d to
t Which one of the following is the process to refine Consider
C id theh following
f ll i statements:
the grains of metal after it has been distorted by p
In comparison to hot working,
g, in cold working,
g,
follo ing process to relieve
following relie e stresses
hammering or cold working? 1. Higher forces are required
( ) Hot
(a) H working
ki 2. NoN heating
h i is i required
i d
(a) Annealing (b) Softening
33. Less ductilityy is required
q
(b) Tempering (c) Re‐crystallizing (d) Normalizing 4. Better surface finish is obtained
(c) Normalizing Which
h h off the
h statements given above
b are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(d) Annealing (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

34 35 36
IES – 2009 IES – 2008 IES – 2008
Consider
C id theh following
f ll i characteristics:
h i i Consider
f ll i statements: Cold
C ld forging
f i results
l ini improved
i d quality
li dued to
1. Porosityy in the metal is largely
g y eliminated. 1. Metal forming g decreases harmful effects of which of the following?
2. Strength is decreased. impurities and improves mechanical strength. 1. Better mechanical properties of the process.
3. Close
Cl tolerances
l cannot be
b maintained.
i i d 2 Metal working process is a plastic deformation
2. 2 Unbroken grain flow.
2. flow
Which of the above characteristics of hot working
g is/are
/ process. 3. Smoother finishes.
correct? 3. Very intricate shapes can be produced by forging 4. High pressure.
( ) 1 only
(a) l (b) 3 only
l process
p ocess as co
compared
pa ed to cast
casting
gpprocess.
ocess. S l t the
Select th correctt answer using
i the
th code
d given
i b l
below:
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d3 (b) 1 and d 2 only
l (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
37 38 39
IES – 2004 IES – 2003 IES – 2000

Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Cold
C ld workingki off metals
l resultsl in i Cold
C ld working
ki produces
d the
h following
f ll i effects:
ff Assertion
A i (A):
(A) To
T obtain
b i large
l deformations
d f i by
b coldld
increase of strength and hardness p in the metal
1. Stresses are set up working intermediate annealing is not required.
Reason (R): Cold working reduces the total number 2. Grain structure gets distorted Reason (R): Cold working is performed below the
of dislocations per unit volume of the material 3. Strength
S h and
d hardness
h d off the
h metall are decreased
d d recrystallisation temperature of the work material.
material
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the 4. Surface finish is reduced
4 (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation
l off A correct explanation
l off A
(b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee (b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee
correct explanation of A ( ) 1and
(a) d2 (b) 1, 2 and d3 correct explanation of A
( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 ( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
40 41 42
ISRO‐2009 IES – 1997 IES – 1996

In
I the
h metall forming
f i process, the
h stresses encountered
d In metals subjected to cold working, strain
I l bj d ld ki i Consider the following statements:
C id h f ll i
are hardening effect is due to y
When a metal or alloy is cold worked
(a) Slip mechanism 1. It is worked below room temperature.
(a) Greater than yield strength but less than ultimate
(b) Twining mechanism 2. It is worked below recrystallisation
I i k d b l lli i temperature.
strength
(c) Dislocation mechanism 33. Its hardness and strength increase.
g
(b) Less than yield strength of the material (d) Fracture mechanism 4. Its hardness increases but strength does not
( ) Greater
(c) G than
h the
h ultimate
li strength
h off the
h material
i l increase.
(d) Less than the elastic limit Of these correct statements are
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3
( ) 2 and 3
(c) d (d) 2 and 4
d
43 44 45
IES – 2006 IES – 1992 IAS – 1996
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) InI case off hot
h workingki off metals,
l the
h Specify
S if the
h sequence correctly l For
F mild ild steel,
l the
h hot
h forging
f i temperature range is
i
temperature at which the process is finally stopped ((a)) Grain ggrowth,, recrystallisation,
y , stress relief ((a)) 44000C to 6000C
should
h ld not be b above
b the
h recrystallisation
ll temperature.
(b) Stress relief, grain growth, recrystallisation (b) 7000C to 9000C
Reason ((R): ) If the p process is stopped
pp above the
recrystallisation temperature, grain growth will take ( ) Stress
(c) S relief,
li f recrystallisation,
lli i grain
i growth h ( ) 10000C to 12000C
(c)
place again
p g and spoil
p the attained structure. ((d)) Grain g
growth,, stress relief,, recrystallisation
y 3 0Cto 1500
((d)) 1300 5 0C
explanation of A
correct explanation
l i off A
46 47 48
IAS – 2004 IAS‐2002 IES‐2008

Assertion (A): Hot working does not produce strain
A i (A) H ki d d i Assertion
A i (A):(A) There
Th is
i good d grain
i refinement
fi in
i hot
h Which one of the following is correct?
hardening. working.
Reason (R): Hot working is done above the re‐ Reason (R): In hot working physical properties are Malleability is the property by which a metal or
crystallization temperature.
crystallization temperature generally improved.
improved alloy
ll can be
b plastically
l i ll deformed
d f d by
b applying
l i
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
l f correct explanation
l off A ( ) Tensile
(a) T il stress
t (b) B di stress
Bending t
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not
ot a d R a e d v dua y t ue but R s ot tthe
e (b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee (c) Shear stress (d) Compressive stress
correct explanation of A correct explanation of A
(c) A i t b t R i f l ( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
49 50 51
GATE‐2017
It is desired to make a product having T‐shaped
cross‐section
cross section from a rectangular aluminium
block. Which one of the following processes is
expected d to provide
d the
h highest
h h strength
h off the
h
product?
(a) Welding (b) Casting
(c) Metal forming (d) Machining

52
Rolling
y Definition: The process of plastically deforming GATE‐2013
metal by passing it between rolls. In a rolling process, the state of stress of the
y Most widely used, high production and close material undergoing deformation is
g
Rolling tolerance. (a) pure compression
y Friction between the rolls and the metal surface (b) pure shear
produces high compressive stress. (c) compression and shear
y Hot‐working (unless mentioned cold rolling.) (d) tension and shear
By S K Mondal
1 y Metal will undergo bi‐axial compression. 2 3
Hot Rolling
y Done above the recrystallization temp.
y Results fine grained structure.
y Surface quality and final dimensions are less accurate.
y Breakdown of ingots into blooms and billets is done by

h
hot‐rolling.
ll This
h is followed
f ll d by
b further
f h hot‐rolling
h ll into
plate sheet,
plate, sheet rod,
rod bar,
bar pipe,
pipe rail.
rail
y Hot rolling is terminated when the temp.

temp falls to
about (50 to 100
100°C)
C) above the recrystallization temp.
temp
5
4 6
Ch
Change in grains structure in Hot‐rolling
i i t t i H t lli IAS – 2001 Cold Rolling
Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i characteristics
h i i off rolling
lli
y Done below the recrystallization temp..
process:
1. Shows work hardening effect y Products are sheet, strip, foil etc. with good
2 Surface finish is not good
2.
3. Heavy reduction in areas can be obtained
surface finish and increased mechanical strength
Which of these characteristics are associated with hot with close product dimensions.
rolling?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 y Performed on four‐high or cluster‐type rolling
Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 mills. (Due to high force and power)
metals for improved
p strength
g and ductility.
y

7 8 9
Ring Rolling
ISRO‐2006 y Ring rolls are used for tube rolling, ring rolling.
Whi h off
Which th following
the f ll i processes would
ld y As the rolls squeeze and rotate, the wall thickness is
produce strongest components? reduced
d d and
d the
h diameter
di off the
h ring
i increases.
i
(a) Hot rolling y Shaped
Sh d rolls
ll can be
b used
d to
t produce
d a wide
id variety
i t off
((b)) Extrusion cross‐section
cross section profiles.
profiles
((c)) Cold rolling
g y Ring rolls are made of spheroidized graphite bainitic and
(d) Forging pearlitic matrix or alloy cast steel base.
10 11 12
Sheet rolling
ISRO‐2009 y In sheet rolling we are only attempting to reduce the
Ring rolling is used cross section thickness
h k off a material.
l
(a) To decrease the thickness and increase
diameter
(b) To
T increase
i th thickness
the thi k off a ring
i
(c) For producing a seamless tube
(d) For producing large cylinder
13 14 15
Roll Forming Roll Bending
y A continuous form of three‐point bending is roll
bending, where plates, sheets, and rolled shapes can
be bent to a desired curvature on forming rolls.
y Upper roll being adjustable to control the degree of

curvature.
t

16 17 18
IES – 2006 Shape rolling Pack rolling
Which one of the following is a continuous bending y Pack rolling involves hot rolling multiple sheets of
process in which
h h opposing rolls
ll are used
d to produce
d materiall at once, such
h as aluminium
l f l
foil.
long sections of formed shapes from coil or strip y Improved
I d productivity
d i i
stock? y Aluminum sheets (aluminum foil)
y Matte, satin side – foil‐to‐foil contact
((a)) Stretch forming
g ((b)) Roll forming
g
y Shiny,
h b h side
bright d – foil‐to‐roll
f l ll contact due
d to high
h h contact
((c)) Roll bending
g ((d)) Spinning
p g stresses with polished rolls
y A thin surface oxide film prevents their welding
19 20 21
Thread rolling Thread rolling contd….
y Used to produce threads in substantial quantities. y Major diameter is always greater than the diameter of the
y This is a cold‐forming process in which the threads are bl k

blank.
f
formed
d by
b rolling
lli a thread
h d blank
bl k between
b h d
hardened
d dies
di y Blank
Bl k diameter
di i little
is li l larger
l (
(0.002 i h) than
inch) h the
h pitch
i h
that cause the metal to flow radially into the desired diameter of the thread.
thread
shape.
p y Restricted to ductile materials.
materials
y No metal is removed, g
greater strength,
g smoother, harder,
and more wear‐resistant surface than cut threads.
22 23 24
IES – 1992, GATE‐1992(PI) IES – 1993, GATE‐1989(PI)

Thread rolling is restricted to The blank diameter used in thread rolling will be
(a) Ferrous materials (a) Equal to minor diameter of the thread
(b) Ductile materials (b) Equal to pitch diameter of the thread
( ) Hard materials
(c) ( ) A little large than the minor diameter of the thread
(c)
(d) None of the above
N f h b (d) A little
li l larger
l than
h the
h pitch
i h diameter
di off the
h thread
h d

25 26 27
Manufacture of gears by rolling
y The straight and helical teeth of disc or rod type external
steell gears off small
ll to medium
d d
diameter and
d module
d l are
generated by cold rolling.
rolling
y High accuracy and surface integrity.

integrity
y Employed for high productivity and high quality.

quality (costly
machine))
y Larger size gears are formed by hot rolling and then

finished by machining. 28 Fig. Gear rolling between three gear roll tools 29 30
Roll piercing
Roll piercing y It is a variation of rolling called roll piercing.
y The billet or round stock is rolled between two rolls,,
both of them rotating in the same direction with their
axes at an angle of 4.5 to 6.5 degree.
y These rolls have a central cylindrical portion with the
sides tapering slightly.
slightly There are two small side rolls,
rolls
which help in guiding the metal.
y Because of the angle at which the roll meets the metal,
it gets in addition to a rotary motion, an additional
axial advance, which brings the metal into the rolls.
y This cross‐rolling
g action makes the metal friable at the
centre which is then easily pierced and given a
cylindrical shape by the central
central‐piercing
piercing mandrel.
31 32 33
IAS – 2007 IAS – 2003 IAS – 2000

Match
M t h List
Li t I with
ith List
Li t II and
d select
l t the
th correctt answer using i
the code given below the Lists: In one setting of rolls in a 3‐high rolling mill, one Rolling very thin strips of mild steel requires
List I List II gets
(Type of Rolling Mill) (Characteristic)
(a) Large diameter rolls
A Two
A. T high
hi h non‐reversing
i mills
ill 1. Middle
Middl roll ll rotates
t t byb friction
f i ti ( ) One
(a) O reduction
d i in i thickness
hi k (b) Small diameter rolls
B. Three high mills 2. By small working roll, power
for rolling is reduced (b) Two
T reductions
d ti i thickness
in thi k ( ) High speed rolling
(c)
C. Four high mills 3. Rolls of equal size are
rotated only in one direction (c) Three reductions in thickness (d) Rolling without a lubricant
R lli i h l b i
D. Cluster mills 4. Diameter of working roll is
very small (d) Two or three reductions in thickness depending
Code:A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 2 1 3 4 upon
p the setting
g
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 3 1 2 4 34
35 36
Planetary mill Camber
y Consist of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by a large
number of planetary rolls.
y Each planetary roll gives an almost constant reduction to the
slab as it sweeps out a circular path between the backing rolls
and the slab.
y As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have contact with the
work piece, another pair of rolls makes contact and repeat
that
h reduction.
d i
y The overall reduction is the summation of a series of small
reductions
d ti b each
by h pair
i off rolls.
ll Therefore,
Th f th planetary
the l t mill
ill
can reduce a slab directly to strip in one pass through the
mill.
mill
y The operation requires feed rolls to introduce the slab into
the mill, and a pair of planishing rolls on the exit to improve
the surface finish. y Camber can be used to correct the roll deflection (at only
38
37 one value of the roll force). 39
IES – 1993 Lubrication for Rolling IAS – 2004

In order to get uniform thickness of the plate by y Hot rolling of ferrous metals is done without a lubricant. Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Rolling
R lli requires
i high
hi h friction
f i i which
hi h
increases forces and power consumption.
rolling
ll process, one provides
d y Hot rolling of non‐ferrous metals a wide variety of Reason (R): To prevent damage to the surface of the
( ) Camber
(a) C b on the
h rolls
ll compounded
d d oils,
il emulsions
l i and
d fatty
f acids
id are used.
d rolled products,
products lubricants should be used. used
(b) Offset
Off t on the
th rolls
ll y Cold
C ld rolling
lli l bi
lubricants
t are water‐soluble
t l bl oils,
il low‐
l correct explanation
l off A
(c) Hardening of the rolls viscosity lubricants,
lubricants such as mineral oils,
oils emulsions,
emulsions (b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee
(d) Antifriction bearings paraffin and fattyy acids.
p
( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
40 41 42
Defects in Rolling Defects in Rolling
Defects What is Cause Anisotropy
Surface Scale, rust, Inclusions and
Material develops anisotropy during cold rolling of sheet
•Material develops anisotropy during cold rolling of sheet GATE –
GATE – 2009 (PI)
2009 (PI)
metal
Defects scratches,, impurities
p in the
Three principal true strain A i t
Anisotropy i rolled
in ll d components
t is
i caused
d by
b
pits, cracks materials
⎛L ⎞ (a) changes in dimensions
Wavy edges Strip is Due to roll Inlengthdirection, ε l = ln ⎜ f ⎟
⎝ Lo ⎠
thinner along g bendingg edges
g (b) scale formation
⎛W ⎞
its edges than elongates more Inwidthdirection, ε w = ln ⎜ f ⎟
at its centre.
centre and buckle.
buckle ⎝ Wo ⎠ (c) closure of defects
⎛t ⎞
Inthethicknessdirection, ε t = ln ⎜ f ⎟
Alligatoring Edge breaks Non uniform
Non‐uniform ⎝ to ⎠
(d) grain orientation
deformation For isotropicmaterials,ε w = ε t but in a cold rolled sheet ε w ≠ ε t
εw
Anisotropyratio ( r ) =
43 ε t Page 94 of 276 44
Rev.0
45
Example
A rectangular block 100 mm x 20 mm x 2 mm IES‐2003
A
Assertion
ti (A) While
(A): Whil rolling
lli metal
t l sheet
h t in
i rolling
lli
is elongated to 130 mm. If the anisotropy
mill the edges are sometimes not straight and flat
mill,
ratio = 2,, find true strain in all directions. but are wavy.
y Formula in Rolling
Reason (R) : Non uniform mechanical properties
of the flat material rolled out result in waviness of
the edges.
46 47 48
Geometry of Rolling Process Draft GATE‐2007

y Total
T l reduction
d i or “draft”
“d f ” taken
k ini rolling.
lli The thickness of a metallic sheet is reduced from an
Δh=h0 - hf =2(R- Rcos α) =D(1- cos α) initiall value

l off 16 mm to a final
f l value
l off 10 mm in
one single pass rolling with a pair of cylindrical
y Usually,
y, the reduction in blooming
g mills is about 100 rollers each of diameter of 400 mm. The bite angle
mm and in slabbing mills, about 50 to 60 mm.
in degree will be
(a) 5.936 (b) 7.936
(c) 8.936 (d) 9.936
49 50 51
GATE – 2012 Same Q in GATE – 2012 (PI) GATE 2017 (PI)

GATE‐2017 (PI) GATE‐1998
A metallic strip having a thickness of 12 mm is to
be rolled using two steel rolls, each of 800 mm A strip with a cross‐section 150 mm x 4.5 mm is
In a single pass rolling process using 410 mm diameter
steel rollers, a strip of width 140 mm and thickness 8 di
diameter. I is
It i assumed d that
h there
h i no change
is h i
in b
being rolled
ll d with
h 20%
% reduction
d off area using 450
width of the strip p duringg rolling.
g In order to mm diameter rolls.
rolls The angle subtended by the
mm undergoes
d 10%
% reduction
d off thickness.
h k The
h angle
l off
achieve 10% reduction in cross‐sectional area of
bite in radians is deformation zone at the roll centre is (in radian)
th strip
the t i after
ft rolling,
lli th angle
the l subtended
bt d d (in
(i
((a)) 0.006 ((b)) 0.031
3 g
degrees) ) byy the deformation zone at the center of ((a)) 0.01 ((b)) 0.02
the roll is
(c) 0.062 (d) 0.600 ((c)) 0.033 ((d)) 0.06
( ) 1.84
(a) 8 (b) 3.14 (c)
( ) 6.84
68 (d) 8.23
8

52 53 54
Roll strip contact length
Roll strip contact length
GATE‐2018 (PI) GATE‐2004
y Roll strip contact length
R ll i l h In a rolling process, sheet of 25 mm thickness is
A 10 mm thick plate is rolled to 7 mm thickness
L = R α rolled
ll d to 20 mm thickness.
h k Roll
ll is off diameter
d 600
in a rolling mill using 1000 mm diameter rigid
mm and it rotates at 100 rpm.
rpm The roll strip contact
rolls. The neutral point is located at an angle of [ α must be in radian]
length will be
0.3 times the bite angle from the exit. The
((a)) 5 mm ((b)) 39 mm
thickness (in mm, up to two decimal places) of
((c)) 778 mm ((d)) 120 mm
the
h plate
l at the
h neutrall point is ______
55 56 57
For Unaided entry Maximum Draft Possible GATE 2011

The maximum possible draft in cold rolling of
μ ≥ tan α ( Δh )max =μ R 2
sheet increases with the
(a) increase in coefficient of friction
(b) decrease
d in coefficient
ff off friction
f
( ) decrease
(c) d i roll
in ll radius
di
(d) increase
i i roll
in ll velocity
l it
58 59 60
GATE 2016
GATE-2016
GATE 2014 GATE 2018
In a rolling process,
process the maximum possible draft,draft The maximum possible draft in rolling,
rolling A 300 mm thick slab is being cold rolled using
defined as the difference between the initial and
th final
the fi l thickness
thi k off the
th metal t l sheet,
h t mainly
i l which is the difference between initial and roll
ll off 600
6 mm diameter.
di t If the
th coefficient
ffi i t off
depends on which pair of the following parameters? final thicknesses of the sheet metal,
friction is 0 08,
0.08, the maximum possible
P: Strain depends on
Q: Strength of the work material reduction (in mm) is ____________
(a) rolling force
R: Roll diameter
S: Roll velocity (b) roll
ll radius
di
T: Coefficient of friction between roll and work (c) roll width
(a) Q, S (b) R, T
(d) yield shear stress of the material
(c) S, T (d) P, R
61 62 63
GATE 2015
GATE-2015 IES – 1999 Minimum Possible Thickness (h f min )
In
I a slab
l b rolling
lli operation
i , the
h maximum
i Assertion
A i (A):
(A) InI a two high
hi h rolling
lli mill
ill there
h is
i a
ho − h f min = μ 2 R
limit to the possible reduction in thickness in one
thickness reduction(∆h)max is given by ∆hmax = µ
µ²R
R,
pass.
where R is the radius of the roll and µ is the co‐ Reason (R): The reduction possible in the second
efficient of friction between the roll and the sheet. pass is less than that in the first pass.
( ) Both
h
If µ = 0.1, the maximum angle subtended by the correct explanation of A
deformation zone at the centre of the roll (bite (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
angle
l in degrees)
d ) is _____ correct explanation of A
64 65 66
GATE 2015
GATE-2015
GATE‐2006 GATE‐2019
A 4 mm thick sheet is rolled with 300 mm diameter The
Th thickness
hi k off a sheet
h is
i reduced
d d by b rolling
lli In a rolling operation using rolls of diameter
(without any change in width) using 600 mm 500 mm , if a 25 mm thick
thi k plate
l t cannott be
b
rolls
ll to reduce
d thickness
h k without
h any change
h in its
diameter rolls. Neglect elastic deflection of the
width The friction coefficient at the work‐roll
width. work roll rolls
ll andd assume that
th t the
th coefficient
ffi i t off friction
f i ti att reduced to less than 20 mm in one pass, the
interface is 0.1. The minimum possible thickness of the roll‐workpiece

p interface is 0.05.5 The sheet coefficient of friction between the roll and the
enters the rotating rolls unaided. If the initial plate is _______
the sheet that can be produced in a single pass is
sheet thickness is 2 mm,
mm the minimum possible
(a) 1.0 mm (b) 1.5 mm final thickness that can be produced by this
process in a single pass is ________ mm (round
(c) 2.5 mm (d) 3.7 mm
off to two decimal places).
places)
67 68 69
GATE‐2020 Number of pass needed G
GATE – 20 ( )
2011 (PI)
The
Th thickness
hi k off a plate
l is
i reduced
d d from
f 30 mm to 10
A strip of thickness 40 mm is to be rolled to a
thickness of 20 mm using a two‐high mill having Δhrequired mm by successive cold rolling passes using identical
n=
q rolls of diameter 600 mm. Assume that there is no
rolls
ll off diameter
di 200 mm. Coefficient
C ffi i off friction
f i i
Δhmax
change in width. If the coefficient of friction
and arc length in mm,
mm respectively are
between the rolls and the work piece is 0.1, the
( ) 45 and 44
(a)0.45 44.72
7 ( ) 0.45
(b) 45 and 338.84
4
(c) 0.39 and 38.84 (d) 0.39 and 44.72 minimum number of passes required is
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 7

70 71 72
Neutral Point and Neutral Plane
The point
Th i where
h roll
ll velocity
l i equals
l
IES – 2001 GATE‐2014(PI) work velocity is known as the no‐slip V0 = input velocity
point
i t or the
th neutral
t l point.
i t Vf = final or output velocity
A strip is to be rolled from a thickness of 30 mm to A 80 mm thick steel plate with 400 mm width is
R roll radius
R = roll radius
15 mm using a two‐high
h h mill
ll having
h rolls
ll off rolled
ll d to
t 40 mm thickness
thi k i 4 passes with
in ith equall
ho = back height
diameter 300 mm.
mm The coefficient of friction for reduction in each pass, by using rolls of 800 mm
hf =output or final
fi l
unaided bite should nearly be diameter. Assuming the plane‐strain deformation, thickness
what is the minimum coefficient of friction α = angle of bite
((a)) 0.35
35 ((b)) 0.55 N N neutral point or no
N‐N = neutral point or no‐
required for unaided rolling to be possible? slip point
((c)) 0.255 ((d)) 0.077 Vr − Vo
( ) 0.111
(a) (b) 0.158
8 ( ) 0.223
(c) (d) 0.316
6 Backward slip = × 100% To the left of the Neutral Point:
Vr
Velocity of the strip < Velocity of the roll
V f − Vr
Forward slip = × 100% To the right of the Neutral Point:
73 74 Vr Velocity of the strip > Velocity of the roll75
IES 2014
IES ‐
In the process of metal rolling operation, along the arc GATE ‐2008(PI)
GATE‐1990 (PI)
GATE‐1990 (PI) off contact ini the
h roll ll gap there
h is
i a pointi called
ll d the
h In a rolling process, thickness of a strip is reduced
neutral point, because
Whil rolling
While lli a strip
t i the
th peripheral
i h l velocity
l it off (a) On one side of this point, the work material is in tension f
from 4 mm to 3 mm using 300 mm diameter
d rolls
ll
the roll is ….A…..than
A than the entry velocity of the and on the other side,, the work material is in compression
p
rotating at 100 rpm.
rpm The velocity of the strip in
(b) On one side of this point, the work material has velocity
strip
p and is ……B …..the exit velocity
y of the greater than that of the roll and on the other side,
side it has (m/s) at the neutral point is
strip. velocity lesser than that of the roll
((a)) 1.57
57 ((b)) 33.14
4 ((c)) 47
47.10 ((d)) 94
94.20
( ) On
(c) O one side id off this
thi point,
i t the
th work k material
t i l has
h rough h
(a) less than/greater less surface finish and on the other side, the work material has
very fine
fi finish
fi i h
(b) Greater than/less than
(d) At this ppoint there is no increase in material width, but
on either side of neutral point, the material width increases
76 77 78
IES – 2002 Selected Questions C ti it E

Continuity Equation
ti
y Generally rolling increases the
In rolling a strip between two rolls, the position of The effect of friction on the rolling mill is work width from an initial value
of bo to a final one of bf and this
the
h neutrall point in the
h arc off contact does
d not (a) always bad since it retards exit of reduced metal is called spreading.
depend on (b) always good since it drags metal into the gap between y The
Th inlet
i l and
d outlet
l volume
l
rates of material flow must be
(a) Amount of reduction (b) Diameter of the rolls th rolls
the ll the
h same, thath is,
i
(c) Coefficient of friction (d) Material of the rolls (c) advantageous before the neutral point hobovo = hf bfvf
(d) disadvantageous after the neutral point where vo and vf are the entering
g
and exiting velocities of the
work.

79 80 81
GATE‐2014 Elongation Factor or Elongation Co‐efficient GATE‐1992(PI)
A mild steel plate has to be rolled in one pass such L A If the elongation factor during rolling of an ingot is
that the final plate thickness is 2/3rd of the initial E= 1 = o for single pass 1.22. The minimum number of passes needed to
Lo A1
thickness,
hi k with
i h the
h entrance speed
d off 10 m/min
/ i produce
d a section
i 250 mm x 250 mm from
f an ingot
i
Ln Ao
and roll diameter of 500 mm.
mm If the plate widens
En = = f n − pass
for of 750 mm x 750 mm are
byy 2% during
g rolling,
g, the exit velocityy ((in m/min)
/ ) Lo An (a) 8 (b) 9
is …………… (c) 10 (d) 12
82 83 84
Force, Torque and Power Projected length ( Lp ) = R sin α = RΔh , mm

Projected
j Area ( Ap ) = L p × b , mm 2 GATE‐2016 (PI)
g Force ( F ) = σ o × L p × b , N
RollSeparating
p In a single‐pass rolling operation, a 200 mm wide
metallic strip is rolled from a thickness 10 mm to a
[σ o in N / mm 2 i.e. MPa ]
thickness 6 mm. The roll radius is 100 mm and it rotates
e gt ( a in mm ) = 0.5L p for
Arm length o hot
ot rolling
o g at 200 rpm.
rpm The roll‐strip
roll strip contact length is a function of
= 0.45 L p for cold rolling roll radius and,
and initial and final thickness of the strip.
strip If
a the average
g flow stress in p
plane strain of the strip
p
Will b
be T
Torque ll (T ) = F ×
per roller , Nm
N
discussed 1000 material in the roll gap is 500 MPa, the roll separating
in class 85 Total power for two roller ( P ) = 2T ω , inW 86

force (in kN) is _______. 87
IAS ‐2017 Main

IAS ‐2017 Main
GATE‐2008 GATE‐2017 An annealed copper
pp p plate of 3300 mm width and 20
In a single pass rolling operation, a 20 mm thick A strip
i off 120 mm width
id h andd 8 mm thickness
hi k is
i
mm thickness is rolled to 16 mm thickness in one
plate
l t with
ith plate
l t width
idth off 100 mm, is
i reduced
d d to
t 18
8 rolled between two 300 mm ‐ diameter rolls to get
a strip of 120 mm width and 7.2 mm thickness. pass. Considering radius of the roller as 400 mm,
mm. The roller radius is 250 mm and rotational rotational speed of 80 rpm and average
a erage flow
flo stress
Th speed
The d off the
th strip
t i att the
th exit
it is
i 30 m/min.
/ i
speed is 10 rpm. The average flow stress for the plate There is no front or back tension. Assuming g during rolling as 400 MPa, calculate the true strain
material is 300 MPa. The power required for the uniform roll pressure of 200 MPa in the roll bite and rolling force (kN).
rolling operation in kW is closest to and 100% mechanical efficiency,
efficiency the minimum
total power (in kW) required to drive the two [10 Marks]
( ) 15.2
(a) (b) 18.2
8 rolls is___________
(c) 30.4
30 4 (d) 45 6
45.6
88 89 90
GATE‐2020 IES – 2000, GATE‐2010(PI) IAS – 2007
The
Th thickness
hi k off a steell plate
l with
i h material
i l strengthh In the rolling process, roll separating force can be Consider
C id theh following
f ll i statements:
coefficient of 210 MPa, has to be reduced from 20 g can be reduced byy
Roll forces in rolling
mm to 15 mm in a single pass in a two‐high rolling d
decreased
d by
b
1. Reducing friction
mill with a roll radius of 45 450 mm and rolling g
( ) Reducing
(a) R d i theh roll
ll diameter
di 2. Using
Ui l
large di
diameter rolls
ll to increase
i the
h contact
velocity of 28 m/min. If the plate has a width of 200
mm and its strain hardening exponent,
exponent n is 0.25,
0 25 the area.
(b) Increasing
I i the
th roll
ll diameter
di t
rolling force required for the operation is 3. Taking smaller reductions per pass to reduce the
_______________ kN (round
( d off
ff to
t 2 decimal
d i l places).
l ) (c) Providing back‐up
back up rolls contact area.
area
Note : Average
g Flow Stress Which of the statements given above are correct?
(d) Increasing the friction between the rolls and the
= Material Strength Coefficient ×
(True strain )n metal (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 1 2 and 3
(1 + n )
91 92 93
Assumptions in Rolling IES – 2001

1. Rolls
R ll are straight,
i h rigid
i id cylinders.
li d Which
Whi h off the
th following
f ll i assumptions
ti are correctt for
f
2. Strip
p is wide compared
p with its thickness,, so that no cold rolling?
widening of strip occurs (plane strain conditions). 1. The material is plastic.
2. The arc of contact is circular with a radius g greater than
3 The arc of contact is circular with a radius greater than
3.
the radius of the roll.
the radius of the roll.
3 Coefficient of friction is constant over the arc of
3.
4. The material is rigid perfectly plastic (constant yield contact and acts in one direction throughout the arc of
[For IES Conventional Only] st e gt ).
strength). contact.
contact
5. The co‐efficient of friction is constant over the tool‐ Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
workk interface.
i t f Codes:
d
((a)) 1 and 2 ((b)) 1 and 3
94 95
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 96
Stress Equilibrium of an Element in Rolling For sliding friction, τ x = μp Simplifying and neglecting Due to cold rolling, σ 0' increases as h decreases,
terms sin θ ≅ θ and cos θ = 1,
second order terms, 1 wee get thus σ 0' h nearly a constant and itsderivative zero.
d (σ x h )
dθ
= 2 pR (θ m μ ) d
dθ
( p / σ 0' ) 2R
2 = (θ m μ )
p −σ x = σ 0 = σ 0' p / σ 0' h
3
h = h f + 2 R (1 − cos θ ) ≈ h f + Rθ 2
⎡ h ( p − σ 0' ) ⎤ = 2 pR (θ m μ )
d
dθ ⎣ ⎦ d ( p / σ 0' ) 2R
= (θ m μ ) dθ
Considering the thickness of the element perpendicular to
d ⎡ ' ⎛ p ⎞⎤
⎢σ 0 h ⎜ ' − 1 ⎟ ⎥ = 2 pR (θ m μ )
( p /σ )'
0
h f + Rθ 2
dθ ⎣ ⎝σ0 ⎠⎦
the plane of paper to be unity, unity We get equilibrium Integrating both side
equation in x‐direction as, d ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ d 2 Rθ dθ 2 Rμ
- σ x h + (σ x +dσ x ) (h + dh) - 2pR dθ sin θ σ 0' h ⎜
d θ ⎝ σ 0'
⎟ + ⎜ ' − 1⎟
σ θ
(σ 0' h ) = 2 pR (θ m μ ) ln ( p / σ 0' ) = ∫ m ∫h dθ = I m II ( say )
+ 2 τ x R dθ cos θ 97= 0 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ d h f + Rθ 2 f + Rθ
2
98 99
2Rθdθ 2Rθdθ 2θdθ ⎛h⎞ ⎛h⎞ R ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛h ⎞
I= ∫h f + Rθ
2
= ∫ h
= ∫h/R = ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝R⎠
∴ ( )
ln p / σ '0 = ln ⎜ ⎟ ∓ 2μ
⎝R⎠ hf
.tan −1 ⎜⎜ .θ ⎟ + ln C
⎟ y zone,, p = C.σ '0 ⎜ o ⎟ e− μHo
In the entry
⎝ hf ⎠ ⎝R⎠
hf ⎛h⎞
Now h / R = + θ2 ∴ p = C σ '0 ⎜ ⎟ e∓ μH R μHo
R
⎝R⎠ and C = .e
d ⎛h⎞ ho
or = 2θ
θ\ R ⎛ R ⎞
dθ ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ where H = 2 .tan −1 ⎜⎜ .θ ⎟ h
⎟ . e ( 0 )
μ H −H
hf ⎝ hf ⎠ p = σ '0
2Rμ
R h0
II = ∫ dθ Now at entry ,θ = α
h f + Rθ2
Hence H = H0 with θ replaced by ∝ in above equation I the eexit
In it zone
o e
2μ
=∫ dθ At exit θ = 0 ⎛ h ⎞
h f / R + θ2
p = σ '0 ⎜ ⎟ .eμH
Therefor p = σ '0
R ⎛ R ⎞ ⎝ hf ⎠
= 2μ .tan −1 ⎜ .θ
θ⎟
hf ⎜ ⎟ At the neutral po int above equations
⎝ hf ⎠
will give same results
100 101 102
hn h
. e ( 0 n ) = n . eμ Hn
μ H −H
If back tension σ b is there at Entry,
Entry
h0 hf IAS ‐2012 Main
h
ho p = ( σ ′o − σ b ) . e ( 0 )
μ H −H
= e ( 0 n)
μ H − 2H
or h0
hf What is friction hill ?
What is "friction hill" ?
1⎡ 1 ⎛ h0 ⎞⎤ If front tension σ f is there at Exit,
or Hn = ⎢H0 − ln ⎜ ⎟⎥
2 ⎢⎣ μ ⎝ hf h
⎠ ⎥⎦ p = ( σ ′o − σ f ) . eμ H
⎛ R ⎞ hf
R
From H = 2 .tan −1
⎜⎜ .θ ⎟
hf ⎟
⎝ hf ⎠
hf ⎛ h f Hn ⎞
∴ θn = .tan ⎜ . ⎟⎟
R ⎜
⎝ R 2 ⎠
and h n = h f + 2R (1 − cos θn ) 103 104 105
For IES Only
Formulae Formulae
What is ragging?
What is ragging? 2 Pressure distribution in lagging zone (Entry zone)
p −σ x = σ o = σ o'
y Ragging is the process of making certain 3 p = σ o' ×
h
×e ( o )
μ H −H
fine grooves on the surface of the roll to h = h f + 2 R (1 − cos θ ) = h f + Rθ 2 ho

increase the
h friction.
f Pressure distribution in leading zone (exit zone)
y In case of primary reduction rolling mills R ⎛ R ⎞
H =2 tan −1 ⎜ ×θ ⎟ h
p = σ o' × × e μ H
such as blooming or rough rolling mills for hf ⎜ hf ⎟
structural elements the rolls may ragged. ⎝ ⎠ hf
R ⎛ R ⎞ At Neutral point both equation will give same pressure

H0 = 2 tan −1 ⎜ ×α ⎟ μ(H −H )
hf ⎜ hf ⎟ h h
pn = σ o' × n × e o n = σ o' × n × e μ H n
⎝ ⎠
ho hf
106 107 108
Formulae Formulae Formulae
α
1⎡ 1 ⎛h ⎞⎤ With back tension and front tension Rolling load, F = ∫ pRdθ b

or H n = ⎢ H o − ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ μ ⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦ P
Pressure di
distribution
t ib ti in i lagging
l i zone (Entry
(E t zone)) 0
θn
⎛ h
⎡ h ⎤
hf H ⎞ p = (σ o' − σ b ) × × e ( o )
h μ H −H = ∫ ⎢σ o' × × e μ H ⎥ Rdθ b
Now, θ n = tan ⎜ f × n ⎟
R ⎜ R
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ho ⎢
0 ⎣
hf ⎦⎥
and , hn = h f + 2 R (1 − cos θ n ) Pressure distribution in leading zone (exit zone) α
⎡ h μ H −H ⎤
+ ∫ ⎢σ o' × × e ( o ) ⎥ Rdθ b
p = (σ o' − σ f ) × × e μ H
Maximum pressure at Neutral point h
θn ⎣ ho ⎦
pn = σ o' ×
hn
× e μ H n = pmax
hf
Torque, T = F × a
hf
109 110 Power, P = 2T ω 111
Formulae Formulae
α
If μ is present (Approximate formula); IFS –
IFS – 2010
2010
Rolling load, F = ∫ pRdθ b
0 ⎛ ho + h f ⎞ Calculate the neutral plane to roll 250 mm wide
θn i.e. ⎜ << 1⎟
⎡ h ⎤ ⎝ 2 RΔh ⎠ annealed copper
pp strip
p from 2.55 mm to 2.0 mm
= ∫ ⎢σ o' × × e μ H ⎥ Rdθ b
0 ⎢ ⎥⎦
hf thickness with 350 mm diameter steel rolls. Take µ
⎣ Rolling load,
α
= 0.05 and σ’o =180 MPa.
⎡ h μ H −H ⎤ ⎛ μ RΔh ⎞
+ ∫ ⎢σ o' × × e ( o ) ⎥ Rdθ b F = 1.15 × b × RΔh × σ o ⎜1 + ⎟⎟ [10‐marks]
θn ⎣ ho ⎦ ⎜ h + h
⎝ o f ⎠
Torque, T = F × a
Power, P = 2T ω 112 113 114
IAS – 1998
Match
M h ListLi ‐ I (products)
( d ) with
i h List
Li ‐ II (processes)
( )
and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists:
List – I List ‐II
II
A. M.S. angles and channels 1. Welding
B. Carburetors 2. Forging
C Roof trusses
C. 3
3. Casting
D. Gear wheels 4. Rolling
(a) 1 2 3 4(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) For
1 20212 (IES,4GATE3(d) 4
& PSUs) 3 1 2 115 Page 102 of 276
116
Rev.0
Forging Closed Die forging
g g
y Forging
g g p g p
process is a metal working process byy which
metals or alloys are plastically deformed to the desired
Forging shapes by a compressive force applied with the help of a

pair of dies.
y Because
B off the
th manipulative
i l ti ability
bilit off the
th forging
f i
process, it is possible to closely control the grain flow in
the specific direction, such that the best mechanical
properties
p p can be obtained based on the specific p
application.
By S K Mondal
y
1 2 3
IES‐2013
Statement (I): The dies used in the forging process are Open and Closed die forging
d l dd f Advantages of Forging
d f
made in pair.
pair y Depending
D di upon complexity
l i off the
h part forging
f i is
i y Discrete
Di shape
h off product
d can be
b produced.
d d
Statement (II): The material is pressed between two carried out as open die forging and closed die forging.
surfaces and the compression force applied, gives it a y Mechanical properties and reliability of the materials
shape.
p y In open die forging, the metal is compressed by repeated increases due to improve in grain structure.
blows by
bl b a mechanical
h i l h
hammer and
d shape
h i
is
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually y In forging favorable grain orientation of metal is
manipulated manually.
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of obtained that strengthen the component but forging
Statement (I) y In closed die forging, the desired configuration is distorts the previously created uni‐directional fibre.
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually obtained
b i d byb squeezing i the
h workpiece
k i b
between two
y Forging reduces the grain size of the metal, which
true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
p of shaped and closed dies.
increases strength and toughness.
toughness
Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false y Fatigue and creep strength increases.
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true 4 5 6
Disadvantages of Forging
d f IES – 1996 IES‐2013
y Costly
C l Which one of the following is an advantage of In the forging process:
I h f i
y Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
finish forging? 1. The metal structure is refined
Th t l t t i fi d
y Forging operations are limited to simple shapes and has 2 Original unidirectional fibers are distorted.
2. Original unidirectional fibers are distorted
( ) Good
(a) G d surface
f fi i h
finish
limitations for parts having undercuts, re‐entrant
surfaces etc
surfaces, (b) Low
L tooling
t li costt 3 Poor reliability as flaws are always there due to intense
3. Poor reliability, as flaws are always there due to intense
(c) Close tolerance working

g
(d) Improved physical property.

property 4
4. Part are shaped by plastic deformation of material
p yp
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4

7
Page 103 of 276
8 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
Rev.0
9
IES 2005
IES – IES ‐ 2012 IES 2016
IES‐2016
Consider the following statements: Statement (I): It is difficult to maintain close Consider the following g statements about forging
g g:
tolerance in normal forging operation. 1. Forgings have high strength and ductility.
1. Forging reduces the grain size of the metal, which Statement (II): Forging is workable for simple 2. Forgings
F i offer
ff greatt resistance
i t t impact
to i t and
d
results in a decrease in strength
g and toughness.
g shapes and has limitation for parts having fatigue loads.
undercuts.
undercuts
3. Forging assures uniformity in density as well as
2. Forged components can be provided with thin (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
dimensions of the forged parts.
i di id ll true and
individually d Statement
S (II) is
i theh correct
sections, without reducing the strength. explanation of Statement (I) Which of the above statements are correct?
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
individuallyy true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,
1 2 and 3
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
10 11 12
ISRO‐2013 Forgeability
bl IES ‐ 2012
Which of the following processes induce more stress y The
Th forgeability
f bili off a metall can be
b defined
d fi d as its
i Which
f ll i statements is i correct for
f
capability to undergo deformation by forging without forging?
in the metal?
cracking. (a) Forgeability is property of forging tool, by which
(a) Hot rolling y Metal
M l which
hi h can be
b formed
f d easily
il without
ih cracking,
ki with
ih forging can be done easily.
easily
((b)) Forging
g g low force has good forgeability. (b) Forgeability decreases with temperature upto lower
criticall temperature.
(c) Swaging y Upsetting test and Hot‐twist test are used to determine
(c) Ce
Certain
ta mechanical
ec a ca p properties
ope t es o
of tthee material
ate a aaree
f
forgeability.
bili
(d) Turning influenced by forging.
y Forgeability increases with temperature.
temperature (d) Pure
P metals
t l have
h good d malleability,
ll bilit therefore,
th f poor
forging properties.
13 14 15
Draft
f IES – 2006 Flash
l h
y The
Th draft
d f provided
id d on the
h sides
id for
f withdrawal
i hd l off the
h Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Forging
F i dies
di are provided id d with
i h taper The
Th excess metall added
dd d to the
h stockk to ensure complete
l
forging. or draft angles on vertical surfaces. filling of the die cavity in the finishing impression is
Reason (R): It facilitates complete filling of die called Flash.
y Adequate draft should be provided‐at least 3o for
aluminum
l i d 5 to 7o for
and f steel.
l cavity and favourable grain flow.flow
y Internal surfaces require more draft than external correct explanation
l off A
surfaces. During cooling, forging tends to shrink towards
(b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee
i centre and
its d as a result,
l the
h externall surfaces
f are likely
lik l
to be separated, whereas the internal surfaces tend to
cling to the die more strongly. ( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
16 17 18
IES‐2016
Flash
l h Contd… IES ‐ 2014 Statement (I) : In drop forging, the excess metal
y A flash
fl h acts as a cushion
hi for
f impact
i blows
bl from
f the
h In
I hot
h die di forging,
f i thin
hi layer
l off material
i l all
ll around
d added to the stock for complete filling of the die
finishing impression and also helps to restrict the the forging is cavity is called flash.
outward flow of metal, thus helping in filling of thin ribs (a) Gutter space, which fills up hot gases Statement (II) : Flash acts as a cushion against
and bosses in the upper
pp die. impact
p blows attributable to the finishing g
(b) Flash,
Flash the width of it is an indicator of the pressure
impression.
y The amount of flash depends on the forging size and developed in the cavity
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and
may vary from 10 to 50 per cent. (c) Coining, which indicates the quality of the forging
Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I).
y The
Th forging
f i l d can be
load b decreased
d d by
b increasing
i i the
h (d) Cavity,
Cavity which is filled with hot impurities in the
flash thickness. material
Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
)
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
19 20 21
IAS – 2002 Gutter Gutter Contd….

Consider the following statements related to
C id h f ll i l d y In
I addition
ddi i to the
h flash,
fl h provision
i i should
h ld be
b made
d in
i the
h y Without a gutter, a flash may become excessively thick,
forging: die for additional space so that any excess metal can flow
1. Flash is excess material added to stock which flows and help in the complete closing of the die. This is called not allowing
ll the
h dies
d to close
l completely.
l l
around parting line.
around parting line g
gutter.
y Gutter
G d h and
depth d width
id h should
h ld be
b sufficient
ffi i to
2. Flash helps in filling of thin ribs and bosses in upper
die. accommodate the extra,
extra material.
material
3. Amount of flash depends upon forging force.
ou t o as depe ds upo o g g o ce.
Which of the above statements are correct?
( ) 1, 2 and 3
(a) d (b) 1 and 2d
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
22 23 24
IES – 1993, GATE‐1994(PI) IES – 1997

Which one of the following manufacturing processes
Assertion
A ti (A):
(A) In
I drop
d forging
f i besides
b id theth provision
i i GATE‐1989(PI)
for flash, provision is also to be made in the forging
requires the
h provision off ‘gutters’?
‘ ’ di for
die f additional
dditi l space called
ll d gutter.
tt At the
th last
l t hammer
h stroke
t k the
th excess material
t i l
Reason (R): The gutter helps to restrict the outward from the finishing cavity of a forging die is
( ) Closed
(a) Cl d die
di forging
f i flow of metal thereby helping to fill thin ribs and
bases in the upper die. pushed into……………..
p
(b) Centrifugal
C t if l casting
ti
(c) Investment casting correct
co ect eexplanation
p a at o o of A
(d) Impact extrusion correct explanation of A
(d)
25 26 27
Sequential steps involved in closed die forging
IES‐2015 Fullering or Reducing cross section and making it longer.
Which of the following statements apply to provision swaging Example
l
Edging or rolling Preform shape. Gathers the material as required
Preform shape Gathers the material as required
of flash gutter and flash land around the parts to be in the final forging.
forged? B di
Bending R
Required for those parts which have a bent
i d f th t hi h h b t
shape
1. Small cavities are provided which are directly outside
Drawing or
k f ll b / f l d is reduced
Like fullering but c/s of only one end d d
the die impression. cogging
2 The volume of flash land and flash gutter should be
2. Flattening Flatten the stock so that it fits properly into the
about 20%‐25% of the volume of forging. finishing impression.
3. Gutter
G tt is i provided
id d to
t ensure completel t closing
l i off the
th Blocking Semi‐finishing impression, Imparts to the
die. forging it’s general but not exact or final shape.
g g g p
Finishing Final impression, Flash land and Gutter
((c)) 1,, 2 and 3 ((d)) 2 and 3 onlyy provided to the die.
to the die
28 Trimming or cut Removal of flash present around forging 29 30
ff
IES – 1998 IES – 2001 IES – 2003

Which one of the following processes is most In the forging operation, fullering is done to A forging method for reducing the diameter of a bar
commonly
l used
d for
f the
h forging
f off bolt
b l heads
h d off (a) Draw out the material and
d in the
h process making
k it longer
l is termed
d as
hexagonal shape? (b) Bend the material ( ) Fullering
(a) F ll i (b) P
Punching
hi
(a) Closed die drop forging ( ) Upset the material
(c) ( ) Upsetting
(c) U tti (d) E t di
Extruding
(b) Open die upset forging (d) Extruding the material
E di h i l
(c) Close die press forging
((d)) Open
p die p
progressive
g forging
g g
31 32 33
IES 2011 IES – 2005 IES – 2002

Which of the following processes belong to forging The process of removing the burrs or flash from a Consider
f ll i steps involved
i l d in
i hammer
h
operation
p ? forging a connecting rod from bar stock:
f
forged
d component in drop
d f
forging is called:
ll d 1. Blocking 2. Trimming
1. Fullering
2. Swaging
S i ( ) Swaging
(a) S i (b) P f
Perforating
i 3 Finishing 4.
3. 4 Fullering 5 Edging
5.
33. Welding g Which of the following is the correct sequence of
( ) Trimming
(c) Ti i (d) F ttli
Fettling operations?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and d 3 only
l (a) 1,
1 4,
4 3,
3 2 and 5
(c) 1 aand
d3o onlyy (b) 4, 5, 1, 3 and 2
(b) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1
(d) 5,
5 1,
1 4,
4 2 and 3
34 35 36
IAS – 2001
IES – 2003 Matchh List I (Forging
( operations)) with
h List II
(Descriptions) and select the correct answer using
Drop Forging
Consider
C id theh following
f ll i steps in i forging
f i a connecting i the codes given below the Lists: y The drop forging die consists of two halves. The lower
rod from the bar stock: List I List II
1. Blocking 2. Trimming A. Flattening 1.Thickness is reduced continuously at
h lf off the
half h die
d is fixed
f d to the
h anvill off the
h machine,
h while
hl
3 Finishing 4.
3. 4 Edging different sections along length the upper half is fixed to the ram.
ram The heated stock is
B. Drawing 2.Metal is displaced away from centre,
Select the correct sequence of these operations using the reducing thickness in middle and kept in the lower die while the ram delivers four to five
codes given below: increasing length
blows on the metal, in quick succession so that the metal
Codes: C
C. Fullering 3 Rod is pulled through a die
3.
(a) 1‐2‐3‐4 (b) 2‐3‐4‐1 D. Wire drawing 4. Pressure a workpiece between two flat spreads and completely fills the die cavity. When the two
Codes:A B C dies
di D A B C D
(c) 3‐4‐1‐2 (d) 4‐1‐3‐2 die halves close, the complete cavity is formed.
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 4 2 1 3 y Drop forging is used to produce small components.
37 38 39
IES – 1994, ISRO‐2010 IAS – 2000

InI drop
d forging,
f i forging
f i isi done
d by
b dropping
d i Drop
D forging
f i isi used
d to produce
d
((a)) The work ppiece at high
g velocityy ((a)) Small components
p
(b) The hammer at high velocity. (b) Large components
( ) The
(c) Th die
di with
i h hammer
h at high
hi h velocity
l i ( ) Identical
(c) Id i l Components
C i large
in l numbers
b
((d)) a weight
g on hammer to p produce the requisite
q ((d)) Medium‐size components
p
impact.
40 41 42
Press Forging
g g IES 2011
IES 2011
y Metal is squeezed gradually by a hydraulic or mechanical Advantages of Press Forging over Drop Forging Consider the following statements :
press and component is produced in a single closing of 1. Any metal will require some time to undergo
y Press forging is faster than drop forging
die, hence the dimensional accuracy is much better than complete
p plastic deformation p
p particularly
y if
d
drop f i
forging. y Alignment of the two die halves can be more easily deforming metal has to fill cavities and corners of
small radii.
maintained
i i d than
h with
i h hammering.
h i
2. For larger work piece of metals that can retain
y Structural
St t l quality
lit off the
th product
d t is
i superior
i tot drop
d toughness
h at forging
f i temperature it i is
i preferable
f bl to
forging.
forging use forge press rather than forge hammer.
(a) 1 and 2 are correct and 2 is the reason for 1
y With ejectors in the top and bottom dies, it is possible to (b) 1 and 2 are correct and 1 is the reason for 2
handle reduced die drafts. (c) 1 and 2 are correct but unrelated
(d) 1 only correct
43 44 45
Machine Forging
h Upset Forging Roll Forging
ll
y Unlike the drop or press forging where the material is y Increasing the diameter of a material by compressing its y When the rolls are in the open position, the heated stock
d
drawn out, in machine
h f
forging, the
h materiall is only
l upset l
length.
h is advanced
d d up to a stop. As the
h rolls
ll rotate, they
h grip and
d
to get the desired shape.
shape y Employs
E l split
li dies
di that
h contain
i multiple
l i l positions
ii or roll down the stock.
stock The stock is transferred to a second
cavities.
cavities set of grooves. The rolls turn again and so on until the
piece is finished.
46 47 48
Roll Forging
ll Contd….
Skew Rolling Smith Forging
h
y A rapid
id process. y Skew rolling produces y Blacksmith
Bl k i h uses this
hi forging
f i method
h d
metal ball y Quality of the product depends on the skill of the
y Round stock is fed operator.
continuously to two y Not used in industry.
p y
specially designed
g
opposing rolls.
y Metal is forged by each

of the grooves in the rolls
and emerges from the
end as a metal ball.
ball
49 50 51
For IES Only
IES – 2008
IES Hi h V l it F i (HVF)
High Velocity Forming (HVF)
IES – 2005 Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer using
Match
M t h List
Li t I (Type
(T off Forging)
F i ) withith List
Li t II (Operation)
(O ti ) the code given below the lists: y The
ep ocess de
process o s metals
deforms eta s by us g ve
using veryy high
g ve oc t es,
velocities,
and select the correct answer using the code given List‐I (Forging Technique) List‐II (Process) provided on the movements of rams and dies.
below the Lists: A Smith Forging
A. Smith Forging 11. Material is only upset to get the y As K.E ∞ V2, high energy is delivered to the metal with
List I List II desired shape relativelyy small weights
g ((ram and die).
)
A Drop
A. D F i
Forging 1. M l is
Metal i gripped
i d in
i theh dies
di andd B. Drop Forging 2.Carried out manually open dies
pressure is applied on the heated end y Cost and size of machine low.
B. Press Forging 2. Squeezing action C Press Forging
C. Press Forging 3 Done in closed impression dies by
3.
p Forging
C. Upset g g 33. Metal is p placed between rollers and
hammers in blows y Ram strokes short (due to high acceleration)
pushed D. Machine Forging 4. Done in closed impression dies by
y Productivity high, overall production cost low
D. Roll Forging
g g 4 4. Repeated
p hammer blows continuous squeezing
q g force
A B C D A B C D Code: A B C D A B C D y Used for Alloy steel, titanium, Al, Mg, to fabricate one
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 3 2 1 4 (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 3 2 1 piece complex components of smaller size like valve,
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4 52 (c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 1 2 3 53 rocket component.
54
For IES Only
IES‐2013 Flashless forging

Statement (I): In high velocity forming process, high
gy can be transferred to metal with relativelyy small
energy y The work material is completely surrounded by the die IES – 2008
weight. cavity during compression and no flash is formed. The
Th balls
b ll off the
h ball
b ll bearings
b i are manufactured
f d
y Most important requirement in flashless forging is that from steel rods. The operations involved are:
Statement (II): The kinetic energy is the function of
mass and velocity. the work volume must equal the space in the die cavity to 1. Ground
a very close tolerance.
tolerance 2 Hot forged on hammers
2.
true and Statement ((II)) is the correct explanation
p of 3. Heat treated
Statement (I) 4. Polished
(b) Both
B th Statement
St t t (I) and
d Statement
St t t (II) are individually
i di id ll Wh t is
What i the
th correctt sequence off the th above
b
true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of operations from start?
Statement (I)
() (a) 3‐2‐4‐1 (b) 3‐2‐1‐4
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false (c) 2‐3‐1‐4 (d) 2‐3‐4‐1
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true 55 56 57
Lubrication for Forging
b f Forging Defects
f Forging Defects
f Contd….
y Lubricants influence: friction, wear, deforming forces y Unfilled Sections: Die cavity is not y Scale
S l Pits:
Pi Irregular
I l depressions
d i on the
h surface
f due
d to
improper cleaning of the stock.
and
d flow
fl off materiall in die‐cavities,
d non‐sticking,
k completely
l l filled,
f ll d due
d to improper y Die Shift: Due to Misalignment of the two die halves or
thermal barrier.
barrier design of die making the two halves of the forging to be of improper
shape.
y For hot forging: graphite,
graphite MoS2 and sometimes molten y Cold Shut or fold: A small crack at y Flakes:
l k Internall ruptures caused d by
b the
h improper
g
glass. the corners and at right
g angles
g to cooling.
y Improper Grain Flow: This is caused by the improper
y For cold forging:
g g mineral oil and soaps.
p the forged surface. Cause: improper
design of the die,
die which makes the flow of metal not
y In hot forging, the lubricant is applied to the dies, but in
design of the die flowing the final intended directions.
cold forging, it is applied to the workpiece. 58 59 60
Forging Defects
f Contd…. IAS – 1998 IES 2011
y Forging Laps: These are folds of metal squeezed The
Th forging
f i defect
d f due
d to hindrance
hi d to smooth
h flow
fl Assertion (A) ( ) : Hot tears occur during
d forging
f
of metal in the component called 'Lap' occurs because of inclusions in the blank material
together
h during
d f
forging. They
h have
h irregular
l contours because Reason (R) : Bonding between the inclusions
and occur at right angles to the direction of metal flow.
flow (a) The corner radius provided is too large and the p parent material is through
g p physical
y
and chemical bonding.
(b) The corner radius provided is too small
y Hot tears and thermal cracking: These are surface (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
(c) Draft is not provided correct explanation of A
cracks occurring
g due to non‐uniform cooling
g from the (d) The shrinkage allowance is inadequate (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT
forging stage or during heat treatment. the correct explanation of A
( ) A is true but
(c) b R is false
f l
((d)) A is false but R is true
61 62 63
IES‐2013
B lli
Barrelling Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i statements pertaining i i to the h
open‐die forging of a cylindrical specimen between
GATE ‐2008 (PI)
GATE ‐2008 (PI) two flat dies:
Match the following
1 Lubricated specimens show more surface movement
1.
Group ‐1 Group‐2 than un‐lubricated ones.
P Wrinkling
P . 1 Upsetting
1. Upsetting 2. Lubricated
b d specimens show
h l
less surface
f movement
Q. Centre burst 2. Deep drawing than un‐lubricated ones.
R. Barrelling 3. Extrusion 3. Lubricated specimens show more barrelling than un‐
S C ld h t
S. Cold shut 4. Closed die forging
Cl d di f i lubricated ones.
ones
4. Lubricated specimens shows less barrelling than un‐
(a) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 4, S‐1 (b) P – 3, Q – 4, R – 1, S‐2 lubricated ones.
(c) P – 2, Q
(c) P 2 Q – 3, R
3 R – 1, S
1 S‐4
4 (d) P – 2, Q
(d) P 2 Q – 4, R
4 R – 3, S
3 S‐1
1 Which of these statements are correct?
Inhomogeneous deformation with barreling of the workpiece (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 66
64 65
For IES Only
Die Materials Should have
l h ld h GATE ‐2010 (PI)
y Good hardness, toughness and ductility at low and
Good hardness toughness and ductility at low and
Hot die steel, used for large solid dies in drop forging,
elevated temperatures
p
should
h ld necessarily
l have
h
y Adequate fatigue resistance
( ) high
(a) hi h strength
h and
d high
hi h copper content
y Sufficient hardenability
y Low thermal conductivity (b) high
hi h hardness
h d and
d low
l hardenability
h d bilit
y Amenability to weld repair
A bili ld i (c) high toughness and low thermal conductivity
y Good machinability (d) high hardness and high thermal conductivity

Material: Cr‐Mo‐V‐alloyed tool steel and Cr‐Ni‐Mo‐
y
alloyed tool steel. 67 68 69
For IES Only
IES 2013
IES‐2013
Statement (I): In power forging energy is provided by True Stress & True Strain
compressed d air
i or oil
il pressure or gravity.
it
True stress (σ T ) = σ (1 + ε )
Statement ((II):) The capacity
p y of the hammer is g given byy
the total weight, which the falling pans weigh. ⎛ Lf ⎞ ⎛ Ao ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
True strain (ε T ) = ln(1 + ε ) = ln ⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2 ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
⎝ Lo ⎠ ⎝ Af ⎠ ⎝ df ⎠
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of
S
Statement (I)
((b)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are individuallyy
true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of
Statement (I)
70 71 72
GATE‐2014 GATE‐1992, ISRO‐2012, VS‐2013 GATE‐2016
The relationship between true strain (εT ) and Engineering strain of a mild steel sample is
The true strain for a low carbon steel bar
engineering strain (ε
( E ) in a uniaxiall tension test is
which is doubled in length by forging is recorded as 0.100%. The true strain is
( ) E = ln(1 + ε
(a) ε l ( T ) (b) E = ln(1 ‐
(b) ε l ( εT )
((a)) 0.307
3 7 (a) 0.010 %
( ) εT = ln(1 + ε
(c) l ( E ) (d) T = ln(1 ‐
(d) ε l ( εE )
(b) 0.5 (b) 0.055 %
(c) 0.693
0 693 ((c)) 0.099
99 %
(d) 1.0
10 (d) 0.
0.101
0 %
73 74 75
GATE‐2007 GATE‐2016
In open‐die forging, a disc of diameter 200
GATE‐2017 (PI)
GATE‐2017 (PI) The value of true strain produced in
mm and height 60 mm is compressed A steell wire
i off 2 mm diameter
di i to be
is b drawn
d compressing a cylinder to half its original
without any barreling effect. The final f
from a wire
i off 5 mm diameter.
di t TheTh value
l off length is
diameter of the disc is 400 mm. The true true strain developed
de eloped is _____________(up
(up
(a) 0.69 (b) ‐0.69
strain is to three decimal places).
places)
(c) 0.5 (d) ‐0.5
(a) 1.986 (b) 1.686
(c) 1.386 (d) 0.602 76 77 78
GATE 2017
GATE‐2017 GATE 2019 (PI)
GATE‐2019 (PI)
GATE‐2018
A rod of length 20 mm is stretched to make a rod A metallic rod of diameter do is subjected to the
A bar is compressed to half of its original
of length 40 mm. Subsequently, it is compressed tensile test. The engineering stress and the true
length. The magnitude of true strain
to make a rod of final length 10 mm. Consider the stress at fracture are 800 MPa and 900 MPa,
produced in the deformed bar
longitudinal
g tensile strain as p
positive and respectively.
p y The ratio of the rod diameter at
is__________(correct to two decimal places).
compressive
p strain as negative.
g The total true fracture df to the initial diameter do is________
longitudinal
g strain in the rod is (round off to 2 decimal places)
p
((a)) ‐0.55 ((b)) ‐0.69

9 ((c)) ‐0.75
75 ((d)) ‐1.0
79 80 81
Strain Hardening & Flow Stress
y In the plastic region,
region the material behaviour is expressed GATE 2018
GATE‐2018
IES‐2019 Prelims. by the flow curve:
A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original
σ = Kε n
Where K is strength coefficient and n is strain‐hardening
The true stress (in MPa) versus true strain
diameter of 12.8
12 8 mm is tensile tested to fracture (or work‐hardening)
work hardening) exponent and at UTS,
UTS ε = n relationship for a metal is given by, σ = 1020 x
and found to have engineering fracture strength ε0.4. The cross
cross‐sectional
sectional area at the start of a
σf of 460 MPa. If its cross‐sectional diameter at
fracture is 10.7
10 7 mm,
mm the true stress at fracture will test ((when the stress and strain values are
be equal
q to zero)) is 100 mm2. The cross‐sectional
(a) 660 MPa (b) 645 MPa
g (in mm2)
area at the time of necking
( ) 630
(c) 6 MPa
MP (d) 615
6 MPa
MP
is_______(correct to two decimal places).
82 83 84
Average Flow Stress St i
Strain rate effects
t ff t GATE‐2006
y Strain rate effect (hot Working) The ultimate tensile strength of a material is 400
y Average (mean) flow stress is not on the basis of
MPa and the elongation up to maximum load is
instantaneous flow stress,
stress but on an average value over
35%.
% If the
h materiali l obeys
b power law
l off hardening,
h d i
the stress – strain curve from the beginning of strain to
then the true stress‐true strain relation (stress in
the final (maximum) value that occurs during
MPa) in the plastic deformation range is:
deformation.
K ε nf (a) σ = 540 ε0.30 (b) σ = 775 ε0.30
0 30
g flow stress (σ o ) =
Average (c) σ = 540 ε 0.35 (d) σ = 775 ε 0.35
1+ n
Here εf is the maximum strain value during deformation.
85 86 87
GATE 2015
GATE-2015
GATE‐2012 Same Q GATE ‐2012 (PI)
The strain hardening exponent n of stainless
GATE‐2017 A solid cylinder of diameter 100 mm and height 50 mm
steell SS 304 with
h distinct
d yield
ld and
d UTS values
l The Poisson
Poisson’ss ratio for a perfectly is forged between two frictionless flat dies to a height of
f db f l fl d h h f
incompressible linear elastic material is
undergoing plastic deformation is 25 mm The percentage change in diameter is
25 mm. The percentage change in diameter is
(a) 1 (b) 0.5
a) n<0 (a) 0 (b) 2 07
(b) 2.07 (c) 20 7
(c) 20.7 (d) 41 4
(d) 41.4
( )0
(c) (d) Infinite
I fi it
b)n=0
c) 0<n<1
d)n=1
88 89 90
GATE‐2018
The true stress (σ),
Th ( ) true strain
i (ɛ)
( ) diagram
di off a strain
i
GATE‐2016 (PI) hardening material is shown in figure.
GATE‐2015
The
Th flow
fl stress (in
(i MPa)
MP ) off a material
i l is
i given
i by
b
Two solid cylinders of equal diameter have different First, there is loading up to point A, i.e. up to stress
of 500 MPa and strain of 0.5.
0 5 then from point A,A
heights. They are compressed plastically by a pair of rigid σ = 500ε 0.1
01
there is unloading up to
point
i t B,
B i.e.
i to t stress
t off Where ε is true strain.
strain The Young
Young’ss modulus of
dies to create the same percentage reduction in their
100 MPa, Given that the elasticity of the material is 200 GPa. A block of
respecti e heights.
respective heights Consider that the die‐workpiece
die orkpiece Young's modulus E = thickness 100 mm made of this material is
compressed to 95 mm thickness and then the load
interface friction is negligible.
negligible The ratio of the final 200 GPa,, the natural
i removed.
is d The
Th final
fi l dimension
di i off the
th block
bl k (in
(i
strain at point B (εB)
diameter of the shorter cylinder
y to that of the longer
g mm) is _________
________(correct
(correct to two
cylinder is __________. decimal places).
91 92 93
For IES Only
GATE 2000 (PI)

GATE‐2000 (PI) Assumption
A cylindrical billet of 100 mm diameter is forged from 50
GATE‐2020 y Forging force is maximum at the end of the forging.
forging
A bolt
b l head
h d has
h to be
b made d at the
h end d off a rod
d off
mm height to 40 mm at 1000
1000°C.
C. The material has diameter d = 12 mm by localized forging (upsetting) y Coefficient of friction is constant between workpiece and
operation. The length of the unsupported portion dies (platens).
constant flow stress of 80 MPa. Find the work of of the rod is 4
40 mm. To avoid bucklingg of the rod,, a
y Thickness
Thi k off the
h workpiece
k i i small
is ll compared
d with
i h other
h
deformation. If a 10 KN drop hammer is used to closed forging operation has to be performed with a
maximum die diameter of__________
of mm
mm. dimensions,, and the variation of stress field along
g yy‐
complete the reduction in one blow. What will be the direction is negligible.
height of fall? y Length is much more than width, problem is plane
strain type.
type
y The entire workpiece
p is in the p
plastic state during
g the
94 95
process. 96
For IES Only
IES ‐ 2012 F i A l i f
Forging Analysis formulae
l
Rectangular Bar Forging:Using Slab Method of analysis
F i A l i f
l
7. Considering sticking friction all over the surface (τ x = τ y = K )
Assumptions
A i adopted
d d in
i the
h analysis
l i off open die
di forging
f i dσ x 2τ x
− = 0 ( Use plane strain condition, no change in width ) 2K
are
1.
dx h 8. P = 2 K +
h
(L − x) {Pressure distribution equation, linearly decreasing}
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢⎣ Where : σ 1 = σ x , σ 2 = 2 (σ x − p ) , σ 3 = − p ⎥⎦ ⎧ ⎫
L
1. Forging force attains maximum value at the middle of 9. Force ( F ) = 2 × ∫ ⎨2 K +
2K
(L − x) ⎬ B . dx
0⎩ ⎭
h
the operation.
operation 2 Von
2. MisesTheory: (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) 2 = 2 σ 02
Von-MisesTheory:
10.Considering sticking and sliding both model of friction
2. Coefficient of friction is constant between work piece σ0
3. or σ x + P = 2 K [where K = = flow shear stress]
3
and d die
d 4. Tresca’s Theory: σ 1 − σ 3 = σ 0
2.. St
Stress
ess in tthee ve
vertical
t ca ((Y‐direction)
d ect o ) iss zero.
e o. 5. or σ x + P = 2 K [where
h K=
= flow
fl shear
σ0
h stress]
2K
( x s − x ) For sticking region ( 0 ≤ x ≤ x s )
2
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 P = Ps +
6. Considering sliding friction all over the surface (τ x = μ P) h
( ) 2 and
(c) d3 (d) 1, 2 and
d3 P = 2K . e
2μ
(L − x ) 2μ
(L − x )
Pressure distribution equation exponentially decreasing P = 2K . e For sliding region ( x s ≤ x ≤ L )
h h
L 2μ ⎛ L
⎞
L
Force ( F ) = 2 × ∫ (2 K . e h
Xs
⎜Q ∫ gives half portion F so for 2L we use 2 ∫ ⎟
. (L − x ) L
. B . dx )
0 ⎝ 0 0 ⎠
11. FTotal = FSticking + FSliding = 2 ∫P Sticking . B . dx + 2 ∫P Sliding . B dx
97 98 99
0 Xs
F i A l i f
l F i A l i f
l F i A l i f
l
Axi – Symmetrical Forging ( Open Die ) : 7. Considering sticking friction all over the surface (τ r = τ y = K )
K
12. Ps = Using cylindrical co-ordinate system and Using Slab Method of analysis
μ 8. P = σ 0 +
2K
. (R − r ) {Pressure distribution equation, linearly decreasing}
⎛π ⎞ h
13. xs = L −
h ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 Vol me before forging ⎜ d12 × h1 ⎟ = Vol
1.Volume Volumeme after forging (π R 2 h )
2 μ ⎜⎝ 2 μ ⎟⎠
ln (in any question first we find this x s ) ⎝4 ⎠
R
⎡ 2K ⎤
9. Force ( F ) = F = ∫ ⎢σ 0 + . (R − r ) ⎥ 2π r dr
iff xs comes between 0 ≤ x ≤ L, sticking dσ r 2 τ r 0 ⎣
h ⎦
g and slidingg both occurs 1
1. − =0
dr h 10.Considering sticking and sliding both model of friction
if xs comes − ive, only sliding no sticking
[ Where : σ 1 = σ r , σ 2 = σθ = σ r , σ 3 = − p]
iff xs comes greter
g than L, onlyy stickingg no sliding
g
2. Von-MisesTheory:
i h (σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) 2 = 2 σ 02
g
3. or σ r + P = σ 0 di n
Sl i Sliding
Theory: σ 1 − σ 3 = σ 0
ng
4 T
4. Tresca’s
’ Th
ki
Ps
ic
5. or σ r + P = σ 0
St
Sticking
6 Considering
6. C id i sliding
lidi friction
f i ti all
ll over the
th surface
f (τ r = μ P) r = Rs
2μ
(R − r )
P = σ0 . e h Pressure distribution equation exponentially decreasing
R 2μ
Force ( F ) = ∫ σ 0 . e h
(R − r )
× 2π rdr
100 101 102
0
For IES Only
Forging
2K
Analysis formulae
Forging Analysis formulae GATE‐2019 Rectangular Bar Forging
l
P = Ps + . (R s − r ) For sticking region ( 0 ≤ r ≤ Rs )
h
2μ
(R − r )
A plane‐strain
plane strain compression (forging) of a block is shown
P = σ0 . e h For sliding region ( Rs ≤ r ≤ R ) in the figure. The strain in the z‐direction is zero. The
Rs R
yield
i ld strengthh (Sy) in
i uniaxial
i i l tension/compression
i / i off
11. FTotal = FSticking + FSliding = ∫P
0
sticking ⋅ 2 πr dr + ∫P
Rs
sliding ⋅ 2 πr dr
the material of the block is 300 MPa and it follows the
Rs
⎡ 2K ⎤
R 2μ
(R − r ) Tresca (maximum shear stress) criterion. Assume that
K
= ∫ ⎢⎣ P
0
s +
h
(R s − r ) ⎥ ⋅ 2 πr dr +
⎦ ∫σ
Rs
0 .eh . 2 πr dr
the entire block has started yielding. At a point where σx
12. Ps =
μ = 40 MPa (compressive) and τxy = 0, the stress
h ⎛ 1 ⎞ component σy is
13 R s = R −
2 μ ⎜⎝ 2 μ ⎟⎠
13. lln Accordingto
A di t Tresca’s
T ’ theory
th
h ⎛ 1 ⎞ (a) 340 MPa (compressive)
Rs = R − ln According to Von − Miscs Theory
2 μ ⎜⎝ 3 μ ⎟⎠ (b) 260 MPa (compressive)
if Rs comes between 0 ≤ r ≤ R, sticking and sliding both occurs
if Rs comes − ive, only sliding no sticking
(c) 340 MPa (tensile)
if Rs comes greter than R, only sticking no sliding 103 (d) 260 MPa (tensile) 104 105
For IES Only For IES Only For IES Only
IES – 2005 Conventional Axi‐symmetric Forging IES – 2007 Conventionall

A strip of lead with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 A cylinder
li d off height
h i h 60
6 mm and d diameter
di 100 mm is i
forged at room temperature between two flat dies. Find
mm x 150 mm is forged
f d between
b two flat
fl dies
d to a the die load at the end of compression to a height 30
final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm.
mm If the mm,, usingg slab method of analysis.
y The yyield strength
g of
the work material is given as 120 N/mm2 and the
coefficient of friction is 0.25, determine the coefficient of friction is 0.05.
0 05 Assume that volume is
maximum forging force. The average yield stress of constant after deformation. There is no sticking. Also
fi d mean die
find di pressure. [ M k ]
[20‐Marks]
lead in tension is 7 N/mm2
[10]
106 107 108
For IES Only
IES – 2006 ‐ Conventionall GATE‐2014(PI)

A certain
i disc
di off lead
l d off radius
di 150 mm and d thickness
hi k 50 GATE‐1987 In
I an open die di forging,
f i a circular
i l disc
di isi gradually
d ll
mm is reduced to a thickness of 25 mm by open die compressed between two flat platens. The
forging. If the co‐efficient of friction between the job and I forging
In f i operation
ti the
th sticking
ti ki friction
f i ti condition
diti exponentialti l decay
d off normall stress
t on the
th flat
fl t face
f
die is 0.25,
5, determine the maximum forging g g force. The of the disc, from the center of the disc towards its
occurs near the……(Centre/ends)
the (Centre/ends) periphery,
i h i di t that
indicates th t
average shear yield stress of lead can be taken as 4
N/mm2. [10 – Marks] (a) there is no sticking friction anywhere on the flat face
of the disc
(b) st
sticking
c g friction
ct o aand d ssliding
d g friction
ct o co
co‐exist
e st oon tthee
flat face of the disc
(c) the flat face of the disc is frictionless
(d) there is only sticking friction on the flat face of the
disc
di
109 110 111
Practice Problem‐1
bl Practice Problem‐2
bl Practice Problem‐3
bl
y A strip of metal with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 mm y A circular disc of 200 mm in diameter and 100 mm in y A cylindrical specimen 150 mm in diameter and 100 mm
x 150 mm is
i forged
f d between
b t t flat
two fl t dies
di tot a final
fi l size
i off h i ht is
height i compressed
d between
b t t flat
two fl t dies
di tot a height
h i ht off in height is upsetted by open die forging to a height of 50
6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm.
mm If the coefficient of friction is 50 mm.
mm Coefficient of friction is 0.1
0 1 and average yield mm. Coefficient of friction is 0.2 and flow curve
equation is σ f = 1030ε 0.17 MPa . Calculate the maximum
0.05,
5 determine the maximum forging
g g force. Take the strength
g in compression
p is 230
3 MPa. Determine the
forging force.
average yield strength in tension is 7 N/mm2 maximum die pressure.
[Ans. 46.26 MN]
[Hi
[Hint. Fi
First calculate
l l true strain
i ε and
d put the
h value
l ini
[Ans. 178.24 kN] [Ans. 405 MPa]
the equation σ f = 1030ε 0.17 = σ y ]
112 113 114
Practice Problem‐4
bl Practice Problem 5 {GATE 2010 (PI)}
Practice Problem ‐5 {GATE‐2010 (PI)} Contd
Contd…….
During open die forging process using two flat and parallel dies, Practice Problem ‐5 {GATE‐2010 (PI)}
y A circular disc of 200 mm in diameter and 70 mm in a solid circular steel disc of initial radius (R IN ) 200 mm and initial
height is forged to 40 mm in height.
height Coefficient of height (H IN ) 50 mm attains a height (H FN ) of 30 mm and radius of R FN . iii.In the region 0 ≤ r ≤ R SS ,sticking condition prevails
Along the die-disc interfaces. The value of R SS (in mm), where sticking condition changes to sliding
friction is 0.05.
5 The flow curve equation
q of the material
⎛ − IN ⎞
R friction, is
is given by σ f = 200(0.01 + ε ) 0.41 MPa . Determine maximum i. the coefficient of friction (μ ) is: μ = 0.35 ⎜ 1 + e RFN ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ((a)) 241.76 ((b)) 254.55 ((c)) 265.45 ((d)) 278.20
forging load, mean die pressure and maximum pressure. ⎝ ⎠
ii. in the region R ss ≤ r ≤ RFN ,sliding friction prevails, and
[ Ans. 9.771 MN, 178 MPa, 221 MPa] 2μ
( RFN − r )
p = 3Ke H FN and τ = μ p,
[Hi
[Hint. Fi
First calculate
l l true strain
i ε and
d put the
h value
l ini
where p and τ are the normal and shear stresses, respectively;
the equation σ f = 200(0.01 + ε ) 0.41 = σ y ] K iis th
the shear
h yield
i ld strength
t th off steel
t l andd r is
i the
th radial
di l distance
di t
115 of any point Page 115 of 276 (contd ........)
116
Rev.0
117
For IES Only
IFS‐2012
Discuss Tresca and Von Mises yield criterion for metal
f
forming
i operations.
ti Al derive
Also d i tensile
t il and
d shear
h yield
i ld
stress relationships for their approaches.
approaches Which of these
criterion is more realistic? Whyy ?
[10 Marks]
118 119
Extrusion & Drawing Extrusion
y The extrusion process is like squeezing toothpaste out of
y Metal is compressed and forced to flow through a
a tube.
suitably
bl shaped
h d die
d to form
f a product
d with
h reduced
d d but
b
constant cross section.
section
y Metal will undergo tri‐axial compression.

compression
y Hot extrusion is commonly employed.

employed
y Lead, copper, aluminum, magnesium, and alloys of these

metals are commonly extruded.
By S K Mondal
1 2 3
y Steels, stainless steels, and nickel‐based alloys are IES – 2007 Extrusion Ratio
Which
Whi h one off the th following
f ll i is
i theth correctt
difficult to extrude. (high yield strengths, welding with y Ratio of the cross‐sectional area of the billet to the cross‐
statement?
wall). Use phosphate‐based and molten glass (a) Extrusion is used for the manufacture of seamless sectionall area off the
h product.
d
tubes.
lubricants . y about
b 40: 1 for
f hot
h extrusion
i off steell
(b) Extrusion is used for reducing the diameter of round
bars and tubes byy rotating g dies which open
p and close
y 400: 1 for
f aluminium
l i i
rapidly on the work?
(c) Extrusion is used to improve fatigue resistance of the
metal by setting up compressive stresses on its surface
(d) Extrusion
E t i comprises
i pressing
i th metal
the t l inside
i id a
chamber to force it out by high pressure through an
orifice
ifi which
hi h is
i shaped
h d to
t provide
id the
th desired
d i d from
f off the
th
4 finished part. 5 6
DRDO‐2008 Advantages of Extrusion
d f IES ‐ 2012
If the extrusion ratio is 20, the percentage reduction y Any cross‐sectional shape can be extruded from the Extrusion
E i process can effectively
ff i l reduce
d the
h cost off
product through
in the
h cross‐sectionall area off the
h billet
b ll after
f the
h nonferrous
f metals.
t l
(a) Material saving
extrusion will be y Many shapes (than rolling) (b) process time saving
y No
oddraft
at (c) Saving in tooling cost
(a) 98% (b) 95% (c) 20% (d) 5%
(d) saving in administrative cost
y Huge reduction in cross section.
y Conversion from one product to another requires only a

single die change
y Good dimensional precision.

7 8 9
IES – 2009 Limitation of Extrusion
f Application
l
Which
Whi h one off the
h following
f ll i statements is i correct?? y Cross section must be uniform for the entire length of y Working of poorly plastic and non ferrous metals and
((a)) In extrusion p
process,, thicker walls can be obtained
by increasing the forming pressure the
h product.
d alloys.
ll
(b) Extrusion is an ideal process for obtaining rods from y Manufacture
M f off sections
i and
d pipes
i off complex
l
metal having poor density
configuration.
configuration
(c) As compared to roll forming, extruding speed is high
(d) Impact extrusion is quite similar to Hooker
Hooker'ss process y Medium and small batch production.
production
including the flow of metal being in the same direction
y Manufacture of parts of high dimensional accuracy.
10 11 12
IES – 1994 GATE‐1994

Metal
M l extrusion i process isi generally
ll used
d for
f The
Th process off hot
h extrusioni is i usedd to produce
d E t i
Extrusion
producing ((a)) Curtain rods made of aluminium
(a) Uniform solid sections (b) Steel pipes/or domestic water supply
Hot Cold
(b) Uniform hollow sections ( ) Stainless
(c) S i l steell tubes
b used d in
i furniture
f i
(c) Uniform solid and hollow sections ((d)) Large
g shape
p ppipes
p used in cityy water mains
(d) Varying solid and hollow sections. Direct Indirect Forward Backward
Cold Impact
Hydrostatic Extrusion Extrusion
Forging
13 14 15
IES – 1999 Hot Extrusion Process IES – 2009

Which
f ll i is
i theh correct y The temperature range for hot extrusion of aluminum is What
Wh is i the
h major
j problem
bl in
i hot
h extrusion?
i ?
temperature range for hot extrusion of aluminium? ((a)) Design
g of p
punch ((b)) Design
g of die
(a) 300‐340°C (b) 350‐400°C 430‐480°C
(c) Wear and tear of die (d) Wear of punch
(c) 430‐480°C
430 480°C (d) 550‐650°C
550 650°C y Used
U d to produce
d curtain
i rods
d made
d off aluminum.
l i
y Design
D i off die
di is
i a problem.
bl
y Either direct or indirect method used.

used
16 17 18
Direct Extrusion IES – 1993 IES – 2000
y A solid
lid ram drives
di the
h entire
i billet
bill to and
d through
h h a Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Direct
Di extrusion
i requiresi larger
l force
f Consider
C id theth following
f ll i statements:
t t t
stationary die and must provide additional power to than indirect extrusion. In forward extrusion process
overcome the
h frictional
f l resistance between
b the
h surface
f off the
h 1. The ram and the extruded product travel in the same
Reason (R): In indirect extrusion of cold steel, zinc
moving billet and the confining chamber. direction.
phosphate coating is used. used
2. The ram and the extruded product travel in the opposite
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the direction.
correct explanation
l off A 3. The speed of travel of the extruded product is same as that
(b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee of the ram.
correct explanation of A 4. The speed of travel of the extruded product is greater than
that of the ram.
( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
Which of these Statements are correct?
(d) A is false but R is true (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
19 20
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4 21
Indirect Extrusion
d Indirect Extrusion
d Contd… IES ‐ 2012
y A hollow
h ll ram drives
di the
th die
di back
b k through
th h a stationary,
t ti Which
f ll i are correct for
f an indirect
i di hot
h
y Required force is lower (25 to 30% less)
confined billet. extrusion process?
y Since no relative motion, friction between the billet and y Low process waste. 1. Billet remains stationary
the chamber is eliminated.
2 There is no friction force between billet and container
2.
walls.
3. The force required on the punch is more in
comparison
co pa so to d direct
ect eextrusion.
t us o .
4. Extrusion parts have to be provided a support.
( ) 1, 2, 3 and
(a) d4 (b) 1, 2 and
d 3 only
l
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only
22 23 24
IES‐2016
IES – 2007 IAS – 2004 Statement (I): Employing the extrusion process is not
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Greater
G force
f on the
h plunger
l is
i required
i d Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Indirect
I di extrusion
i operation
i can be
b economical in case of large billets.
billets
in case of direct extrusion than indirect one. performed either by moving ram or by moving the Statement (II): A significant part of the press capacity is lost
Reason (R): In case of direct extrusion, the direction of container. overcoming
i f i i
frictional
l resistance
i b
between workpiece
k i and
d
the force applied
pp on the p plunger
g and the direction of cylinder wall during the extrusion process.
Reason (R): Advantage in indirect extrusion is less
the movement of the extruded metal are the same. (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and
quantity of scrap compared to direct extrusion.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct Statement ((II)) is the correct explanation
)
( ) Both
h
explanation of A (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but
(b) Both
B th A and d R are individually
i di id ll true
t b t R is
but i nott the
th St t
Statementt (II) is
i nott the
th correctt explanation
l ti off Statement
St t t (I).
(I)
correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(c) A is true but R is false (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
((d)) A is false but R is true (c) A is true but R is false
25 26 27
Cold Extrusion
ld Backward cold extrusion
k d ld Impact Extrusion
y Used with low‐strength metals such as lead, tin, zinc, y The metal is extruded through the gap between the
and
d aluminum
l to produce
d collapsible
ll bl tubes
b f
for punch
h and
d die
d opposite to the
h punch
h movement.
toothpaste medications,
toothpaste, medications and other creams; small "cans"
cans y For
F softer
f materials
i l such
h as aluminium
l i i and
d its
i alloys.
ll
for shielding electronic components and larger cans for y Used
U d for
f making
ki collapsible
ll ibl tubes,
t b cans for
f liquids
li id and
d
food and beverages. similar articles.
articles
y Now‐a‐days also been used for forming mild steel parts.
y The extruded parts are stripped by the use of a stripper

28 29 plate, because they tend to stick to the punch. 30
IES – 2008, GATE‐1989(PI) IES – 2003 IES ‐ 2014

Which one of the following methods is used for the The
Th extrusioni process (s)( ) usedd for
f the
h production
d i off A toothpaste
h tube
b can be
b produced
d d by
b
toothpaste tube is/are ((a)) Solid forward extrusion
manufacture
f off collapsible
ll bl tooth‐paste
h tubes?
b 1. Tube extrusion (b) Solid backward extrusion
( ) Impact
(a) I extrusion
i (b) Di
Direct extrusion
i 2 Forward extrusion
2. ( ) Hollow
(c) H ll backward
b k d extrusion
i
3. Impact extrusion ((d)) Hollow forward extrusion
( ) Deep
(c) D d
drawing
i (d) Pi i
Piercing
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
C d
Codes:
(a) 1 onlyy (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
31 32 33
Hooker Method
k h d Hooker Method
k h d Hydrostatic Extrusion
d
y The
Th ram/punch
/ h has
h a shoulder
h ld and d acts
t as a mandrel.
d l
y Another type of cold extrusion process.
y A flat blank of specified diameter and thickness is placed in a
suitable
i bl die
di and d is
i forced
f d through
h h the
h opening
i off the
h die
di with
ih y High‐pressure fluid applies the force to the workpiece
the punch
y when
h the
h punch h starts downward
d d movement. Pressure
P i
is through
h h a die.
di
exerted by the shoulder of the punch, the metal being forced
t flow
to fl th
through h the
th restricted
t i t d annular
l space between
b t th
the y It i forward
is f d extrusion,
t i b t the
but th fluid
fl id pressure
punch and the opening in the bottom of the die.
y I place
In l off a flat
fl solid
lid blank,
bl k a hollow
h ll slug
l can also
l beb used.
d surrounding the billet prevents upsetting.
upsetting
y If the tube sticks to the punch on its upward stroke, a y Billet
Billet‐chamber
chamber friction is eliminated, and the
stripper willll strip it from
f the
h punch.h
y Small copper tubes and cartridge cases are extruded by this pressurized fluid acts as a lubricant between the billet
method.
and the die.
34 35 36
Hydrostatic Extrusion
d Contd…. Hydrostatic Extrusion
d Contd….
y Temperature
T is
i limited
li i d since
i the
h fluid
fl id acts as a heat
h sink
i k Application
and the common fluids (light hydrocarbons and oils)
burn or decomposes at moderately low temperatures. y Extrusion of nuclear reactor fuel rod
E t i f l t f l d
y The metal deformation is performed in a high high‐ y Cladding of metals
compression environment. Crack formation is
suppressed leading to a phenomenon known
suppressed, kno n as y Making wires for less ductile materials
pressure‐induced ductility.
y Relatively brittle materials like cast iron, stainless steel,
molybdenum, tungsten and various inter inter‐metallic
metallic
compounds can be plastically deformed without
fracture and materials with limited ductility become
fracture,
37 highly plastic. 38 39
IAS – 2000 IES – 2006

Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Brittle
B i l materials i l such h as grey cast What
Wh does
d hydrostatic
h d i pressure in
i extrusion
i process GATE‐1990(PI)
iron cannot be extruded by hydrostatic extrusion. improve?
S i brittle
Semi b ittl materials
t i l can be
b extruded
t d d by
b
Reason(R): In hydrostatic extrusion, billet is (a) Ductility (b) Compressive strength
uniformly compressed from all sides by the liquid. liquid (c) Brittleness (d) Tensile strength (a) Impact extrusion
correct explanation
l off A (b) Closed cavity extrusion
(b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee (c) Hydrostatic extrusion
( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l (d) Backward extrusion
40 41 42
For IES Only
IES – 2001 Lubrication for Extrusion

b f
Which
Whi h off the th following
f ll i statements
t t t are the
th salient
li t y For
F hot
h extrusion
i glass
l is
i an excellent
ll lubricant
l bi with
ih Process variables in Extrusion
Process variables in Extrusion
features of hydrostatic extrusion? steels, stainless steels and high temperature metals and 1. Experimental
p studies of flow
1. It
I is
i suitable
i bl for
f soft f and
d ductile
d il material.
i l alloys. 2. Temperature and Metallurgy: Variations in temperature
2. It is suitable for high‐strength super‐alloys.
y For cold extrusion,
extrusion lubrication is critical,
critical especially with during extrusion seem to influence flow behaviour in
3.The billet is inserted into the extrusion chamber and pressure number of ways. As indicated, flow patterns may be
is applied by a ram to extrude the billet through the die.
steels, because of the possibility of sticking (seizure)
changed
g considerablyy byy rendering g the temperature
p
4. The billet is inserted into the extrusion chamber where it is
bet een the workpiece
between orkpiece and the tooling if the lubrication
distribution in the container. It is known that the extrusion
surrounded byy a suitable liquid.q The billet is extruded breaks down. Most effective lubricant is a phosphate pressure mayy be lowered if either the temperature
p p of the
through the die by applying pressure to the liquid. conversion coating on the h workpiece.
k billet or the velocity of the stem is increased, and that there
Select the correct answer using g the codes g
given below: are certain limitations, because the material starts melting g
Codes: or cracking if it is leaves the die with too high temperature.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
43 44 45
IES ‐ 2014
IES Extrusion Defects
Extrusion Defects
Statement‐I: For high extrusion pressure, the initial
y Surface crack due to high
g temperature,
p g speed,
high p GATE‐2018 (PI)
temperature of billet should be high. high
high friction etc. Which one of the following defects is NOT
Statement‐II: As the speed of hot extrusion is
i
increased,
d it may lead l d to t melting
lti off alloy
ll y Bamboo defects at low temperature due to sticking of
constituents metals in die land. associated with the casting process?
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are y Pipe defects or tail pipe or fishtailing, during
individuallyy true and Statement (II) is the correct
(a) Hot tear
extrusion surface oxides and impurities p are driven
explanation of Statement (I) towards the centre of the billet, like funnel called pipe.
(b) Porosity
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are y Centre Burst or Chevron defect are attributed to a
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centreline in the
explanation of Statement (I) (c) Blister
d f
deformation
i zone in
i the
h die.
di Tendency
T d i
increases with
ih
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false increasing die angle and amount of impurities. Tendency (d) Central burst
(d) Statement
St t t (I) is
i false
f l but
b t Statement
St t t (II) is
i true
t decrease with increasing extrusion ratio and friction.
46 47 48
GATE‐2014
IES 2016
IES‐2016 JWM 2010
With respect to metal working,
working match Group A with Group B
Group A Group B
Surface cracking occurring at low temperature in Assertion (A) : Extrusion speed depends on work P: Defect in extrusion I: alligatoring
hydrostatic extrusion is know as material.
Q: Defect in rolling II: scab
Reason (R) : High extrusion speed causes cracks in
(a) Fluid Defect (b) Bamboo Defect R: Product of skew III: fish tail
the material. rolling
lli
(c) Fishtailing (d) Arrowhead Fracture (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the S: Product of rolling IV: seamless tube
l ti off A through cluster mill
(b) Both A and R are individuallyy true but R is not the V: thin sheet with tight tolerance
correct explanation of A VI: semi‐finished balls of ball bearing
P Q R S P Q R S
(d) A is false but R is true (a) II III VI V (b) III I VI V
49 50
(c) III I IV VI (d) I II V VI51
Wire Drawing Wire Drawing Contd…. Wire Drawing Contd….

y A cold working process to obtain wires from rods of y Wire getting continuously wound on the reel.
b
bigger d
diameters through
h h a die.
d y For
F fine
fi wire,
i theth material
t i l may be
b passed
d through
th h a number
b
of dies,, receiving
g successive reductions in diameter,, before
y Same
S process as bar
b drawing
d i except that
h iti involves
i l
being coiled and known as Tandem Drawing.
smaller‐diameter material.
material
y The wire is subjected to tension only. But when it is in
y At the start of wire drawing, the end of the rod or wire to
be drawn is pointed to make for an easier entrance of contact with
i h dies
di then
h a combination
bi i off tensile,
il compressive
i
wire into the die. This pointing is done by means of and shear stresses will be there in that p
portion only.
y
rotary swaging or by simple hammering.
y Wire drawing is always a cold‐working process, need
sufficient ductility, may be annealed before drawing.
52 53 54
IES – 2007 IES – 2009 IES – 2005
Which metal forming process is used for Which one of the following stress is involved in the Which
Whi h off theh following
f ll i types off stresses is/are
i /
involved in the wire‐drawing operation?
manufacture
f off long
l steell wire? wire drawing
d process? (a) Tensile only
( ) Deep
(a) D d
drawing
i (b) F i
Forging ( ) Compressive
(a) C i (b) T il
Tensile (b) Compressive only
(c) A combination of tensile and compressive stresses
( ) Drawing
(c) D i (d) E t i
Extrusion ( ) Shear
(c) Sh (d) H d t ti stress
Hydrostatic t
(d) A combination of tensile, compressive and shear
stresses
55 56 57
IES‐2016
Statement (I) : In wire‐drawing, the end of the stock Cleaning and Lubrication in wire Drawing
GATE‐1987 is made ‘pointed’
pointed to make for easier entrance of the y Cleaning is done to remove scale and rust by acid pickling.
Cleaning is done to remove scale and rust by acid pickling
wire into the die. y Lubrication boxes precede the individual dies to help reduce
F i d
For wire drawing operation, the work material
i ti th k t i l Statement (II) : The pointing of the wire is done friction drag and prevent wear of the dies.
should essentially be exclusivelyy by
y rotaryy swaging
g g and not by y simple
p
hammering. y Sulling: The wire is coated with a thin coat of ferrous
(a) Ductile (b) Tough (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and hydroxide which when combined with lime acts as filler for
Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I). the lubricant.
((c) Hard
) ((d) Malleable
)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but y Phosphating: A thin film of Mn, Fe or Zn phosphate is
( ) p ()
Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I). applied on the wire.
wire
y Electrolytic
y coating:
g For veryy thin wires,, electrolytic
y coating
g
58 59
of copper is used to reduce friction. 60
IES 2010 IES – 2000 IAS – 1995

Assertion (A): Pickling and washing of rolled rods Which
f ll i lubricants
l b i is
i most The
Th following
f ll i operations
i are performed
f d while
hil
is carried out before wire drawing. suitable for drawing mild steel wires? preparing the billets for extrusion process:
Reason (R): They lubricate the surface to reduce (a) Sodium stearate (b) Water 1. Alkaline cleaning
friction while drawing g wires. (c) Lime‐water
Lime water (d) Kerosene 2 Phosphate coating
2.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the 3. Pickling
l ti off A
4. Lubricating with reactive soap.
(b) Both A and R are individuallyy true but R is NOT the
Th correctt sequence off these
The th operations
ti i
is
(a) 3, 1, 4, 2 (b) 1, 3, 2, 4
(c) 1, 3. 4, 2 (d) 3, 1, 2, 4
61 62 63
IES ‐ 2014
IES
IES – 1996 Statement‐I: In drawing process, cross‐section of
In
I wire
i drawing
d i process, the
h bright
b i h shining
hi i surface
f Bundle Drawing
Bundle Drawing round d wire
i is
i reduced
d d by
b pulling
lli it through
th h a die
di
on the wire is obtained if one Statement‐II: Bundle drawing g p
produces wires that
In this process,
process many wires (as much as several
(a) does not use a lubricant are polygonal in cross‐section rather than round
thousand)) are drawn simultaneouslyy as a bundle. To (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(b) uses solid powdery lubricant.
lubricant
(c) uses thick paste lubricant prevent sticking, the wires are separated from each individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation
l i off Statement
S (I)
(d) uses thin film lubricant other by a suitable material. The cross‐section of the
((b)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are
wires is somewhat
h polygonal.
l l individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
64 65 66
Wire Drawing Die Rod and Tube Drawing
d d b
y Rod
R d drawing
d i isi similar
i il to wire
i drawing
d i except for
f the
h fact
f
that the dies are bigger because of the rod size being
larger than the wire.
y The tubes are also first pointed and then entered
through the die where the point is gripped in a similar
way
a as the bar drawing
dra ing and pulled through in the form
desired along a straight line.
y When the final size is obtained, the tube may be
annealed and straightened.
y The practice of drawing tubes without the help of an Back
y Die materials: tool steels or tungsten carbides or i t
internall mandrel
d l is
i called
ll d tube
t b sinking.
i ki
polycrystalline diamond (for fine wire) 67 68 69
Rod and Tube Drawing
d d b Contd…
IES‐1993; GATE‐1994(PI), 2014(PI)
IES 1993; GATE 1994(PI) 2014(PI) IAS‐2006
A moving mandrel is used in Which one of the following processes necessarily
(a) Wire drawing (b) Tube drawing requires

q mandrel of requisite
q diameter to form the
((c)) Metal Cutting

g ((d)) Forging
g g internal hole?
Tube Sinking Fixed Plug Drawing
(a) Hydrostatic Extrusion
(b) Tube drawing
(c) Swaging
(d) Wire
Wi Drawing
D i
Floating plug Drawing Moving Mandrel
70 71 72
Swaging or kneading
k d Swaging or kneading
k d Contd… IES‐2015
y The hammering of a rod or tube to reduce its diameter Rotary swaging is a process for shaping
where
h the
h die
d itself
lf acts as the
h hammer.
h a) Round bars and tubes
y Repeated
R d blows
bl are delivered
d li d from
f various
i angles,
l b)Billets
b)Bill
causing the metal to flow inward and assume the shape c) Dies
of the die. d)Rectangular
) g blocks
y It is cold working.
g The term swaging
g g is also applied
pp to
processes where material is forced into a confining die to
reduce its diameter. 73 74 75
IES – 1993 IES – 2000 IES – 1999

Tandem
T d drawing
d i off wires
i andd tubes
b is i necessary Match
M t h List
Li t I (Components
(C t off a table
t bl fan)
f ) withith List
Li t II Match
M t h List‐I
Li t I with
ith List‐II
Li t II and
d select
l t the
th correctt
because (Manufacturing processes) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
answer using i the
th codesd given
i b l
below th Lists:
the Li t List‐I List‐II
(a) It is not possible to reduce at one stage
List I List II A. Drawing g 1. Soapp solution
(b) Annealing is needed between stages
A. Base with stand 1. Stamping and B. Rolling 2. Camber
(c) Accuracy in dimensions is not possible otherwise p
pressingg C Wire drawing
C. dra ing 3
3. Pilots
(d) Surface finish improves after every drawing stage B. Blade 2. Wire drawing D. Sheet metal operations using 4. Crater
C Armature
C. A t coil
il wire
i 3. T i
Turning progressive dies 5. Ironing
D. Armature shaft 4. Casting Code:A B C D A B C D
Codes:A B C D A B C D (a) 2 5 1 4 (b) 4 1 5 3
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 4 3 ( ) 5
(c) 2 3 4 (d) 5 2 1 3
76 (c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 1 2 3 77 78
IES – 1996 IES – 1994 IES – 1993, ISRO‐2010

Match List I with List II and select the correct answer Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
M h Li I i h Li II d l h Match
M t h List
Li t I with
ith List
Li t II and
d select
l t the
th correctt
List I (Metal/forming process) List II (Associated force) using the codes given below the Lists: answer using the codes given below the lists:
A. Wire drawing 1. Shear force List I (Metal farming process) List II (A similar process) List I (Mechanical property) List II (Related to)
A.
A Blanking 11.
Wire drawing A. Malleabilityy 1. Wire drawing g
B Extrusion
B. E t i 2. T il force
Tensile f
B. Coining 2.Piercing B. Hardness 2. Impact loads
g
C. Blanking 3. Compressive
p force
C Resilience
C. 3
3. Cold rolling
D. Bending 4. Spring back force C. Extrusion 3.Embossing
D. Isotropy 4. Indentation
C d A B
Codes:A C D A B C D D
D. Cup drawing 4
4.
Rolling
5. Direction
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 2 1 3 4 5.
Bending
Codes:A B C D A B C D
(c) 2 3 1 4 (d) 4 3 2 1 Codes:A B C D A B C D (a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 3 4 2 5
(a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 2 3 1 4 ( ) 5
(c) 4 2 3 (d) 3 2 1 5
79 (c) 3 2 1 Page
5 125(d)
of 2762 3 1 5 80 Rev.0
81
GATE 2015
GATE-2015
IES – 2002 IAS – 2001 Match the followingg pproducts with p
preferred
Match
M h List
Li I with
i h List
Li II and
d select
l the
h correct Match
M h List Li I (Products)
(P d ) with
i h List
Li II (Suitable
(S i bl manufacturing processes:
answer: processes) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the Lists: Product Process
List I (Parts) List II (Manufacturing processes)
A. Seamless tubes
A 1 Roll forming
1. List I List II P Rails 1 Blow molding
B. Accurate and smooth tubes 2. Shot peening A. Connecting rods 1. Welding Q Engine Crankshaft 2 Extrusion
C. Surfaces having higher 3. Forging B. Pressure vessels 2. Extrusion R Al i i
Aluminium Ch
Channels
l 3 F i
Forging
hardness and fatigue strength4.
strength4 Cold forming C Machine tool beds
C. 3
3. Forging S PET water bottles 4 Rolling
g
Codes: A B C A B C D. Collapsible tubes 4. Casting
a ) P -4
4 ,Q
Q -3
3 ,R
R -1
1 ,S
S -2
2 b ) P -4
4 ,Q
Q -3
3 ,R
R -22 ,S
S -1
1
(a) 1 4 2 (b) 2 3 1 Codes:A B C D A B C D
(c) 1 3 2 (d) 2 4 1 (a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 4 1 3 2
c ) P -2 ,Q -4 ,R -3 ,S -1 d ) P -3 ,Q -4 ,R -2 ,S -1
82 (c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 4 2 3 1 83 84
IAS – 2002 IES 2011

IES 2011
g
Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using GATE‐2018
Assertion
A ti (A):
(A) InI wire‐drawing
i d i process, the
th rod d the code given below the lists : Match the following products with the suitable
M h h f ll i d i h h i bl
cross‐section is reduced gradually by drawing it manufacturing process
severall times
ti i successively
in i l reduced
d d diameter
di t dies.
di List I
List –I List II
List –II
Product Manufacturing Process
Reason (R): Since each drawing reduces ductility of A Connecting rods
A. Connecting rods 1 Welding
1. Welding
the wire, so after final drawing the wire is P Toothpaste tube 1 Centrifugal casting
normalized. B. Pressure vessels 2. Extrusion Q Metallic pipes 2 Blow moulding
correct
co ect eexplanation
p a at o o
of A C. Machine tool beds 3. Forming R Plastic bottles 3 Rolling
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the D. Collapsible tubes 4. Casting S Threaded bolts 4 Impact extrusion
correct explanation of A Codes
(c) A is true but R is false A B C D A B C D (a) P‐4, Q‐3, R‐1, S‐2 (b) P‐2, Q‐1, R‐3, S‐4
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 3 1 4 2 ( ) P Q R S
(c) P‐4, Q‐1, R‐2, S‐3 (d) P‐1, Q‐3, R‐4, S‐2
(d) P Q R S
(d)
85 (c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 3 4 1 286 87
IAS 1994 Extrusion Load
Seamless tube Manufacturing
Seamless tube Manufacturing Which of the following methods can be used for y Approximate
A i method
h d (Uniform
(U if deformation,
d f i no
manufacturing 2 meter long seamless metallic friction) “work – formula”
1 Rolling
1. Rolling tubes?
b
⎛A ⎞ πd2 ⎛d ⎞ π d o2
2 Extrusion 1. Drawing g 2. Extrusion P = Aoσ o ln ⎜ o ⎟⎟ = 2 × o × σ o × ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ = × σ o × ln ( R )
⎜A 4
3. Rolling 4. Spinning ⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ df ⎠ 4
3
3. Tube Drawing
g
Select
l the
h correct answer using the
h codes
d given below
b l y For real conditions
4. Spinning Codes:
⎛A ⎞ πd2 ⎛d ⎞
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 P = KAo ln ⎜ o ⎟⎟ = 2 × o × K × ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
⎜
( ) 1, 3 and 4
(c) ( ) 2, 3 and 4
(d) ⎝ Af ⎠ 4 ⎝ df ⎠
K = extrusion
t i constant.
t t
88 89 90
Extrusion Stress Force required in Wire Drawing GATE‐2003
y Approximate
A i method
h d (Uniform
(U if deformation,
d f i no y Approximate method (Uniform deformation,
deformation no
friction) “work – formula” A brass billet is to be extruded from its initial
friction) “work – formula”
d
diameter off 100 mm to a final
f l diameter
d off 50 mm.
P ⎛A ⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ⎛A ⎞ π d 2f ⎛d ⎞
σE = = σ o ln ⎜ o ⎟⎟ = 2 × σ o × ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ = σ o × ln ( R ) P = Af σ o ln ⎜ o ⎟⎟ = 2 × × σ o × ln ⎜ o ⎟⎟ The working temperature of 700°C
700 C and the
A0 ⎜A
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ df ⎠ ⎜A 4 ⎜d
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ f ⎠ extrusion constant is 250 MPa. The force required
y For real conditions Drawing Stress
for extrusion is
P ⎛A ⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ⎛A ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
σE = = K ln ⎜ o ⎟⎟ = 2 × K × ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ σd =
P
= σ o ln ⎜ o
A0 ⎜
⎜A ⎟⎟ = 2 × σ o × ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ (a) 5.44 MN (b) 2.72 MN
⎝ Af ⎠ ⎝ df ⎠ Af ⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ df ⎠ (c) 1.36 MN (d) 0.36 MN
K = extrusion
t i constant.
t t
91 92 93
GATE – 2009 (PI) GATE – 2016 (PI) GATE‐2006

Using direct extrusion process, a round billet of 100 A 100 mm long cylindrical workpiece of diameter 50 mm In a wire drawing operation, diameter of a steel wire
mm length
l h and
d 50 mm diameter
d is extruded.
d d is reduced
d d to 25 mm diameter
d using extrusion process. is reduced
d d from
f 10 mm to 8 mm. The
h mean flow
fl
Considering an ideal deformation process (no The flow curve for the metal has strength coefficient as K stress of the material is 400 MPa.
MPa The ideal force
friction and no redundant work), extrusion ratio 4, = 750 MPa and the strain hardening co
co‐efficient
efficient is 0.15. required for drawing (ignoring friction and
and average flow stress of material 300 MPa, the Assuming no friction and no redundant work, the redundant work) is
pressure (in MPa) on the ram will be required ram pressure (in MPa) is closest to (a) 4.48 kN (b) 8.97 kN
(a) 416 (b) 624 (c) 700 (d) 832 (a) 164 (b) 364 (c) 428 (d) 950 (c) 20.11 kN (d) 31.41 kN
94 95 96
GATE 2008 (PI) Linked S 1

GATE ‐2008 (PI) Linked S‐1 GATE 2008 (PI) Linked S 2
GATE ‐2008 (PI) Linked S‐2 IES‐2014 Conventional
A 10 mm diameter annealed steel wire is drawn A 10 mm diameter annealed steel wire is drawn
(i) What kind of products are manufactured by wire
through
g a die at a speed
p of 0.55 m/s to reduce the through
g a die at a speed
p of 0.55 m/s to reduce the
drawing process?
diameter by 20%. The yield stress of the material is diameter by 20%. The yield stress of the material is
(ii) How
H much
h force
f will
ill approximately
i l be
b required
i d
800 MPa. 800 MPa.
to draw a wire from 1.5
1 5 mm diameter steel wire to 1.0
10
Neglecting friction and strain hardening, the stress The power required for the drawing process (in kW)
mm diameter wire if the average
g yyield strength
g of
required for drawing (in MPa) is is
the work material is 300 MPa?
(a) 178.5 (b) 357.0 (c) 1287.5 (d) 2575.0 (a) 8.97 (b) 14.0 (c) 17.95 (d) 28.0
[10 Marks]
97 98 99
GATE‐2001, GATE ‐2007 (PI) GATE‐2018 IES ‐ 2014
For rigid perfectly‐plastic work material, negligible In
I wire‐drawing
i d i operation,
i the
h maximum
i
The maximum reduction in cross‐sectional
reduction per pass for perfectly plastic material in
interface
f f
friction and
d no redundant
d d work,
k the
h area per pass (R) of a cold wire drawing ideal condition is
theoretically maximum possible reduction in the (a) 68 % (b) 63 %
process is R = 1 – e‐(n+1) where n represents the (c) 58 % (d) 50%
wire drawing operation is
strain hardening co‐efficient. For the case of
((a)) 0.36
3 ((b)) 0.633
a perfectly plastic material, R is
((c)) 1.00 ((d)) 2.72
7
(a) 0.865 (b) 0.826 (c) 0.777 (d) 0.632
100 101 102
GATE 2015
GATE-2015
GATE‐1996 GATE‐2018 (PI)
A wire
i off 0.1 mm diameter
di is
i drawn
d from
f a rod
d off 15 In a two stage wire drawing operation , the In a two‐pass wire drawing process, there is a 40%
mm diameter. Dies giving reductions of 20%, 40%
and 80% are available. For minimum error in the f ti
fractional
l reduction
d ti ( ti off change
(ratio h i cross –
in
reduction in wire cross‐sectional area in 1st pass
final size,, the number of stages g and reduction at sectional area to initial cross
cross‐sectional
sectional area) in the
each stage respectively would be and further 30% reduction in 2nd pass. The overall
first stage
g is 0.4.
4 The fractional reduction in the
(a) 3 stages and 80% reduction for all three stages
reduction (in percentage) is ______
(b) 4 stages and 80% reduction for first three stages second stage is 0.3. The overall fractional
followed by a finishing stage of 20% reduction reduction is _____
(c) 5 stages and reduction of 80%,
80% 80%.40%,
80% 40% 40%,
40% 20%
(a) 0.24 (b) 0.58 (c) 0.60 (d) 1.0
in a sequence
( ) none of the above
(d)
103 104 105
Wire Drawing
Wire Drawing
Maximum Reduction per pass IES – 2011 Conventional
σ o (1 + B ) ⎡ ⎛r ⎞ ⎤ ⎛r ⎞
2B 2B
A 12.5 mm diameter
d rod
d is to be
b reduced
d d to 10 mm
σd = ⎢1 − ⎜ f ⎟ ⎥ + ⎜ f ⎟ .σ b With back stress, σ b diameter by drawing in a single pass at a speed of 100
B ⎢⎣ ⎝ ro ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ ro ⎠ m/min. Assuming a semi die angle of 5o and coefficient
σ o (1 + B ) ⎡ ⎛ rf min ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ rf min ⎞
2B 2B
of friction between the die and steel rod as 0.15,
σo = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥+⎜ ⎟ .σ b calculate:
σ o =Average Flow stress of material
B ⎢⎣ ⎝ ro ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ ro ⎠
((i)) The p
power required
q in drawing
g
(ii) Maximum possible reduction in diameter of the rod
stress σ b
Without back stress, (iii) If the rod is subjected to a back pressure of 50
N/mm2 , what would be the draw stress and maximum
σ o (1 + B ) ⎡ ⎞ ⎤
2B
⎛r possible
ibl reduction
d ti ?
σo = ⎢1 − ⎜ f min ⎟ ⎥
B ⎢⎣ ⎝ ro ⎠ ⎥⎦ Take stress of the work material as 400 N/mm2 .
f
[15 Marks]
106 107 108
GATE‐2018 G
GATE – 20 ( ) C S
2011 (PI) Common Data‐S1 G
GATE – 20 ( ) C S2
2011 (PI) Common Data‐S2
A steell wire
i isi drawn
d from
f an initial
i i i l diameter
di (di) off 10 In a multi pass drawing operation,
multi‐pass operation a round bar of 10 mm In a multi pass drawing operation,
multi‐pass operation a round bar of 10 mm
mm to a final diameter (df ) of 7.5 mm. The half cone diameter and 100 mm length is reduced in cross‐section diameter and 100 mm length is reduced in cross‐section
angle (α) of the die is 5° and the coefficient of friction (μ) b drawing
by d i it successively
i l through
th h a series
i off seven dies
di b drawing
by d i it successively
i l through
th h a series
i off seven dies
di
between the die and the wire is 0.1. The average g of the of decreasing exit diameter. During each of these of decreasing exit diameter. During each of these
initial and final yield stress [(σy)avg] is 350 MPa. The d
drawing operations, the
h reduction
d in cross‐sectionall area d
drawing operations, the
h reduction
d in cross‐sectionall area
equation for drawing stress σf (in MPa) is given as: is 35
35%. The yyield strength
g of the material is 200 MPa. is 35
35%. The yyield strength
g of the material is 200 MPa.
2 μ cot α Ignore strain hardening. Ignore strain hardening.
⎧ 1 ⎫⎡ ⎛ df ⎞ ⎤
σ f = (σ y )avg ⎨1 + ⎬ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ The total true strain applied and the final length (in Neglecting friction and redundant work the force (in
Neglecting friction and redundant work, the force (in
⎩ μ cot α ⎭ ⎢⎣ ⎝ di ⎠ ⎥⎦ mm), respectively, are kN) required for drawing the bar through the first die, is
(a) 2.45 and 8 17 (b) 2.45 and 345 (a) 15.71 (b) 10.21
The drawing stress (in MPa) required to carry out this
(c) 3.02 and 2043 (d) 3.02 and 3330 (c) 6.77 (d) 4.39
operation is________ (correct
( to two decimal places).
)
109 110 111
GATE – 2014 IAS – 1997 IES – 2012

A metal rod of initial length is subjected to a Extrusion
E i force
f DOES NOT depend
d d upon the
h Write
W i theh process variables
i bl in
i wire
i drawing.
d i
((a)) Extrusion ratio Ans.
d
drawing process. The
h length
l h off the
h rod
d at any
(b) Type of extrusion process 1. Reduction in cross sectional area
expression L(t) = Lo(1 + t2)
instant is given by the expression, ( ) Material
(c) M i l off the
h die
di 2. Die
Di anglel
where t is the time in minutes. The true strain rate ((d)) Workingg temperature
p 33. Friction
at the end of one minute is ………..
112 113 114
Wire Drawing Analysis (Home Work)

Wire Drawing Analysis (Home Work)
The Degree of Drawing or Reduction factor IAS – 2006
in Cross Sectional area
in Cross Sectional area In
I drawing
d i operationi if Di = initial
i i i l diameter
di and
d Do
= Outgoing diameter, then what is the degree of
drawing equal to?
Ao − Af Do2 − D 2f Di − Do Do − Di Di2 − Do2 Di2 − Do2
D= = (a) (b) (c ) (d )
Ao Do2 Di Do Di2 Di2
⎛A ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ The equilibrium equation in x-direction will be
ThereforeTrue strain ( ε ) = ln ⎜ o ⎟⎟ = ln ⎜ ⎟
⎜A
(σ x + dσ x ) π ( r + dr ) − σ xπ r 2 + τ x cos α ⎛⎜ 2π r
⎝ 1− D ⎠ 2 dx ⎞
⎝ f ⎠ ⎟
⎝ cos α ⎠
⎛ dx ⎞
+ Px sin α ⎜ 2π r ⎟=0
115
Page 129 of 276
116 ⎝ cos αRev.0
⎠ 117
or σ x 2rdr + dσ x r 2 + 2rτ x dx + Px 2rdx tan α = 0 dσ x 2σ o 2 μ (σ o − σ x ) or Bσ x − (1 + B ) σ o = ( rC )
2B
+ + cotα = 0
Dividing by r 2 dr and taking dx/dr = cotα we get dr r r B.C s at r = ro ,σ x = σ b
Let μ cotα = B
dσ x 2 2τ 1
+ (σ x + Px ) + x cotα = 0 dσ x 2 ⎡ Bσ b − (1 + B ) σ o ⎤⎦ 2 B
dr r r = ⎡⎣ Bσ x − (1 + B ) σ o ⎤⎦ ∴C = ⎣
dr r ro
i l component off Px ≅ Px due
Vertical d to small ll half
h lf die
di
dσ x 2 σ o (1 + B ) ⎡ ⎛r⎞⎤ ⎛ r ⎞2 B
2B
angles and that of τ x can be neglected.
neglected or = dr or σ x = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ + ⎜ ⎟ .σ b
⎡⎣ Bσ x − (1 + B ) σ o ⎤⎦ r
Thefore two principal stresses are σ x and − Px
Thefore, B ⎢⎣ ⎝ ro ⎠
⎥⎦ ⎝ ro ⎠
Integrating both side
σ o (1 + B ) ⎡ ⎛ rf ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ rf ⎞
2B 2B
Both Tresca's and Von-Mises criteria will g
give
1 ∴ Drawing stress (σ d ) = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + ⎜ ⎟ .σ b
σ x + Px = σ o ln ⎡⎣ Bσ x − (1 + B ) σ o ⎤⎦ × = 2 ln ( rC ) B ⎢⎣ ⎝ ro ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ ro ⎠
B
and τ x = μ Px = μ (σ o − σ x ) 118
{Cis integration cont.} 119 120
at r = ro
IFS 2013
IFS‐2013 Extrusion Analysis (Home Work)
Extrusion Analysis (Home Work) σ o (1 + B ) ⎡ ⎛r ⎞
2B
⎤
An a u u rod,
aluminium od, 6.
6.255 mm d a ete , iss d
diameter, aw into
drawn to For a round bar both wire drawing
g and extrusion will g
give σ xo = ⎢1 − ⎜ o ⎟⎟ ⎥
B ⎢ ⎜r ⎥
a wire 5.60 mm diameter. Neglecting friction same equation except B.Cs ⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎦
between the rod and the dies, dies determine the 2
∴ Bσ x − (1 + B ) σ o = ( rC ) A ⎛r ⎞
2B
drawing stress and the reduction in area when the
Extrusion ratio,, R = o = ⎜ o ⎟⎟ for round bar
Af ⎜⎝ rf
yield
i ld stress
t f
for aluminium
l i i i 35 N/mm
is N/ 2. Also
Al
calculate the tangential stress at the exit. [8‐Marks] B.C s at r = rf , σ x = 0 (at exit stress is zero) ⎠
1 ⎛h ⎞
Hint: Drawing Stress ⎡ − (1 + B ) σ o ⎦⎤ 2 B =⎜ o
⎟⎟
for flat stock
P ⎛A ⎞ ⎛r ⎞ ∴C = ⎣ ⎜h
⎝ f ⎠
σd = = σ o ln ⎜ o
⎟⎟ = 2 × σ o × ln ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ rf
⎜A
Af ⎝ f⎠ ⎝ rf ⎠ σ o (1 + B )
For Tangential Stress i.e. Shear Stress σ (1 + B ) ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞
2B
⎤ σ xo = ⎣⎡1 − R ⎦⎤
B
τ x = μ Px = μ (σ o − σ x ) or σ x = o ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ B
B ⎢ ⎝⎜ rf ⎠ ⎥
at Exit τ = μ P = μ (σ o − σ d ) = 0 121 ⎣ ⎦ 122 123
If effect of container friction is considered

p f = ram pressure required by container friction
τ i = uniform interface shear stress between
billet and container wall
2τ i L
p f .π r0 2 = 2π r0τ i L or p f =
ro
∴ Total Extrusion Pressure(Pt ) = σ xo + p f
and Extrusion Load = pt .π r0 2
124
125
Piercing (Punching) and Blanking
( h ) d l k
Sheet Metal
y Product has light weight and versatile shape as y Piercing and blanking are shearing operations.
compared to forging/casting
y In blanking, the piece being punched out becomes
Sheet Metal Operation y Most commonly used
strength, formability)
– low carbon steel sheet (cost,
the
h workpiece
k i and
d any major
j burrs
b or undesirable
d i bl
y Aluminium and titanium for aircraft and aerospace features should be left on the remaining strip.
strip
y Sheet metal has become a significant material for,
y In piercing (Punching),
(Punching) the punch
punch‐out
out is the scrap
‐ automotive bodies and frames,
‐ office furniture and the remaining
g strip
p is the workpiece.
p
frames for home appliances
By S K Mondal
y ‐ y Both done on some form of mechanical press.
1 2 3
Piercing (Punching) and Blanking
GATE‐2018
The
Th percentage scrap in
i a sheet
h metall
blanking operation of a continuous strip of
sheet metal as shown in the
fi
figure_________(correct
( t t
to t
two d i l
decimal
p
places)
)
4 5 6
Clearance (VIMP)
Clearance (VIMP)
y Die opening must be larger than punch and known as IAS – 2002
clearance.
‘clearance’ In
I deciding
d idi the h clearance
l between
b punchh andd die
di in
i
y Punching press work in shearing, the following rule is helpful:
Punch = size of hole (a) Punch size controls hole size die size controls blank
Die = punch size +2 clearance size
y Remember: In punching punch is correct size.
(b) Punch size controls both hole size and blank size
y Blanking
(c) Die size controls both hole size and blank size
Di = size
Die i off product
d (d) Die size controls hole size,
size punch size controls blank
Punch = Die size ‐2 clearance
size
y Remember: In blanking die size will be correct. Punching Blanking
y Note: In pu
punching
c g cclearance
ea a ce iss p
provided
ov ded o
on Die
e
In Blanking clearance is provided on punch
7 8 9
IAS – 2007 GATE‐2002 IAS – 1995
For
F punchinghi operation
i the
h clearance
l is
i provided
id d In
I a blanking
bl ki operation,
i the
h clearance
l is
i provided
id d InI blanking
bl ki operation i the h clearance
l provided
id d is
i
on which one of the following? on ((a)) 550% on ppunch and 550% on die
(a) The punch (a) The die (b) On die
(b) The die (b) Both the die and the punch equally ( ) On
(c) O punch h
(c) 50% on the punch and 50% on the die (c) The punch ((d)) On die or p
punch depending
p g upon
p designer’s
g choice
(d) 1/3rd on the punch and 2/3rd on the die (d) Brittle the punch nor the die
10 11 12
Clearance
Clearance Contd
Contd….
IES – 1999 y The clearance is determined with g
following
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) In
I sheet
h metall blanking
bl ki operation,
i Clearance in %
Clearance in %
clearance must be given to the die. equation
y If the
th allowance
ll f the
for th material
t i l is
i a = 0.075 given
i th
then
Reason (R): The blank should be of required
dimensions.
dimensions C = 0.0032t τ C = 0.075
0 075 x thickness of the sheet
y Where τ is the shear strength of the material in y If clearance is 1% given then
correct explanation
l off A
(b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee N/mm2(MPa) C = 0.01
0 01 x thickness of the sheet
( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l y Total clearance between punch and die size will be
(d) A is false but R is true twice these ‘C’ i.e. 2C
13 14 15
Example
l GATE‐2003 IAS – 2000
Determine
D i the
h die
di andd punchh sizes
i for
f blanking
bl ki a circular
i l A blank
bl k off 30 mm diameter
di is
i to be
b produced
d d out off
A metal disc of 20 mm diameter is to be punched
disc of 20‐mm diameter from a sheet whose thickness is 1.5 10 mm thick sheet on a simple die. If 6% clearance is
mm. f
from a sheet
h off 2 mm thickness.
h k The
h punch
h and
d the
h recommended, then the nominal diameters of die
die clearance is 3%.
3% The required punch diameter is and p
punch are respectively
p y
Shear strength of sheet material = 294 MPa (a) 30.6 mm and 29.4 mm
(a) 19.88
19 88 mm (b) 19 94 mm
19.94 (b) 30.6 mm andd 30 mm
Also determine the die and punch sizes for punching a (c) 30 mm aand
d 29.4
9.4 mm
(c) 20.06
20 06 mm (d) 20 12 mm
20.12
circular hole of 20‐mm diameter from a sheet whose
thickness is 1.5 mm. (d) 30 mm and 28.8 mm
16 17 18
GATE – 2007 (PI)
( ) GATE‐1996
GATE‐2008(PI) Circular
Ci l blanks
bl k off 35 mm diameter
di t are punched
h d A 50 mm diameter
di disc
di isi to be
b punched
h d out from
f a
A blank of 50 mm diameter is to be sheared from a
from a steel sheet of 2 mm thickness. If the carbon steel sheet 1.0 mm thick. The diameter of
clearance per side between the punch and die is the punch should be
sheet of 2.5 mm thickness. The required radial (a) 49.925
49 925 mm (b) 50.00
50 00 mm
to be kept as 40 microns,
microns the sizes of punch and
clearance between the die and the punch is 6% of die should respectively be (c) 50.075 mm (d) none of the above
sheet thickness. The punch and die diameters (in mm)
(a) 35+0.00 and 35+0.040 (b) 35‐0.040 and 35‐0.080
for this blanking operation,
operation respectively,
respectively are
(c) 35‐0.080 and 35+0.00 (d) 35+0.040 and 35‐0.080
(a) 50.00 and 50.30 (b) 50.00 and 50.15
(c) 49.70 and 50.00 (d) 49.85 and 50.00
19 20 21
GATE‐2020 Punching Force and Blanking Force
h d l k
GATE ‐
GATE ‐ 2012
Fm ax = Ltτ
A sheet metal with a stock hardness of 250 HRC has
Calculate the p punch size in mm,, for a circular
blanking operation for which details are given to be
b sheared
h d using a punch
h and
d a die
d having
h a
below. clearance of 1 mm between them.
them If the stock
Size of the blank 25 mm
Thi k
Thickness off the
th sheet
h t 2 mm hardness of the sheet metal increases to 400 HRC.
Radial clearance between punch and die 0.06 mm the clearance between the punch and the die should The punching force for holes which are smaller than the stock
thi k
thickness may be estimated as follows:
b ti t d f ll
Die allowance 0.05 mm
be _________mm.
(a) 24.83
24 83 (b) 24.89
24 89 π dtσ
(c) 25.01 (d) 25.17
Fmax =
3
d
22 23 t 24
Capacity of Press for Punching and Blanking GATE‐2001 GATE 2011

The
Th cutting i force
f in
i punching
hi and
d blanking
bl ki The shear strength of a sheet metal is 300 MPa. The
operations mainly depends on blanking g force required
q to p
produce a blank of 100
Press capacity will be = Fmax ×C (a) The modulus of elasticity of metal
(b) The shear strength of metal
mm diameter from a 1.5 mm thick sheet is close to
(a) 45 kN
(c) The bulk modulus of metal (b) 70 kN
[Where C is a constant and equal to 1.1 to 1.75 depending (d) The yield strength of metal (c) 141 kN
upon the profile]
th fil ] (d) 3500 kN
25 26 27
IES‐2020 Prelims GATE‐2016
A punch is used for making holes in steel In a sheet metal of 2 mm thickness a hole of 10 mm
GATE –
GATE – 2009 (PI)
2009 (PI)
diameter needs to be punched. The yield strength in A disk
di k off 200 mm diameter
di t isi blanked
bl k d from
f a strip
ti
plates with thickness 8 mm. If the punch
tension of the sheet material is 100 MPa and its ultimate of an aluminum alloy of thickness 3.2
3 2 mm.
mm The
diameter is 20 mm and force required for
shear strength is 80 MPa. The force required to punch material shear strength
g to fracture is 150
5 MPa. The
creating a hole is 110 kN, the average shear the hole (in kN) is _______ blanking force (in kN) is
stress in the plate will be nearly
(a) 291 (b) 301 (c) 311 (d) 321
(a) 139 MPa (b) 219 Mpa (c) 336 MPa (d) 416 MPa
28 29 30
GATE‐2013 (PI)
( ) ISRO‐2009 GATE‐2007
Circular blanks of 10 mm diameter are punched The force required to punch a 25 mm hole in a The force requirement in a blanking operation of
f
from an aluminium
l i i sheet
h t off 2 mm thickness.
thi k Th
The l
low carbon
b steel
t l sheet
h t is
i 5.0 kN.
kN The
Th thickness
thi k off
mild steel plate 10 mm thick, when ultimate shear
shear strength of aluminium is 80 MPa. The the sheet is ‘t’
t and diameter of the blanked part is
minimum punching force required in kN is stress of the plate is 500 N/mm2 will be nearly ‘d’. For the same work material, if the diameter of
(a) 2.57 (a) 78 kN (b) 393 kN (c) 98 kN (d) 158 kN the blanked part is increased to 1.5 d and thickness
(b) 3.29 is reduced to 0.4 t, the new blanking force in kN is
(c) 5.03 ( ) 3.0

(a) (b) 4.5
(d) 6.33 (c) 5.0

50 (d) 80
8.0
31 32 33
GATE‐2016 (PI)
GATE‐2014 IAS‐2011 Main
IAS‐2011 Main The ratio of press force required to punch a square hole
A rectangular hole of size 100 mm × 50 mm is to be For punching a 10 mm circular hole, and cutting a off 30 mm side
id in
i a 1 mm thick
thi k aluminium
l i i sheet
h t to
t that
th t
made on a 5 mm thick sheet of steel having rectangular blank of 50 x 200 mm from a sheet of 1
ultimate tensile strength and shear strength of 500 mm thickness (mild steel,
steel shear stress = 240 needed to punch a square hole of 60 mm side in a 2 mm
MPa and 300 MPa, respectively. The hole is made N/mm2), Calculate, in each case : thick aluminium sheet is__________________
b punching
by hi process. Neglecting
N l i the
h effect
ff off (i) Size of punch
clearance, the punching force (in kN) is (ii) Size of die
(a) 300 (b) 450 (iii) Force required. [10‐Marks]
(c) 600 (d) 750
34 35 36
Minimum Diameter of Piercing
f IES – 1999 IES ‐ 2014
A hole is to be punched in a 15 mm thick plate A hole
h l off diameter
di 35 mm is
i to be
b punched
h d in
i a
sheet metal of thickness t and ultimate shear
π h
having ultimate
l shear
h h off 3N‐mm‐2. Iff the
strength h strength 400 MPa, using punching force of 44 kN.
τs πd.t
Piercing pressure, = Strength of punch, σc × d 2
4 The maximum value of t is
allowable crushing stress in the punch is 6 N mm‐22,
N‐mm
(a) 0.5 mm
the diameter of the smallest hole which can be
(b) 10 mm
punched is equal to (c) 1 mm
(a) 15 mm (b) 30 mm (d) 2 mm
(c) 60 mm (d) 120 mm
37 38 39
ISRO‐2008, 2011 IES‐2013 Energy and Power for Punching and Blanking

A hole of diameter d is to be punched in a plate of Id l Energy
Ideal E i J) = maximum
(E in i force
f h travell = Fmax × ( p × t )
x punch
With a punch for which the maximum crushing
(Unit:Fmax in kN and t in mm othrwise use Fmax in N and t in m)
stress is 4 times the
h maximum shearing
h stress off the
h thi k
thickness t For
t. F the
th plate
l t material,
t i l the
th maximum
i
Where p is percentage penetration required for rupture
plate the biggest hole that can be punched in the
plate, crushing stress is 4 times the maximum allowable E×N
Ideal power in press ( P inW ) =
60
plate would be of diameter equal to shearing
g stress. For p
punching
g the biggest
gg hole, the
[Where N = actual number of stroke per minute]
1 Actual Energy ( E in J ) = Fmax × ( p × t ) × C
(a) × Thickness of plate ratio of diameter of hole to plate thickness should
4 Where C is a constant and equal to 1.1 to 1.75 depending upon the profile
1 be equal to:
(b) × Thickness of plate 1 E×N
1 A
Actual i W)=
l power iin press ( P inW
2 (a) (b) 2 60 ×η
4
(c) Plate thickness WhereE is actual energy and η is efficiency of the press
(c) 1 (d) 2
(d) 2 × Plate thickness 40 41 42
Example
l IAS – 1994 Shear on Punch
h h
Estimate the blanking force to cut a blank 25 mm wide In
I a blanking
bl ki operationi to produce
d steell washer,
h theh y To reduce shearing force, shear is ground on the face of
maximum punch load used in 2 x 105 N. The plate
and
d 30 mm long
l f
from a 1.5 mm thick
h k metall strip, iff the
h thickness is 4 mm and percentage penetration is 25. the
h die
d or punch.
h
ultimate shear strength of the material is 450 N/mm2. The work done duringg this shearing
g operation
p is
(a) 200J (b) 400J y It distribute the cutting action over a period of time.
Also determine the work done if the percentage
( ) 600 J
(c) (d) 800 J
penetration is 25 percent of material thickness. y Shear only reduces the maximum force to be applied but
total work done remains same.
43 44 45
Force required with shear on Punch
Force required with shear on Punch IES – 1994
Fmax × ptt [for
[f circular
i l hole
h l and
d other
h searing
i In
I sheet
h metall blanking,
bl ki shear
h is
i provided
id d on
F= punches and dies so that
S + pt operations]
(a) Press load is reduced
(b) Good cut edge is obtained.
obtained
Fmax × pt
F= (c) Warping of sheet is minimized
S [For Shear cutting, or if force Vs (d) Cut blanks are straight.
displacement curve trapezoidal mentioned
in the question.]
Wh
Where p = penetration
i off punch h as a fraction
f i
S = shear on the punch or die, mm
46 47 48
IES – 2002 Example Example

l
Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i statements related
l d to A washer
h with
i h a 12.7 mm internal
i l hole
h l and d an outside
id
piercing and blanking: y A hole, 100 mm diameter, is to be punched in steel plate diameter of 25.4 mm is to be made from 1.5 mm thick
strip. The
h ultimate
l shearing
h strengthh off the
h materiall off
1. Shear on the punch reduces the maximum cutting 5.6 mm thick. The ultimate shear stress is 550 N/mm2 . the washer is 280 N/mm2.
force
With normal clearance on the tools, cutting is complete (a) Find the total cutting force if both punches act at
2. Shear increases the capacity of the press needed the same time and no shear is applied
pp to either p
punch
3. Shear increases the life of the punch at 40 per cent penetration
i off the
h punch.
h Give
Gi suitable
i bl or the die.
4 The total energy needed to make the cut remains
4. shear angle for the punch to bring the work within the (b) What will be the cutting force if the punches are
unaltered due to provision of shear staggered, so that only one punch acts at a time.
capacity
capac ty o
of a 30
30T p
press.
ess.
Which
h h off these
h statements are correct? ( ) Taking
(c) T ki 6 % penetration
60% i andd shear
h on punchh off 1
mm, what will be the cutting force if both punches act
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4
together.
h
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4 49 50 51
GATE‐2010 Statement Linked 1 GATE‐2010 Statement Linked 2 IES – 1997

Statement
S for
f Linked
Li k d Answer
A Questions:
Q i Statement for Linked Answer Questions: For
F 50% % penetration
i off work k material,
i l a punch
h with
ih
In a shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5mm thickness is cut
In a shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5 mm thickness along a length of 200 mm. The cutting blade is 400 mm long single shear equal to thickness will
is cut along a length of 200 mm. The cutting blade is 400 and zero‐shear (S = 0) is provided on the edge. The ultimate (a) Reduce the punch load to half the value
mm long g and zero‐shear ((S = 0)) is p
provided on the edge.
g shear strength of the sheet is 100 MPa and penetration to
thickness ratio is 0.2.
0 2 Neglect friction.
friction (b) Increase the punch load by half the value
The ultimate shear strength of the sheet is 100 MPa and 400
penetration to thickness ratio is 0.2. Neglect

p g friction. (c) Maintain the same punch load
400
(d) Reduce the punch load to quarter load
S
S
A shear of 20 mm (S = 20 mm) is now provided on the blade.
Assuming force vs displacement curve to be rectangular, Assuming force vs displacement curve to be trapezoidal, the
the work done ((in J) is maximum force (in kN) exerted is
( ) 5
(a) ( )
(b) 10 ( )
(c) 20 ( )
(d) 40
(a) 100 (b) 200 (c) 250 (d) 300
52 53 54
GATE‐2004 IES – 2002, GATE(PI)‐2003 Fine Blanking
l k
10 mm diameter
di holes
h l are to be
b punched
h d in
i a steell Which one is not a method of reducing cutting Fine
Fi Blanking
Bl ki ‐ dies
di are designed
d i d that
h have
h small
ll
sheet of 3 mm thickness. Shear strength of the clearances and pressure pads that hold the material
forces to prevent the overloading of press?
material is 400 N / mm2 and penetration is 40%. while it is sheared. The final result is blanks that have
Shear pprovided on the ppunch is 2 mm. The blanking
g ((a)) Providing
g shear on die extremelyy close tolerances.
force during the operation will be
(b) Providing shear on punch
(a) 22.6
22 6 kN (b) 37.7
3 kN
(c) 61.6 kN (d) 94.3 kN (c) Increasing die clearance
(d) Stepping punches
55 56 57
y Slitting ‐ moving rollers trace out complex paths during y Trimming ‐ Cutting unwanted excess material from the y Lancing – A hole is partially cut and then one side is bent
cutting (like a can opener). periphery of a previously formed component. down to form a sort of tab or louver. No metal removal, no
y Shaving
h ‐ Accurate dimensions
d off the
h part are obtained
b d by
b scrap.
y Perforating: Multiple holes which are very small and
removing a thin strip of metal along the edges.
edges
close together are cut in flat work material.
y Notching: Metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet,

strip
t i or blank.
bl k
y Squeezing ‐ Metal is caused to flow to all portions of a die
cavity under the action of compressive forces.
58 59 60
Dinking
k Elastic recovery or spring back
l b k
y Used
U d to blank
bl k shapes
h from
f low‐strength
l h materials,
i l such
h as
y Steel Rules ‐ soft materials are cut with a steel strip y Total deformation = elastic deformation + plastic
rubber, fiber, or cloth.
shaped
h d so that
h the
h edge
d is the
h pattern to be
b cut. y The shank of a die is either struck with a hammer or mallet or d f
deformation.
the entire die is driven downward byy some form of
y Nibbling
Nibbli ‐ a single
i l punch
h is
i moved
d up and
d down
d rapidly,
idl mechanical press.
each time cutting off a small amount of material.
material This y At the
th end
d off a metal
t l working
ki operation,
ti when
h th
the
allows a simple
p die to cut complex
p slots. pressure is released,
released there is an elastic recovery and the
total deformation will g
get reduced a little. This
phenomenon is called as "spring back".
61 62 63
Elastic recovery or spring back
l b k Contd.. IAS – 2003 ISR0– 2013
y More important in cold working. The
Th 'spring
' i back'
b k' effect
ff in
i press working
ki is i Spring back in metal forming depends on
((a)) Elastic recoveryy of the sheet metal after removal of
the load (a) Modulus of Elasticity
y It depends
d d on the
th yield
i ld strength.
t th Higher
Hi h the
th yield
i ld (b) Regaining the original shape of the sheet metal (b) Load Applied
σo (c) Release of stored energy in the sheet metal
strength, greater spring back. ε Elastic = (c) Strain Rate
E (d) Partial recovery of the sheet metal
(d) None
N off these
h
y To compensate this, the cold deformation be carried
beyond the desired limit by an amount equal to the
spring back.
64 65 66
Punch and Die material Punching Press
h Bolster plate
l l
y Commonly used – tool steel
y For high production ‐ carbides
67 68 69
Bolster plate
l l Contd.... Punch plate
h l Stripper
y When many dies are to run in the same press at different y Used to locate and hold the
times, the
h wear occurring on the
h press bed
b d is high.
h h The
h punch
h in position.
bolster plate is incorporated to take this wear.
wear y This
Thi is
i a useful
f l way off
y Relatively cheap and easy to replace.
replace mounting
mounting, especially for
y Attached to the press bed and the die shoe is then small punches.
p
attached to it.
70 71 72
Stripper Contd.... Knockout
k Pitman
y The stripper removes the stock from the punch after a y Knockout
K k is
i a mechanism,
h i usually
ll connected
d to and
d
piercing or blanking operation. y It is a connecting rod which is used to transmit motion
operated by the press ram, for freeing a work piece from
Ps = KLt a die. f
from the
h main drive
d shaft
h f to the
h press slide.
ld
Where Ps = stripping force, kN
stripping force kN
L = perimeter of cut, mm
t = stock thickness, mm
k hi k
K = stripping constant,
= 0.0103 for low‐ carbon steels thinner than 1.5 mm with
the cut at the edge or near a preceding cut
= 0.0145 for same materials but for other cuts
f i l b f h
= 0.0207 for low‐ carbon steels above 1.5‐mm thickness
= 0.0241 for harder materials
f h d l
73 74 75
Dowel pin
l IAS – 2003 IES – 2006
Match List I (Press‐part)
(Press part) with List II (Function) and select the In
I which
hi h one off the
h following
f ll i isi a flywheel
fl h l generally
ll
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List‐I List‐II employed?
(Press‐part) (Function) (a) Lathe (b) Electric motor
(A) Punch plate 1. Assisting withdrawal of the punch
(B) Stripper
S i 2. Ad
Advancing
i theh work‐piece
k i through
h h correct (c) Punching machine (d) Gearbox
distance
(C) Stopper 3
3. Ejection of the work‐piece
work piece from die cavity
(D) Knockout 4. Holding the small punch in the proper
position
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 2 3 4 1
76 77 78
IES – 2004 IAS – 1995 IES – 2000

Which
f ll i statements is i correct?? Assertion
A i (A):
(A) A flywheel
fl h l isi attached
h d to a punching
hi Best
B position
ii off crank
k for
f blanking
bl ki operation
i in
i a
If the size of a flywheel
y in a ppunching
g machine is press so as to reduce its speed fluctuations. mechanical press is
increased Reason(R): The flywheel stores energy when its (a) Top dead centre
(a) Then the fluctuation of speed and fluctuation of speed
p increase. (b) 20 degrees below top dead centre
energy will both decrease (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (c) 20 degrees before bottom dead centre
(b) Then the fluctuation of speed will decrease and the correct explanation
e planation of A
(d) Bottom dead centre
fluctuation
uctuat o oof eenergy
e gy will increase
c ease (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(c) Then the fluctuation of speed will increase and the correct explanation of A
fl t ti off energy will
fluctuation ill decrease
d (c) A is true but R is false
(d) Then the fluctuation of speed p and fluctuation of (d) A is false but R is true
energy both will increase
79 80 81
Drawing
y Drawing is a plastic deformation process in which a flat
sheet
h or plate
l is formed
f d into a three‐dimensional
h d l part
with a depth more than several times the thickness of
the metal.
y As a p
punch descends into a mating
g die,, the metal
Drawing assumes the desired configuration.
82 83 84
Drawing Blank Size

Blank Size IES – 1994
y Hot drawing is used for thick‐walled parts of simple D = d + 4dh 2 When d > 20r For obtaining a cup of diameter 25 mm and height 15
geometries, thinning
h takes
k place.
l mm by
b drawing,
d the
h size off the
h round
d blank
bl k should
h ld
D = d 2 + 4dh − 0.5r when15r ≤ d ≤ 20r
y Cold
C ld drawing
d i uses relatively
l i l thin
hi metal,
l changes
h the
h be approximately
( d − 2r ) + 4d ( h − r ) + 2π r ( d − 0.7 r )
2
D= when d < 10r
thickness very little or not at all,
all and produces parts in a (a) 42 mm (b) 44 mm
wide varietyy of shapes.
p (c) 46 mm (d) 48 mm
85 86 87
GATE‐2003 GATE‐2017 ISRO‐2011

A shell of 100 mm diameter and 100 mm height with The
Th initial
i i i l blank
bl k diameter
di required
i d to form
f a
A 10 mm deep cylindrical cup with diameter of 15
cylindrical cup of outside diameter 'd‘
d and total
the
h corner radius
d off 0.4 mm is to be
b produced
d d by
b
mm is drawn from a circular blank. Neglecting height 'h' having a corner radius 'r' is obtained
cup drawing.
drawing The required blank diameter is using
i the
th formula
f l
the variation in the sheet thickness, the diameter
(a) 118 mm (b) 161 mm (a ) Do = d 2 + 4dh − 0.5
0 5r
(up to 2 decimal points accuracy) of the blank is
(c) 224 mm (d) 312 mm (b) Do = d + 2h + 2r
______ mm.
(c) Do = d 2 + 2h 2 + 2r
(d ) Do = d 2 + 4dh − 0.5r
88 89 90
y Drawing Force
⎡D ⎤ Example y Blank Holding Force

F = π dtσ ⎢ − C ⎥
⎣d ⎦ Blank
Bl k holding
h ldi force
f required
i d depends
d d on theh
y A cup of 50 mm diameter and 20 mm height is to be
wrinklingg tendencyy of the cup.p The maximum
F D i Force,
F=Drawing F N limit is generally to be one‐third of the drawing
produced by drawing from a 1.5 mm thick sheet metal.
t=Original Blank Thickness,
Thickness mm force.
What is the maximum drawing force ? If ultimate tensile
σ=TensileStrength
σ TensileStrength,MPa
MPa
d Punch Diameter,mm
d=Punch strength of metal is 650 MPa. y Draw Clearance
Punch diameter = Die opening diameter – 2.5 t
D=Startingg Blank Diameter,mm
,
C=0.7 a correction factor to account for friction
91 92 93
IAS – 2013 Main IFS‐2013

A cup, of 50 mm diameter and 100 mm height, is to be A symmetrical cup of circular cross section with
d
drawn f
from l
low carbon
b steell sheet.
h Neglecting
l the
h d
diameter 40 mm and
d height
h h 60 mm with
h a corner
influence of thickness and corner radii: radius of 2 mm is to be obtained in C20 steel of 0.6
06
(i) Calculate the blank diameter mm thickness. Calculate the blank size for the
(ii) Decide whether it can be drawn in a single draw,

draw if drawn cup. Will it be possible to draw the cup in
maximum reduction p
permitted is 4
40%. single step?
[10 marks] [10 Marks]
94 95 96
Deep drawing
d IES – 2008
y Drawing when cup height is more than half the diameter is
A cylindrical vessel with flat bottom can be deep
Stresses on Deep Drawing
Stresses on Deep Drawing
termed deep
p drawing.
g y In flange of blank:
d
drawn b
by
y Easy with ductile materials.
Bi‐axial tension and
(a) Shallow drawing compression
y Due to the radial flow of material, the side walls increase in
(b) Single action deep drawing
thickness as the height is increased. y In wall of the cup:
((c)) Double action deep
p drawing
g simple uni‐axial
uni axial
y A cylindrical vessel with flat bottom can be deep drawn by
(d) Triple action deep drawing tension
double action deep drawing.
drawing
y Deep drawing ‐ is a combination of drawing and stretching.
97 98 99
Deep Drawability
bl Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) IES – 1997
y The ratio of the maximum blank diameter to the y The average reduction in deep drawing A cup of 10 cm height and 5 cm diameter is to be
d
d
diameter off the
h cup drawn
d . i.e. D/d.
d = 0.5
05 made
d from
f a sheet
h metall off 2 mm thickness.
h k The
h
D
y There
Th i a limiting
is li i i drawing
d i ratio
i (LDR),
(LDR) after
f which
hi h the
h ⎛ d ⎞ number of deductions necessary will be
Reduction = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ × 100% = 50%
⎝ D⎠
punch will pierce a hole in the blank instead of drawing.
drawing Th b rule:
Thumb l (a) One
First draw:Reduction = 50 %
y This ratio depends upon material,
material amount of friction (b) Two
Second draw:Reduction = 30 %
present, etc.
p Third draw:Reduction = 25 % (c) Three
y Limiting drawing ratio (LDR) is 1.6 to 2.3 Fourth draw:Reduction = 16 %
((d)) Four
Fifth draw:Reduction = 13 %
100 101 102
IES – 1998 Die Design Progressive dies

Perform two or more operations simultaneously in a single
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) The
Th first
fi draw
d in
i deep
d drawing
d i operationi stroke
k off a punchh press, so that
h a complete
l component is
can have up to 60% reduction, the second draw up to y Progressive dies obtained for each stroke.
40%% reduction
d and,
d theh third
h d draw
d off about
b 30%
% only.
l Compound dies
y Compound dies
Reason ((R): ) Due to strain hardening, g, the subsequent
q All the necessary operations are carried out at a single
draws in a deep drawing operation have reduced station, in a single stroke of the ram. To do more than one set
p
percentages.
g y Combination dies of operations, a compound die consists of the necessary sets
off punches
h and d dies.
di
explanation of A Combination
C bi i dies
di
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the A combination die is same as that of a compound die with
correct explanation
l i off A th main
the i difference
diff th t here
that h non‐cutting
tti operations
ti such
h as
bending and forming are also included as part of the
(c) A is true but R is false operation.
operation
103 104 105
Progressive piercing and blanking die for Method for making a simple washer in a compound piercing and
blanking die. Part is blanked (a) and subsequently pierced
IAS‐1996
making a simple washer.
making a simple washer (b) The blanking punch contains the die for piercing. Compound die performs
(a) Two or more operations at one station in one stroke
(b) Two or more operations at different stations in one

stroke
t k
(c) high frequency sound wave
(d) High frequency eddy current
Back Back
106 107 108
Lubrication
b IAS – 2007 Defects in Drawing ‐
f wrinkle
kl
In
I drawing
d i operation,
i proper lubrication
l b i i is
i y An
A insufficient
i ffi i blank
bl k holder
h ld pressure causes wrinkles
i kl to
y In drawing operation, proper lubrication is essential for
essential for which of the following reasons? develop on the flange, which may also extend to the wall
1. To improve die life. 1. To improve die life of the cup.
2 To reduce drawing forces
2.
2. To reduce drawing forces. 3. To reduce temperature
3. To reduce temperature. 4. To improve surface finish
S l t the
i the
th code
d given
i b l
below:
4. To improve surface finish. (a) 1 and 2 onlyy (b) 1, 3 and 4 onlyy
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
109 110 Flange Wrinkle Wall Wrinkle 111
Defects in Drawing ‐
f Fracture Defects in Drawing ‐earing
f IES‐1999
y Further,
F h too much
h off a blank
bl k holder
h ld pressure and
d friction
fi i y While
Whil drawing
d i a rolled
ll d stock,
k ears or lobes
l b tend
d to occur
may cause a thinning of the walls and a fracture at the because of the anisotropy induced by the rolling
flange, bottom, and the corners (if any). operation. E i in a drawn cup can be due non‐uniform
Earing i d b d if
1. Speed of the press
p p
2. Clearance between tools
3. Material properties
M i l i
4. Blank holding
4 g
( ) 1, 2 and 3
(a) d (b) d
(b) 2, 3 and 4
((c) 1, 3 and 4
) ,3 4 ((d) 1, 2 and 4
) , 4
112 113 114
Defects in Drawing –
f miss strike
k Defects in Drawing –
f Orange peel l St t h t i (lik L d Lines)
Stretcher strains (like Luders Li )
y Due
D to the
h misplacement
i l off the
h stock,
k unsymmetrical
i l y A surface
f roughening
h i (defect)
(d f ) encountered
d in
i forming
f i y Caused
C d by
b plastic
l ti deformation
d f ti due
d to
t inhomogeneous
i h
flanges may result. This defect is known as miss strike. products from metal stock that has a coarse grain size. yielding.
y It is due to uneven flow or to the appearance of the
overly large grains usually the result of annealing at too y These lines can criss‐cross the surface of the workpiece
p and
high a temperature. may be visibly objectionable.
y Low carbon steel and aluminium shows more stretcher

strains.
115 116 117
GATE‐2008 IAS – 1997
Surface scratches
Surface scratches In
I the
h deep
d drawing
d i off cups, blanks
bl k show
h a tendency
d to Which
f ll i factor
f promotes the
h
wrinkle up around the periphery (flange). tendency for wrinking in the process of drawing?
y Die or punch not having a smooth surface, insufficient
lubrication The most likely cause and remedy of the phenomenon are, (a) Increase in the ratio of thickness to blank diameter
respectively,
p y, of work material
(A) Buckling due to circumferential compression; Increase (b) Decrease in the ratio thickness to blank diameter of
blank holder pressure
workk materiall
(B) High blank holder pressure and high friction; Reduce
bl k holder
blank h ld pressure and d apply
l lubricant
l bi t
(c) Decrease
ec ease in tthee holding
o d g force
o ce o
on tthee b
blank
a
(C) High temperature causing increase in circumferential (d) Use of solid lubricants
length: Apply coolant to blank
((D)) Buckling g due to circumferential compression;
p ; decrease
blank holder pressure
118 119 120
GATE‐1999 GATE‐2006 IES – 1999

Identify
Id if the
h stress ‐ state ini the
h FLANCE portion i off a Match
M h the h items
i in
i columns
l I andd II.
II Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i statements: Earring
E i in
i a
PARTIALLYDRAWN CYLINDRICAL CUP when deep ‐ Column I Column II drawn cup can be due to non‐uniform
drawing without a blank holder P. Wrinkling 1. Yield point elongation 1. Speed of the press
(a) Tensile in all three directions Q Orange peel
Q. 2
2. Anisotropy 2 Clearance between tools
2.
(b) No stress in the flange at all, because there is no R. Stretcher strains 3. Large grain size 3. Material properties
bl k h ld
blank‐holder S. Earing 4.Insufficient blank holding 4. Blank holding
(c) Tensile
e s e st
stress
ess in oonee d
direction
ect o aand
d co
compressive
p ess ve in force
Whi h off these
Which th statements
t t t are correct?
t?
the one other direction 5. Fine grain size
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(d) Compressive
C i in i two
t di ti
directions and
d tensile
t il ini the
th 6
6. Excessive blank holding force
third direction (a) P – 6, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 2 (b) P – 4, Q – 5, R – 6, S – 1
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
(c) P – 2, Q – 5, R – 3, S – 4 (d) P – 4, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 2
121 122 123
IAS – 1994 Spinning Spinning

Consider
f ll i factors
f y Spinning is a cold‐forming operation in which a rotating
1. Clearance between the p punch and the die is too
small. d k off sheet
disk h metall is shaped
h d over a male
l form,
f or
2 The finish at the corners of the punch is poor.
2. poor mandrel.
mandrel
3. The finish at the corners of the die is poor.
y Localized pressure is applied through a simple round‐
4. The punch and die alignment is not proper.
ended wooden or metal tool or small roller,, which
Th factors
The f t responsible
ibl for
f the
th vertical
ti l lines
li parallel
ll l tot
the axis noticed on the outside of a drawn cylindrical cup traverses the entire surface of the part
wouldld include.
l d
(a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
124 125 126
Spinning
t c = t b sin α
1. A mandrel
d l (or( die
di for
f internal
i l pieces)
i ) is
i placed
l d on a
rotating axis (like a turning center).
2. A blank or tube is held to the face of the mandrel. Where, t c = final thickness,
3 A roller is pushed against the material near the
3. t b = Initial thickness
center of rotation, and slowly moved outwards, pushing
the
h blank
bl k against the h mandrel.
d l Maximum thickness reduction
4. Thee pa
partt co
conforms
o s to tthee sshape
ape oof tthee mandrel
a d e ((with
t (t b - t c )
some springback). = × 100%
tb
5. The
Th process is i stopped,
t d and d the
th partt is i removed d andd
trimmed.
127 128 129
GATE‐1992 Blank Diameter

Blank Diameter
Blank diameter is a diameter of metal sheet which is used for
Spinnability The thickness of the blank needed to produce, by producing
d i spin i component. Different
Diff size
i off blank
bl k diameter
di
used in metal spinning according to product requirement.
y The maximum reduction in thickness to which a
power spinning a missile cone of thickness 1.5 mm
l f h k Generally in metal spinning cylindrical, hemispherical and
blank can be subjected to by spinning without any
cone shaped component are produced, and according to this
crack is defined as spinnability.
spinnability and half cone angle 30°, is
and half cone angle 30 is shape and size blank diameter will change. For Cone:
y It is determined by spinning a circular blank over D = Diameter of blank; R = Large Radius of cone
(a) 3.0 mm
3 0 mm (b) 2 5 mm
2.5 mm
an ellipsoid mandrel.
r = Small Radius of cone; L = Slant height of cone
y The maximum spinnability corresponds to a (c) 2.0 mm
2 0 mm (d) 1 5 mm
1.5 mm
Surface area of blank = surface area of cone
maximum reduction in area of 50%.
π/4 × (D)2 = π×(R+r)×L
130 131 132
For IES Only
GATE 2019 (PI)

GATE‐2019 (PI) IES – 1994
The end product obtained using spinning process is shown in
the figure. The initial blank thickness is 2.5 mm. The blank The mode of deformation of the metal during
diameter (in mm) is……..
(a) 57 (b) 105 (c) 150 (d) 210 spinning is
( ) Bending
(a) B di
g gy g( )
High Energy Rate Forming(HERF)
(b) Stretching
St t hi
(c) Rolling and stretching
(d) Bending and stretching.

stretching
133 134 135
Underwater
HERF explosions. U d
Underwater Explosions
E l i
y High Energy Rate Forming, also known as HERF or explosive
f
forming
i can be
b utilised
tili d to
t form
f a wide
id variety
i t off metals,
t l from
f Electro‐magnetic
Electro magnetic
(the use of Underwater spark
aluminum to high strength alloys. rapidly formed discharge (electro‐
discharge (electro
magnetic fields). HERF hydraulic).
y Applied a large amount of energy in a very sort time interval.
y HERF makes it possible to form large work pieces and

difficult‐to‐form metals with less‐expensive equipment and
Internal
tooling required. Pneumatic‐
P i
combustion of
mechanical
gaseous
g
y No
N springback
i b k means
mixtures.
136 137 138
U d
Underwater explosions
l i Electro‐hydraulic Forming
l h d l
y A shock wave in the fluid medium (normally water ) is y An operation using electric discharge in the form of
sparks to generate a shock wave in a fluid is called
generated
d by
b detonating
d an explosive
l charge.
h
electrohydrulic forming.
y TNT and
d dynamite
d i for
f higher
hi h energy and
d gun powder
d for
f
y A capacitor bank is charged through the charging circuit,
lower energy is used.
used subsequently,
b tl a switch
it h is
i closed,
l d resulting
lti i a spark
in k
y Used for parts of thick materials.
materials within the electrode g
gap
p to discharge
g the capacitors.
p
y Employed in Aerospace, aircraft industries and y Energy level and peak pressure is lower than underwater
explosions but easier and safer.
automobile related components.
y Used for bulging operations in small parts.
139 140 141
Electromagnetic or Magnetic Pulse Forming Electromagnetic or Magnetic Pulse Forming
y Based
B d on the
h principle
i i l that
h the
h electromagnetic
l i field
fi ld off y The
Th process is
i very rapid
id and
d is
i used
d primarily
i il to expand
d
an induced current always opposes the electromagnetic or contract tubing, or to permanently assemble
field of the inducing current. component parts.
y This process is most effective for relatively thin materials
y A large capacitor bank is discharged, producing a current (0.25 to 1.25 mm thick).
surge through
h h a coiled
l d conductor.
d y The workpiece must be electrically conductive but need
not be magnetic.
magnetic
y If the coil has been placed within a conductive cylinder, y Short life of the coil is the major problem.
around d a cylinder,
li d or adjacent
dj t the
th flat
fl t sheet
h t off metal,
t l the
th
discharge induces a secondary current in the workpiece,
causing it to be repelled from the coil and conformed to
a die or mating workpiece.
142
Page 146 of 276
143
Rev.0
144
IES 2016
Petro ‐ Forging or Petro ‐ Forge Forming Consider the following in case of high energy forming
p
processes:
y In
I this
hi process, the
h stored
d chemical
h i l energy off a hydrocarbon,
h d b
like petrol or diesel is utilized to move the dies at very high 1. The evacuation between die and blank in explosive
velocity.
l The
h principlel off working
k off a Petro‐forge
f h
hammer is forming forming is done by a vacuum pump.
pump
just similar to I.C. engine. 2. The pressure waves produced in water in explosive
y It is a piston‐cylinder arrangement and a piston drives a ram fforming deform
d f the
h blank
bl k to the
h die
d shape.
h
(piston rod)) and a die.
(p 33. The electrohydraulic
y formingg makes use of discharge g of
y After air‐fuel mixture is ignited in the combustion chamber large amount of electrical energy used in a capacitor bank.
pressure increases by 5 to 7 times which breaks the seal and 4
4. In Petroforge,
Petroforge the piston is moved by combustion of fuel
the high pressure gases act on the top face of the piston. moving at the rate of 150 – 200 m/s.
y The
Th piston,
i ram and d die
di are accelerated
l d at a very rapid
id rate Whi h off the
Which th above
b are correct?
t?
and strike upto 250 m/s. (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only
145 146 147
IES 2011 JWM 2010 IES 2010

Assertion (A) : In magnetic pulse‐forming
pulse forming method,
method Assertion (A) : In the high energy rate forming method,
method
High energy rate forming process used for magnetic field produced by eddy currents is used to the explosive forming has proved to be an excellent
forming components from thin metal sheets or create force
f b
between coil
il and
d workpiece.
k i method
h d off utilizing
ili i energy at high
hi h rate andd utilizes
ili
Reason ((R)) : It is necessary y for the workpiece
p both the high explosives and low explosives.
d f
deform thin
hi tubes
b is:
i Reason (R): The gas pressure and rate of detonation
material to have magnetic properties.
can be controlled for both types
yp of explosives.
p
( ) Petro‐forming
(a) P t f i ( ) Both
i di id ll true
t and
d R is
i the
th
correct explanation of A (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
(b) Magnetic pulse forming explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
(c) Explosive forming
(d) electro
electro‐hydraulic
hydraulic forming (c) A is true but R is false
148 149
(d) A is false but R is true 150
IES – 2007 IES – 2009 IES – 2005

Which one of the following metal forming processes Which one of the following is a high energy rate Magnetic forming is an example of:
is not a high
h h energy rate forming
f process? forming process? (a) Cold forming (b) Hot forming
( ) Electro‐mechanical
(a) El h i l forming
f i ( ) Roll
(a) R ll forming
f i (c) High energy rate forming (d) Roll forming
(b) Roll‐forming
R ll f i (b) Electro‐hydraulic
El t h d li forming
f i
(c) Explosive forming (c) Rotary forging
(d) Electro‐hydraulic
Electro hydraulic forming (d) Forward extrusion
151 152 153
Stretch Forming
h Stretch Forming
h Contd...... Stretch Forming
h Contd......
y Produce
P d large
l sheet
h t metal
t l parts
t in
i low
l or limited
li it d
y Popular in the aircraft industry and is frequently used to
quantities.
y A sheet of metal is gripped by two or more sets of jaws f
form aluminum
l and
d stainless
l steell
that stretch it and wrap it around a single form block.
y Because most of the deformation is induced by the y Low‐carbon
L b steell can be
b stretch
h formed
f d to produce
d l
large
g, the forces on the form block are far
tensile stretching, panels for the automotive and truck industry.
industry
less than those normally encountered in bending or
o
forming.g.
y There is very little springback, and the workpiece
conforms very closely to the shape of the tool.
tool
y Because the forces are so low, the form blocks can often
b made
be d off wood, d low‐melting‐point
l lti i t metal,
t l or even
plastic. 154 155 156
Stretch Forming
h Contd...... GATE‐2000 Ironing
A 1.5 mm thick sheet is subject to unequal biaxial y The process of thinning the walls of a drawn cylinder by
stretching and the true strains in the directions of passing it between
b a punch
h and
d die
d whose
h separation is
stretching are 0.05 and 0.09. The final thickness of
less than the original wall thickness.
thickness
the sheet in mm is
y The walls are thinned and lengthened,
lengthened while the
(a) 1.414 (b) 1.304
thickness of the base remains unchanged.
g
( ) 1.362
(c) 6 (d) 289
8
y Examples
p of ironed p
products include brass cartridge
g
cases and the thin‐walled beverage can.
157 158 159
For IES Only
Ironing Contd.... Ironing Force Embossing

b
y Neglecting
N l i the h friction
f i i andd shape
h off the
h die,
di the
h ironing
i i y It is a very shallow drawing operation where the depth of
force can be estimated using the following equation.
the
h draw
d is limited
l d to one to three
h times the
h thickness
h k off
the metal,
metal and the material thickness remains largely
⎛t ⎞
F = π dt ttσ av ln
l ⎜ o⎟ unchanged.
⎝ tt ⎠
160 161 162
Coining Bending
y After basic shearing operation, we can bend a part to give it some Bending
shape.
h Bend allowance,
y Coining is essentially a cold‐forging operation except for
y Bending parts depends upon material properties at the location of
the
h fact
f that
h the
h flow
fl off the
h metall occurs only
l at the
h top the bend.
h b d Lb = α(R+kt)
α(R+kt)
y At bend, bi‐axial compression and bi‐axial tension is there. where
layers and not the entire volume.
volume
R = bend radius
y Coining is used for making coins,
coins medals and similar k
k = constant (stretch factor)
( h f )
articles. For R > 2t k = 0.5
For R < 2t k = 0.33
t = thickness of material
hi k f i l
α = bend angle (
g (in radian)
163 164 165
For IES Only
Bending Bending Force
Bending Force IES 1998
IES‐1998
Klσ ut t 2
y The strain on the outermost fibers of the bend is
F= The bending force required for V‐bending, U‐
ε=
1 w b di and
bending d Edge
Ed bending
b di will
ill be
b in
i the
th ratio
ti
Where l =Bend length = width of the stock, mm
2R
+11
+ σ ut = Ultimate
Ulti t tensile
t il strength,
t th MPa
MP (N/mm
(N/ 2
) of
t t = blank thickness, mm
w = width
idth off di
die-opening,
i mm (a) 1 : 2 : 0.5 (b) 2: 1 : 0.5
K = die-opening factor , (can be used followin table)
((c)) 1: 2 : 1 ((d)) 1: 1 : 1
Condition V-Bending U-Bending Edge-Bending
W < 16t 1.33 2.67 0.67
W > = 16t 1.20 2.40 0.6
For U or channel bending force required is double than V bending
For U or channel bending force required is double than V –
For edge bending it will be about one‐half that for V ‐ bending
166 167 168
Example
l IES 2019 Prelims.
l GATE‐2005
y Calculate the bending force for a 45o bend in aluminium What
Wh t isi the
th force
f required
i d for
f 90°° bending
b di off St50
St A 2 mm thick
hi k metall sheet
h is
i to be
b bent
b at an angle
l off
blank. Blank thickness, 1.6 mm, bend length = 1200 mm, steel of 2 mm thickness in a V‐die, if the die one radian with a bend radius of 100 mm. If the
Di opening
Die i = 8t, UTS = 455 MPa,
MP DieDi opening
i factor
f = opening is taken as 8 times the thickness and the stretch factor is 0.5, the bend allowance is
1.33 (a) 99 mm (b) 100 mm
length of the bent part is 1 m,m ultimate tensile
strength is 500 MPa and K = 1.33? (c) 101 mm (d) 102 mm
(a) 166.25 kN (b) 155.45 kN 2mm
( ) 154.65
(c) 6 kN (d) 143.85 kN
1 radian
169 170 171
For IES Only
Spanking
k
y During bending, the area of the sheet under the punch
h a tendency
has d to flow
fl and
d form
f a bulge
b l on the
h outer
surface.
surface
y The lower die should be provided with mating surfaces,

surfaces
so that when the p
punch and die are completely
p y closed on
the blank, any bulging developed earlier will be
completely presses or “spanked” out.
172 173 174
GATE‐2007 GATE ‐2012 Same Q in GATE‐2012 (PI) GATE‐2004

Match
M t h the
th correctt combination
bi ti for
f following
f ll i metal
t l Match the following metal forming processes with their Match
M h the h following
f ll i
working processes. associated stresses in the workpiece.
p Product Process
Processes Associated state of stress
Metal forming process Type of stress P. Moulded luggage 1. Injection moulding
P. Blankingg 1. Tension
1. Coining P. Tensile Q Packaging
Q. P k i containers i f liquid
for li id 2. H rolling
Hot lli
Q. Stretch Forming 2. Compression
R Coining
R. 3
3. Shear 2 Wire Drawing
2. Wire Drawing Q Shear
Q. Shear R. Longg structural shapes
p 33. Impact
p extrusion
S. Deep Drawing 4. Tension and Compression 3. Blanking R. Tensile and S. Collapsible tubes 4. Transfer moulding
5. Tension and Shear compressivei 5. Blow
l moulding
ld
Codes:P Q R S P Q R S 4. Deep Drawing
4 p g S. Compressive
p 6. Coining
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 3 4 1 5 (a) 1‐S, 2‐P, 3‐Q, 4‐R (b) 1‐S, 2‐P, 3‐R, 4‐Q (a) P‐1 Q‐4 R‐6 S‐3 (b) P‐4 Q‐5 R‐2 S‐3
( ) 5
(c) 4 3 1 (d) 3 1 2 4 ( ) 1‐P, 2‐Q, 3‐S, 4‐R
(c) (d) 1‐P, 2‐R, 3‐Q, 4‐S ( ) P‐1 Q‐5 R‐3 S‐2
(c) ( ) P‐5 Q‐1 R‐2 S‐2
(d)
175 176 177
IAS – 1999 IAS – 1997 IES 2010

Match
M t h List
Li t I (Process)
(P ) with
ith List
Li t II (Production
(P d ti off parts)
t ) Match
M h List‐I
Li I (metal
( l forming
f i process)) with
i h List‐II
Li II Consider the following
follo ing statements:
statements
and select the correct answer using the codes given (Associated feature) and select the correct answer
below the lists: The material p properties
p which p principally
p y
using the codes given below the Lists: determine how well a metal may be drawn are
List‐I List‐II
A Rolling
A. R lli 1. Di
Discrete parts List‐ll
List List‐ II
List 1. Ratio
R ti off yield
i ld stress
t t ultimate
to lti t stress.
t
B. Forging 2. Rod and Wire A. Blanking 1. Shear angle 2.Rate of increase of yyield stress relative to
C. Extrusion 3. Wide variety of shapes with thin B. Flow forming 2. Coiled stock progressive amounts of cold work.
walls C Roll forming
C. 3
3. Mandrel
D. Drawing 4. Flat plates and sheets 3. Rate
R off workk hardening.
h d i
D. Embossing 4. Closed matching dies
5
5. Solid and hollow parts Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Codes:A B C D A B C D Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 5 3 4 (b) 1 2 5 4 (a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 3 1 4 2
(c) 1 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 4 1For 2021
3 (IES, 2GATE(d) 4
& PSUs)
1 5 2178 (c) 1 3 2 Page
4 150(d)
of 2763 1 2 4179 Rev.0
180
Manufacturing of Powder
Atomization using a gas stream
Powder Metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy
Molten metal is
y Powder metallurgy is the name given to the f
forcedd through
th h a
small orifice and
Powder Metallurgy process byy which fine p
p
blended, pressed
powdered materials are
into a desired shape
is disintegrated by
a jet of
compressed air, air
(compacted), and then heated (sintered) in a inert gas or water
jet It is used for
jet,.
controlled
ll d atmosphere
h to bond
b d the
h contacting
low melting point
surfaces of the particles and establish the desired materials brass,
materials, brass
bronze, Zn, Tn,
p p
properties. Al, Pb etc.
By S K Mondal 1 2 3
IES‐2016
IAS – 2003 IAS – 2007 Statement (I) : Metal powders can be produced by
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Atomization
A i i method
h d for
f production
d i off Assertion
A ti (A):
(A) Mechanical
M h i l disintegration
di i t ti off a atomization process.
process
metal powders consists of mechanical disintegration of molten metal stream into fine particles by means of Statement (II) : In case of metals with low melting
molten
l stream into fine
f particles.
l a jet
j t off compressed d air
i is
i known
k as atomization.
t i ti point, the size of particles cannot be controlled and
Reason ((R): ) Atomization method is an excellent means Reason (R): In atomization process inert‐gas or the shapep of the p particles remains regular
g in
of making powders from high temperature metals. water cannot be used as a substitute for compressed atomization.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct air.
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and
explanation of A (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I).
(b) Both
B th A and d R are individually
i di id ll true
t b t R is
but i nott the
th
correct
co ect eexplanation
p a at o oof A
correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
)
(c) A is true but R is false (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false.
((d)) A is false but R is true
(d) (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
4 5 6
GATE 2017(PI)
GATE‐2017(PI) Manufacturing of Powder
IES – 1999 Reduction
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) In
I atomization
i i process off manufacture
f off In powder
d metallurgy,
ll the
h process 'atomization'
' '
metal powder, the molten metal is forced through a y Metal oxides are turned to pure metal powder when
smallll orifice
f andd broken
b k up by b a stream off compressedd refers
f to a method
h d off
air. exposed to below melting point gases results in a
Reason (R): The metallic powder obtained by (a) Producing powders product of cake of sponge metal.
atomization p process is q
quite resistant to oxidation.
(b) compaction of powders y The
h irregular
i l sponge‐like
lik particles
i l are soft,
f readily
dil
explanation of A compressible and give compacts of good pre‐sinter
compressible,
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (c) sintering of powder compacts
(“green”)
g strength
g
correct explanation
l i off A
(c) A is true but R is false (d) blending of metal powders y Used for iron, Cu, tungsten, molybdenum, Ni and
(d) A is false but R is true Cobalt.
7 8 9
Only for IES
Manufacturing of Powder Manufacturing of Powder
GATE ‐2011 (PI)
GATE ‐2011 (PI) Comminution
C i i
Grinding
g
Whi h off
Which th
the f ll i
following powder
d production
d ti y Granular
G l material,
t i l which
hi h may be
b coarsely
l atomized
t i d
methods produces spongy and porous particles? This metallic powder is nothing but the unburnt tiny p
powder,, is fed in a stream of ggas under p
pressure through
g
chips formed during the process of grinding. a venturi and is cooled and thereby embrittled by the
(a) Atomization
adiabatic
di b i expansion i off the
h gas before
b f i i i
impinging on a
((b)) Reduction of metal oxides g on which the g
target granules shatters
((c)) Electrolytic
y deposition
p y Process is used for production of very fine powders such
as are required for injection moulding . Brittle materials
(d) Pulverization such as inter
inter‐metallic
metallic compounds,
compounds ferro
ferro‐alloys
alloys ‐ ferro
ferro‐
10 11 chromium, ferro‐silicon are produces 12
Electrolytic Deposition
IES ‐ 2012 Manufacturing of Powder
In
I electrolysis
l l i Granulations ‐ as metals are cooled they are stirred rapidly
y Used for iron, copper, silver
((a)) For making g copper
pp p powder,, copper
pp p plate is made Machining ‐ coarse powders such as magnesium
y Process is similar to electroplating.
electroplating
cathode in electrolyte tank
y For making copper powder, copper plates are placed as Milling
g ‐ crushers and rollers to break down metals. Used for
(b) For making aluminum powder,
powder aluminum plate is
anode in the tank of electrolyte, whereas the aluminium made anode brittle materials.
plates
l t are placed
l d in i the
th electrolyte
l t l t to t actt as cathode.
th d (c) High amperage produces powdery deposit of cathode Shooting ‐ drops of molten metal are dropped in water, used
When DC current is p passed, the copper
pp ggets deposited
p metal
eta oon aanode
ode for low melting point materials.
materials
on cathode. The cathode plated are taken out and (d) Atomization process is more suitable for low melting Condensation – Metals are boiled to produce metal vapours
powder
d is
i scrappedd off.
ff The
Th powderd isi washed,
h d dried
d i d and d point
i t metals
t l
and then condensed to obtain metal powders. Used for Zn,
pulverized to the desired g
p grain size.
Mg Cd.
Mg, Cd
y The cost of manufacturing is high. 13 14 15
GATE‐2014 (PI) IAS – 2000 IES 2010

Which one of the following methods is NOT used Consider
C id theh following
f ll i processes: Metallic
ll powders
d can be
b produced
d d by
b
1. Mechanical pulverization
p
f producing
for d i metal
t l powders?
d ? ( ) Atomization
(a) A i i
2. Atomization
(a) Atomization 3. Chemical
Ch i l reduction
d i (b) Pulverization
P l i ti
(b) Compaction 4. Sintering
4 g
( ) Electro‐deposition
(c) El t d iti process
Which of these processes are used for powder
((c)) Machining
g and g
grinding
g
preparation
ti in
i powder
d metallurgy?
t ll ? (d) All of the above
(d) Electrolysis (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
16 17 18
GATE‐2018 (PI) Conventional Questions
Characteristics
Ch i i off metall powder: d y Discuss
Di the
h terms fineness
fi and d particle
i l size
i
Which one of the following processes is NOT distribution in powder metallurgy. [IES‐2010, 2 Marks]
y Fineness: refers to p particle size of ppowder,, can be
used for producing powders? determined either by pouring the powder through a sieve or Ans.
by microscopic testing.
testing A standard sieves with mesh size Fineness: Is the diameter of spherical shaped particle and
(a) Atomization varies between (100) and (325) are used to determine mean diameter of non‐spherical shaped particle.
particle
ti l size
i andd particle
ti l size
i distribution
di t ib ti off powder
d ini a
Particle size distribution: Geometric standard deviation
(b) Ball milling certain range. ((a measure for the bredth or width of a distribution),), is the
y Particle size distribution: refers to amount of each particle ratio of particle size diameters taken at 84.1 and 50% of the
(c) Sintering size in the powder and have a great effect in determining cumulative undersized weight plot, respectively and mean
flowability, apparent density and final porosity of product. mass diameter define the particle size distribution.
(d) Electrolysis
y
19 20 21
IES – 1999
The
Th correct sequence off the h given
i processes in
i
manufacturing by powder metallurgy is
(a) Blending, compacting, sintering and sizing
(b) Blending,
Blending compacting,
compacting sizing and sintering
(c) Compacting, sizing, blending and sintering
(d) Compacting, blending, sizing and sintering
22 23 24
Blending
l d Compacting C ti
Compacting
y Blending
Bl di or mixing
i i operations
ti can be
b done
d either
ith dry
d or wet.
t
y Powder is pressed into a “green compact”
y Lubricants such as graphite or stearic acid improve the flow
characteristics and compressibility at the expense of reduced y 40 to 1650 MPa pressure (Depends on materials,
strength. product complexity)

y Binders produce the reverse effect of lubricants. y Still very porous, ~70% density
Thermoplastics or a water
water‐soluble
soluble methylcellulose binder is
y May be done cold or warm (higher density)
used.
y Most lubricants or binders are not wanted in the final
product and are removed ( volatilized or burned off)
25 26 27
Sintering GATE‐2016 (PI)
GATE ‐2010 (PI)
GATE ‐2010 (PI)
y Controlled atmosphere: no oxygen In powder metallurgy, sintering of the component
y Heat to 0.75*T melt
I powder
In d metallurgy,
t ll sintering
i t i off a componentt
(a) increases density and reduces ductility
y Particles bind together, diffusion, recrystalization
P ti l bi d t th diff i t li ti (a) Improves strength and reduces hardness
(b) increases porosity and reduces density
and grain growth takes place.
g g p
( )
(c) increases density and reduces porosity
d d d (b) Reduces brittleness and improves strength
y Part shrinks in size
(d) i
(d) increases porosity and reduces brittleness.
it d d b ittl (c) Improves hardness and reduces toughness
y Density increases, up to 95%
y Strength increases, Brittleness reduces, Porosity
St th i B ittl d P it (d) Reduces porosity and increases brittleness
decreases. Toughness increases.
g
28 29 30
IES – 2002 Cold Isostatic

ld Pressing (CIP)
( )
The rate of production of a powder metallurgy part
PM Defects
PM Defects y The powder is contained in a flexible mould made of
d
depends
d on y Lamination
L i ti cracking–this
ki thi is
i caused
d by
b trapped
t d air
i in
i rubber
bb or some other
h elastomer
l materiall
(a) Flow rate of powder compact sample.
sample This cracking occurs perpendicular to y The
Th flexible
fl ibl mould
ld is
i then
h pressurized
i d by
b means off
(b) Green strength of compact load direction. This trapped
pp air p
prevents the interlocking
g high‐pressure water or oil.
oil (same pressure in all
((c)) Apparent
pp densityy of compact
p of particles. directions))
(d) Compressibility of powder y Blowout–occurs when all the entrapped air tries to y No lubricant is needed
escape at the interface between the die and punch
y High and uniform density can be achieved
31 32 33
H t I t ti Pressing (HIP)
Hot Isostatic P i (HIP)
Cold Isostatic Pressingg y Is carried out at high
g temperature
p and p
pressure using
ga
gas such as argon.
y The flexible mould is made of sheet metal. (Due to high
temperature)
y Compaction
C i and
d sintering
i i are completed
l d
simultaneously.
simultaneously
yU
Used in the p
production of billets of super‐alloys,
p y , high‐
g
speed steels, titanium, ceramics, etc, where the integrity
of the materials is a prime consideration
34 35 36
IAS – 1997 S
Spray Deposition
D iti Metal Injection Moulding
Metal Injection Moulding
Assertion
A ti (A):
(A) Close
Cl dimensional
di i l tolerances
t l are y Spray
S deposition
d iti isi a shape‐generation
h ti process. y Fine metal powders are blended with an organic binder such
NOT possible with isostatic pressing of metal as a polymer or a wax‐based binder.
powder
d in i powder
d metallurgy
t ll t h i
technique. y Basic components of a spray deposition process
y The powder‐polymer mixture is then injected into split dies,
Reason (R): In the process of isostatic pressing, the (a) Atomiser preheated to remove the binder and, finally, sintered.
pressure is equal in all directions which permits (b) Spray chamber with inert atmosphere
uniform density of the metal powder. y Volumetric shrinkage during sintering is very high.
(c) Mould for producing preforms.
preforms
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the y Complex shapes that are impossible with conventional
correct
co ect eexplanation
p a at o oof A y After the metal is atomised,, it is deposited
p into a cooler
compaction.
ti
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the preformed mould.
correct explanation of A y Good dimensional accuracy.
(c) A is true but R is false y Achieve density above 99%, fine grain structure,
y High production rate.
(d) mechanical
h i l properties
ti same as wrought
ht product
d t
37 38 y Good mechanical properties. 39
R ll C
Roll Compaction
ti l
Explosive Compaction
y Powders are compacted by passing between two rolls y High Energy Rate Forming (HERF) or Explosive Forming
rotating in opposite direction. of the metal powders at rather higher velocities 3500 m/s
y The powders are put in a container and are forced by a than
h thath off the
h usuall speedd off compaction
i during
d i the h
ram between two rotating rolls,
rolls and is compacted into a ordinary die compacting.
continuous strip at speeds of up to 0.5 m/s. y Higher green densities
y Sheet metal for electrical and electronic components and y Higher sintered strength
for coins can be made by this process.
process
y More uniform density distribution
y The rolling
g p
processes can be carried out at room or at
elevated temperature.
40 41 42
For IES Only
ISRO 2013
ISRO ‐2013 Features of PM products
f d
Liquid Phase Sintering
y During sintering a liquid phase, from the lower MP Following is a process used to form powder metal to y For
F high
hi h tolerance
l parts, a sintering
i i part is
i put back
b k into
i
component,
p , mayy exist a die and repressed. In general this makes the part more
shape
h accurate with a better surface finish.
y Alloying may take place at the particle‐particle interface
y Molten
M l component may surround d the
h particle
i l that
h hash ( ) Sintering
(a) Si i y A part has many voids that can be impregnated.
impregnated One
not melted method is to use an oil bath. Another method uses
(b) Explosive
E l i Compacting
C ti vacuum
acuum first,
first then impregnation.
impregnation
y High compact density can be quickly attained
y A part surface can be infiltrated with a low melting point
y Important variables: (c) Isostatic Molding
metal to increase density, strength, hardness, ductility
y Nature of alloy, molten component/particle wetting, and impact resistance.
(d) All of these
capillary action of the liquid
y Plating, heat treating and machining operations can also
b used.
be d
43 44 45
Production of magnets
d f Advantages
d Advantages
d Contd….
y 50:50 Fe‐Al alloys is used for magnetic parts
F Al ll i d f i y Good tolerances and surface finish
G d l d f fi i h y Physical properties can be controlled
y Al‐Ni‐Fe is used for permanent magnets
p g y Highly complex shapes made quickly
g y p p q y
y Variation from part to part is low
y Sintering is done in a wire coil to align the magnetic y Can produce porous parts and hard to manufacture
poles of the material materials (e g cemented oxides)
materials (e.g. cemented oxides) y Hard to machine metals can be used easily
H d t hi t l b d il
y H2 is used to rapidly cool the part (to maintain magnetic y Pores in the metal can be filled with other
y No molten metals
alignment) materials/metals
y Total shrinkage is approximately 3‐7% (for accurate parts y Surfaces can have high wear resistance y No need for many/any finishing operations
an extra sintering step may be added before magnetic y Porosity can be controlled y Permits high volume production of complex shapes
g p p p
alignment)
li t) y Low waste
y The sintering temperature is 600°C in H
g p y Allows non‐traditional alloy combinations
2 y Automation is easy
46 47 y Good control of final density 48
IES – 2007 Disadvantages

d
GATE –
GATE – 2009 (PI)
2009 (PI) What
Wh are the h advantages
d off powder
d metallurgy?
ll ? y Metal powders deteriorate quickly when stored
M l d d i i kl h d
1. Extreme p purityy p
product improperly
Whi h off the
Which th following
f ll i process is
i used
d to
t
2. Low labour cost y Fixed and setup costs are high
manufacture products with controlled porosity? y Part size is limited by the press, and compression of the
Part size is limited by the press and compression of the
3. Low
L equipmenti cost.
Select the correct answer using g the code g
given below powder used.
(a) Casting
y Sharp corners and varying thickness can be hard to
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
((b)) welding
g p oduce
produce
( ) 2 and
(c) d 3 only
l (d) 1 and d 3 only
l
y Non‐moldable features are impossible to produce.
((c)) formation
(d) Powder metallurgy

49 50 51
IES ‐ 2012 IES – 2006 IES – 2004

Statement
St t t (I):
(I) Parts
P t made d by
b powder
d metallurgy
t ll do
d nott Which
f ll i are the
h limitations
li i i off Consider
C id theh following
f ll i factors:
f
have as good physical properties as parts casted. powder metallurgy? 1. Size and shapep that can be p
produced economicallyy
Statement (II): Particle shape in powder metallurgy 1. High tooling and equipment costs.
influences the flow characteristic of the powder. 2. Porosity of the parts produced
2 Wastage of material.
2. material 3. Available
A il bl press capacity
i
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individuallyy true and Statement ((II)) is the correct 3. It cannot be automated. 4. High
4 g densityy
explanation of Statement (I) 4. Expensive metallic powders. Which of the above are limitations of powder
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are S l t the
i the
th codes
d given
i b l
below: metallurgy?
t ll ?
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation of Statement (I) (a) Onlyy 1 and 2 (b) Onlyy 3 and 4 (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false (c) Only 1 and 4 (d) Only 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
( ) Statement (I)
(d) ( ) is false but Statement (II)
( ) is true
52 53 54
A li ti
Applications IES 2010 IAS – 1998
y Oil impregnated bearings made from either iron or
Oil‐impregnated Consider
C id theth following
f ll i parts: t Throwaway
Th tungsten carbide
bid tip
i tools
l are
copper alloys for home appliance and automotive manufactured by
applications
li ti 1. Grinding wheel
(a) Forging (b) Brazing
y P/M filters can be made with p pores of almost anyy size. 2. Brake lining
(c) Powder metallurgy (d) Extrusion
y Pressure or flow regulators. 3. Self‐lubricating bearings
y Small
S ll gears, cams etc.t Whi h off these
Which h parts are made d by
b powder
d
y Products where the combined p properties
p of two or more metallurgy gy technique?
q
metals (or both metals and nonmetals) are desired.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 only
y Cemented carbides are produced by the cold‐
Cemented carbides are produced by the cold
compaction of tungsten carbide powder in a binder, such (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only
as cobalt ( 5 to 12%), followed by liquid‐phase sintering.
b lt ( t %) f ll d b li id h i t i
55 56 57
IES – 2009 IAS – 2003

Which of the following cutting tool bits are made by
GATE –
GATE – 2011 (PI)
2011 (PI) Which
f ll i are produced
d d by
b powder
d
The binding material used in cemented carbide metallurgy process?
powder
d metallurgy
ll process? 1. Cemented carbide dies
cutting tools is
( ) Carbon
(a) C b steell tooll bits
bi (b) S lli tooll bits
Stellite bi ( ) graphite
(a) hi 2 Porous bearings
2.
((b)) tungsten
g 3. Small magnets
( ) Ceramic
(c) C i tool
t l bits
bit (d) HSS tool
t l bits
bit
(c) nickel 4. Parts with intricate shapes
(d) cobalt
b l S l t the
i the
th codes
d given
i b l
below:
Codes:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
( ) 2, 3 and
(c) d 4 (d) 1, 3 and d4
58 59 60
IES‐2015
IES – 1997 IES – 2001 Consider the following statements regarding powder
metallurgy :
Which
f ll i components can be b Carbide‐tipped
C bid i d cutting
i toolsl are manufactured
f d by
b
1. Refractory materials made of tungsten can be
manufactured by powder metallurgy methods? powder‐ metal technology process and have a
manufactured easily.
easily
1. Carbide tool tips 2. Bearings composition of
2. In metal powder, control of grain size results in
3 Filters
3. 4
4. Brake linings (a) Zirconium
Zirconium‐Tungsten
Tungsten (35% ‐65%)
65%) relatively
l i l much h uniform
if structure
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (b) Tungsten carbide‐Cobalt (90% ‐ 10%) 3. The powder heated in die or mould at high temperature
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) Aluminium oxide‐ Silica (70% ‐ 30%) is then pressed and compacted to get desired shape and
(d) Nickel‐Chromium‐ Tungsten (30% ‐ 15% ‐ 55%) strength.
g
( ) 1, 2 and
(c) d 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and d4
4. In sintering the metal powder is gradually heated
resulting in coherent bond.
bond
( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d 3 only
l (b) 1, 2 andd 4 only
l
61
Page 157 of 276
62 (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Rev.0 63
Pre ‐ Sintering IAS – 2003 Repressing
If a part made by PM needs some machining, it will be In
I parts produced
d d by
b powder d metallurgy
ll process, y Repressing is performed to increase the density and
pre‐sintering is done to
rather
h very difficult
d ff l iff the
h materiall is very hard
h d and
d strong. (a) Increase the toughness of the component improve the
h mechanical
h l properties.
These machining operations are made easier by the pre‐
pre (b) Increase the density of the component y Further
F h improvement
i i achieved
is hi d byb re‐sintering.
i i
sintering operation which is done before sintering (c) Facilitate bonding of non‐metallic particles
(d) Facilitate machining of the part
operation.
64 65 66
Infiltration
fl Impregnation Oil‐impregnated Porous Bronze Bearings
y Component is dipped into a low melting‐temperature y Impregnation
I i isi similar
i il to infiltration
i fil i
y PM component
p is kept
p in an oil bath. The oil p
penetrates
alloy
ll liquid
l d into the voids by capillary forces and remains there.
y The
Th liquid
li id would
ld flow
fl i
into the
h voids
id simply
i l byb capillary
ill y The oil is used for lubrication of the component when
necessary. During the actual service conditions, the oil is
action thereby decreasing the porosity and improving
action, released
l d slowly
l l to provide
d the
h necessary lubrication.
l b
the strength
g of the component.
p y The e co
components
po e ts ca
can abso
absorb
b bet
between
ee 12%% aand
d 30% o
oil by
volume.
y The p
process is used q
quite extensivelyy with ferrous p
parts
y It is
i being
b i used
d on P/M self‐lubricating
lf l b i ti b
bearing
i
using copper as an infiltrate but to avoid erosion, an alloy components since the late 1920's.
of copper containing iron and manganese is often used.
67 68 69
GATE 2011 IAS – 1996 IES – 1998

Which
f ll i processes is
i performed
f d In
I powderd metallurgy,
ll the
h operation
i carried
i d out to
The operation in which oil is permeated into the
in powder metallurgy to promote self‐lubricating improve the bearing property of a bush is called
pores of a powder metallurgy product is known properties in sintered parts? (a) infiltration (b) impregnation
as (a) Infiltration (b) Impregnation (c) plating (d) heat treatment
(c) Plating (d) Graphitization
( ) mixing
(a) i i
(b) sintering
(c) impregnation
(d) Infiltration
70 71 72
IES ‐ 2014 IAS – 2007 IAS – 2004
The
Th process off impregnation
i i in
i powder d metallurgy
ll Consider
C id theh following
f ll i basic
b i steps involved
i l d in
i theh The
Th following
f ll i are the
h constituent
i steps in
i the h
technique is best described by which of the following? production of porous bearings: process of powder metallurgy:
(a) After sintering operation of powder metallurgy, rapid 1. Sintering 1. Powder conditioning
cooling is performed to avoid thermal stresses.stresses 2 Mixing
2. 2 Sintering
2.
(b) Low melting point metal is filled in the pores of a 3. Repressing 3. Production of metallic powder
sintered
d powder
d metallurgy
ll product
d 4. Impregnation 4. Pressing or compacting into the desired shape
(c) Liquid
qu d ooil o
or g
grease
ease iss filled
ed in tthee po
pores
es o
of a ssintered
te ed 5. Cold‐die‐compaction
C ld di ti I d tif the
Indentify th correctt order
d ini which
hi h they
th have
h t be
to b
powder metallurgy product performed and select the correct answer using the codes
g is the correct sequence
Which one of the following q of the
(d) During
D i sintering
i t i operation
ti off powderd metallurgy,
t ll above steps? given below:
b l
rapid heating is performed to avoid sudden produce of (a) 11‐2‐3‐4
234 (b) 33‐1‐4‐2
142
high internal pressure due to volatilization of lubricant
73 74 (c) 2‐4‐1‐3 (d) 4‐3‐2‐1 75
IES – 2001 GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE ‐2008 (PI)
Matc t e o ow g
Match the following
Match
M h List‐I
Li I (Components)
(C ) with
ih List‐II
Li II
(Manufacturing Processes) and select the correct Group – 1 Group ‐2 You have to grow
answer using the codes given below the lists: P. Mulling 1. Powder metallurgy from the inside out.
List I List II Q Impregnation
Q. Impregnation 2 Injection moulding
2. Injection N
None can tteach
h you,
A. Car body (metal) 1. Machining R. Flash trimming 3. Processing of FRP composites
There is no other teacher
B. Clutch lining 2. Casting S. Curing 4. Sand casting
But your own soul.
C Gears
C. 3
3. Sheet metal pressing
D. Engine block 4. Powder metallurgy (a) P – 4, Q – 3, R – 2, S – 1 (b) P – 2, Q – 4, R – 3, S ‐ 1
-Swami
Swami Vivekananda
Codes:A B C D A B C D (c) P – 2, Q – 1, R – 4, S – 3 (d) P – 4, Q – 1, R – 2, S ‐ 3
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2 76 77 78
Introduction y Cemented carbides,
y Cast carbides,
y Success in metal cutting depends on selection of the
proper cutting tool (material and geometry) for a given y Coated carbides,
work material. y Coated high speed steels,
y A wide range of cutting tool materials is available with y Ceramics,
Cutt g oo ate a s
Cutting Tool Materials a varietyy of p
cost.
properties,
p , p
performance capabilities,
p , and y Cermets,
Cermets
y Whisker reinforced ceramics,
y These include: y Sialons,
y High carbon Steels and low/medium alloy steels,
y Sintered polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (CBN),
Sintered polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (CBN)
y High‐speed steels,
y Sintered polycrystalline diamond, and single‐crystal
y Cast cobalt alloys,
alloys natural diamond.
l di d
By S K Mondal 1 Contd…
2 3
Carbon Steels
Carbon Steels
y Limited tool life. Therefore,, not suited to mass
production.
y Can be formed into complex shapes for small production
runs
y Low cost
y Suited to hand tools, and wood working
y Carbon content about 0.9 to 1.35% with a hardness
ABOUT 62 C Rockwell
y Maximum cutting speeds about 8 m/min. dry and used
upto 250oC
y The hot hardness value is low. This is the major factor in
FIGURE: Improvements in cutting tool materials have reduced
tool life.
life
Fig. Productivity raised by cutting tool materials
machining time. 4 5 6
IAS – 1997 High speed steel

Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Cutting
C i tools
l made
d off high
hi h carbon
b y These steels are used for cutting metals at a much
steel have shorter tool life. higher cutting speed than ordinary carbon tool steels.
steels
Reason(R): During machining, the tip of the cutting y The high speed steels have the valuable property of
tool is heated to 600/700
600/700°C C which cause the tool tip retaining
i i their
h i hardness
h d even when
h heated
h d to red
d heat.
h
to lose its hardness.
y Most of the high
g speed
p steels contain tungsten
g as the
( ) Both
h chief alloying element, but other elements like cobalt,
correct explanation of A chromium vanadium,
chromium, vanadium etc.
etc may be present in some
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the proportion.
For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 160 of 276 Rev.0 Contd…
7 8 9
y With time the effectiveness and efficiency of HSS
IES‐2013 IAS‐1997
(tools) and their application range were gradually
(t l ) d th i li ti d ll Vanadium in high speed steels: Which of the following processes can be used for
enhanced by improving its properties and surface production thin, hard, heat resistant coating at TiN,
condition through ‐
diti th h ( ) Has a tendency to promote decarburization
(a) on HSS?
y Refinement of microstructure y p
1. Physical vapour deposition.
p
y Addition of large amount of cobalt and Vanadium to (b) Form
F very hard
h d carbides
bid and
d thereby
h b increases
i the
h 2. Sintering under reducing atmosphere.
increase hot hardness and wear resistance wear resistance of the tool 3 Chemical vapour deposition with post treatment
3.
respectively 4. Plasma spraying.
y Manufacture by powder metallurgical process (c) Helps in achieving high hot hardness S l t th
t i th d i b l
y Surface coating with heat and wear resistive Codes:
materials like TiC
t i l lik TiC , TiN
TiN , etc by Chemical Vapour
t b Ch i l V (d) Has a tendency to promote retention of Austenite
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapour Deposition ((c)) 2 and 4
4 ((d)) 1 and 44
(PVD)
10 11 12
18‐4‐1 High speed steel IES‐2003 IES 2007

y This steel contains 18 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent The correct sequence of elements of 18‐4‐1 HSS Cutting tool material 18‐4‐1 HSS has which one of
chromium and 1 per cent vanadium.
vanadium tool is the following compositions?
y It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool (a) W, Cr, V (a) 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V (b) 18% Cr, 4% W, 1% V
steels.
l (b) Mo, Cr, V (c) 18% W, 4% Ni, 1% V (d) 18% Cr, 4% Ni, 1% V
y It is widelyy used for drills,, lathe,, p
planer and shaper
p (c) Cr, Ni, C
Cr Ni C
tools, milling cutters, reamers, broaches, threading (d) Cu, Zn, Sn
dies punches,
dies, punches etc.
etc
13 14 15
IES‐1993 Molybdenum high speed steel Super high speed steel

The blade of a power saw is made of y This steel contains 6 per cent tungsten, 6 per cent y This steel is also called cobalt high speed steel
(a) Boron steel molybdenum, 4 per cent chromium and 2 per cent
molybdenum because cobalt is added from 2 to 15 per cent,
cent in order
(b) High speed steel vanadium. to increase the cutting efficiency especially at high
y It
I has
h excellent
ll toughness
h andd cutting
i ability.
bili temperatures.
temperatures
(c) Stainless steel
y The molybdenum
y high
g speed
p steels are better and y This steel contains 20 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent
(d) Malleable cast iron chromium, 2 per cent vanadium and 12 per cent cobalt.
cheaper than other types of steels.
y It is particularly used for drilling and tapping
operations.
16 17 18
IES‐1995 IES‐2000 IES‐1992
The compositions of some of the alloy steels are as Percentage of various alloying elements present The main alloying elements in high speed Steel in
under: in different steel materials are given below: order of increasing proportion are
1. 18 W 4 Cr 1 V 1. 18% W; 4% Cr; 1% V; 5% Co; 0.7% C (a) Vanadium, chromium, tungsten
2 12 Mo 1 W 4 Cr 1 V
2. 2. 8% Mo; 4% Cr; 2% V; 6% W; 0.7% C (b) Tungsten, titanium, vanadium
3. 6 Mo 6 W 4 Cr 1 V
3 27% Cr; 3% Ni; 5% Mo; 0.25% C
3. 27% Cr; 3% Ni; 5% Mo; 0 25% C (c) Chromium, titanium, vanadium
Chromium titanium vanadium
4. 18 W 8 Cr 1 V
4. 18% Cr; 8% Ni; 0.15% C (d) Tungsten, chromium, titanium
The compositions of commonly used high speed steels
would include Which of these relate to that of high speed steel?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
19 20 21
IAS‐2001 IAS 1994
Assertion (A): For high‐speed turning of magnesium Assertion (A): The characteristic feature of High IAS –
IAS – 2013 Main
2013 Main
alloys, the coolant or cutting fluid preferred is water‐ speed Steel is its red hardness.
miscible mineral fatty oil.
i ibl i l f il Compare HSS and ceramic tools with regard to their
Reason (R): Chromium and cobalt in High Speed
Reason (R): As a rule, water‐based oils are recommended promote martensite formation when the tool is cold
p application in high speed machining.
pp g p g
f hi h
for high‐speed operations in which high temperatures are
d ti i hi h hi h t t worked.
generated due to high frictional heat. Water being a good
coolant the heat dissipation is efficient
coolant, the heat dissipation is efficient. ((a)) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
y
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
explanation of A (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct correct explanation of A
e p a at o o
explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true
22 23 24
y Other elements added include V, B, Ni, and Ta.

Cast cobalt alloys/Stellite y Tools of cast cobalt alloys
y are g
generallyy cast to shape
p and IES 2011
y Cast cobalt alloys are cobalt‐rich, chromium‐tungsten‐ carbon finished to size by grinding. Stellite is a non‐ferrous cast alloy composed of:
cast alloys
y having g p properties
p and applications
pp in the y Theyy are available onlyy in simple
p shapes,
p such as single‐
g (a) Cobalt,
Cobalt chromium and tungsten
intermediate range between high‐speed steel and cemented point tools and saw blades, because of limitations in the
carbides. casting process and expense involved in the final shaping (b) Tungsten, vanadium and chromium
y Although comparable in room‐temperature hardness to high‐ (grinding) The high cost of fabrication is due primarily to
(grinding).
the high hardness of the material in the as‐cast condition. (c) Molybdenum, tungsten and chromium
speed steel tools, cast cobalt alloy tools retain their hardness to
a much higher temperature.
temperature Consequently,
Consequently they can be used at y Materials machinable with this tool material include plain‐ (d)Tungsten molybdenum,
(d)Tungsten, molybdenum chromium and vanadium
higher cutting speeds (25% higher) than HSS tools. carbon steels, alloy steels, nonferrous alloys, and cast iron.
y Cutting speed of up to 80‐100
80 100 fpm can be used on mild steels.
steels y Cast cobalt alloys are currently being phased out for
y Cast cobalt alloys are hard as cast and cannot be softened or cutting‐tool applications because of increasing costs,
heat treated.
treated
shortages of strategic raw materials (Co, W, and Cr), and
the
h development
d l off other,
h superior tooll materials l at lower
l
y Cast cobalt alloys contain a primary phase of Co‐rich solid cost.
solution strengthened by Cr and W and dispersion hardened by
complex hard, refractory carbides of W and Cr.
For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Page 162 of 276 Rev.0
25 26 27
Cemented Carbide y Cemented carbide tool materials based on TiC have
IAS –
IAS – 2013 Main
2013 Main y Carbides, which are nonferrous alloys, are also called,
been developed,
b d l d primarily
i il f
for auto
t i d t
industry
sintered ((or cemented)) carbides because theyy are
applications using predominantly Ni and Mo as a
What are the desirable properties while selecting a tool bi d
binder. Th
These are used d for
f hi h
higher‐speedd (>
( 1000
manufactured by powder metallurgy techniques.
material for metal‐cutting applications?
g pp ft/min) finish machining of steels and some malleable
y Most carbide tools in use today are either straight
tungsten carbide (WC) or multicarbides of W‐Ti or W‐
castt irons.
i
Ti‐Ta,, depending
p g on the work material to be machined. y Cemented carbide tools are available in insert form in
y Cobalt is the binder. many different shapes; squares, triangles, diamonds,
y These tool materials are much harder,
harder are chemically more and rounds.
stable, have better hot hardness, high stiffness, and lower y Compressive strength is high compared to tensile
friction, and operate at higher cutting speeds than do HSS. strength, therefore the bits are often brazed to steel
y They are more brittle and more expensive and use strategic shanks, or used as inserts in holders.
metals (W,
(W Ta,
Ta Co) more extensively.
extensively y These inserts may often have negative rake angles.
angles
28 Contd…
29 Contd…
30
IES‐1995
y Speeds
S d up to 300 fpm
f are common on mild
ild steels
l
The straight grades of cemented carbide cutting
y Hot hardness p
properties
p are veryy g
good tool materials contain
y Coolants and lubricants can be used to increase tool (a) Tungsten carbide only
life, but are not required.
life required
(b) Tungsten carbide and titanium carbide
y Special alloys are needed to cut steel
(c) Tungsten carbide and cobalt
(d) Tungsten carbide and cobalt carbide
Contd…
31 32 33
IAS – 1994 The standards developed by ISO for grouping of carbide tools Table below shows detail grouping of cemented carbide tools

pp g g
and their application ranges are given in Table below.
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Cemented
C d carbide
bid tooll tips
i are ISO Material
M t i l Process
P
Application
produced by powder metallurgy. ISO Code Colour Code Application group
Reason (R): Carbides cannot be melted and cast. P01 Steel, Steel castings Precision and finish machining, high speed
P For machining long chip forming
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the common materials like plain carbon
P10 Steel Steel castings
Steel, Turning, threading,
Turning threading and milling high speed
speed,
small chips
correct explanation of A and low alloy steels P20 Steel, steel castings, Turning, milling, medium speed with small chip
malleable cast iron section
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the M For machining long or short chip
correct
co ect eexplanation
p a at o oof A formingg ferrous materials like P30 Steel, steel castings, Turning, milling, medium speed with small chip
malleable
ll bl cast iiron section
i
Stainless steel
(c) A is true but R is false P40 Steel and steel casting Turning, planning, low cutting speed, large chip
K For machining short chipping,
chipping with
ith sand
d iinclusions
l i section
ti
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true
ferrous and nonferrous material P50 Steel and steel castings Operations requiring high toughness turning,
and non – metals like Cast Iron,
Iron off medium
di or llow ttensile
il planning,
l i shaping
h i att llow cutting
tti speeds
d
Brass etc. strength
34 35 36
IES 2018
IES‐2018
K01 Hard grey C.l., chilled casting, Turning, precision turning and boring, milling, IES‐1999 Consider the following statements:
Al.
Al alloys with high silicon scraping 1 HSS tools wear very rapidly,
1. rapidly whereas in cemented
K10 Grey C.l. hardness > 220 HB. Turning, milling, boring, reaming, broaching, Match List‐I (ISO classification of carbide tools) with List‐ carbide tools, even though hardness is retained, crater
Malleable C.l., Al. alloys scraping
containing Si
II (Applications) and select the correct answer using the
pp g wear can occur due to solid
solid‐state
state diffusion.
K20 Grey C.l. hardness up to 220 Turning, milling, broaching, requiring high codes given below the Lists: 2. Cutting tools made of Super‐HSS also known as cobalt‐
HB toughness
List‐I List‐II based HSS,, are made byy adding g 2% to 15%
5 of cobalt which
K30 Soft grey C.l.
C l Low tensile Turning reaming under favourable conditions
Turning,
strength steel A. P‐10 1. Non‐ferrous, roughing cut increases the cutting efficiency at heavier cuts by
K40 Soft non-ferrous metals Turning milling etc.
B. P‐505 2. Non‐ferrous, finishing cut
, g increasing the hot hardness and wear resistance.
M10 Steel steel castings
Steel, castings, Turning, milling,
Turning milling medium cutting speed and medium
manganese steel, grey C.l. chip section C. K‐10 3. Ferrous material, roughing cut 3. Tooll failure
f l d to excessive stress can be
due b minimized d by
b
M20 Steel casting, austentic steel, Turning, milling, medium cutting speed and medium providing small or negative rake angles on brittle tool
manganese steelsteel, chip section D.. K‐50
5 4. Ferrous material, finishing cut
e ous a e a , s g cu materials protecting tool tip by providing large side‐
materials, side
spherodized C.l., Malleable
C.l.
Code: A B C D A B C D cutting edge angles, and honing a narrow chamfer along
M30 Steel austenitic steel,
Steel, steel Turning milling,
Turning, milling planning,
planning medium cutting speed,
speed (a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 3 4 2 1 the cutting g edge.
g
spherodized C.l. heat
resisting alloys
medium or large chip section
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2 Which of the above statements are correct?
M40 Free cutting steel
steel, low tensile Turning profile turning
Turning, turning, specially in automatic (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
strength steel, brass and light machines.
alloy
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
37 38 39
Ceramics y Itt iss poss b e to get mirror

possible o finish
s oon cast iron
o us g
using
y Ceramics are essentially alumina ( Al2O3 ) based high ceramic turning.
refractory materials introduced specifically for high y The
Th main
i problems
bl off ceramic
i tools
t l are their
th i low
l
speed machining of difficult to machine materials and
strength, poor thermal characteristics, and the
cast iron.
iron
tendency to chipping.
y These can withstand very high temperatures, are
chemically more stable,
stable and have higher wear y They are not suitable for intermittent cutting or for low
resistance than the other cutting tool materials. cutting speeds.
y In
I view
i off their
h i ability
bili to withstand
ih d high
hi h temperatures, y Very
V hi h hot
high h t hardness
h d properties
ti
they can be used for machining at very high speeds of y Often used as inserts in special
p holders.
the
h order
d off 10 m/s.
/
y They can be operated at from two to three times the
y p
cutting speeds of tungsten carbide.
Contd…
40 Comparison of important properties of ceramic and tungsten carbide tools 41 Contd…
42
y Through last few years remarkable improvements in y Introducing nitride ceramic (Si3N4) with proper sintering
technique – this material is very tough but prone to built‐up‐
built up
y Cutting
g fluid, if applied
pp g with
should in flooding
strength and toughness and hence overall performance copious quantity of fluid, to thoroughly wet the entire
edge formation in machining steels
of ceramic tools could have been p possible byy several machining zone, since ceramics have very poor
y Developing SIALON – deriving beneficial effects of Al2O3
means which include; and Si3N4 thermal shock resistance. Else, it can be machined
y Sinterability,
Sinterability microstructure
microstructure, strength and y Addi
Adding carbide
bid like
lik TiC (5
( ~ 15%)
%) in
i Al2O3
Al O powder d – to t with no coolant.
coolant
toughness of Al2O3 ceramics were improved to impart toughness and thermal conductivity y Ceramic tools are used for machining work pieces,
some extent byb adding
ddi TiO2
TiO and d MgO,
M O y Reinforcing
f oxide
d or nitride
d ceramics by
b SiC whiskers,
h k which
h h which have high hardness, such as hard castings, case
y Transformation toughening
g g byy addingg appropriate
pp p enhanced strength, toughness and life of the tool and thus hardened and hardened steel.
productivity
d i i spectacularly.
l l
amount of partially or fully stabilised zirconia in y Typical products can be machined are brake discs,
y Toughening Al2O3 ceramic by adding suitable metal like
Al2O3 powder,
powder brake drums,
drums cylinder liners and flywheels.
flywheels
silver which also impart thermal conductivity and self
y Isostatic and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) – these are lubricating property; this novel and inexpensive tool is still
very effective
ff i but b expensivei route. i experimental
in i l stage.
For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd… Page 164 of 276 Contd… Rev.0
43 44 45
IES 2016
IES‐2016 IES‐2013
Statement (I): Ceramics withstand very high High Performance ceramics (HPC)
temperatures that range from 1000°C to 1600°C. Sialon ceramic is used as:
Statement ((II):
) Silicon carbide is an exceptionp from
among ceramics that cam withstand high ( )
(a) Cutting tool material
p
temperatures.
(b) C
(b) Creep resistant
i
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct ( ) F
(c) Furnace linens
li
explanation of Statement (I).
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are Silicon Nitride
Sili Nit id Alumina toughned
Al i t h d byb (d) High strength
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct (i) Plain (i) Zirconia
explanation
l ti off Statement
St t t (I).
(I)
(ii) SIALON (ii) SiC whiskers
(iii) Whisker toughened (iii) Metal (Silver etc)
46 47 48
IES 2010 IAS‐1996 IES‐1997

Constituents
C tit t off ceramics i are oxides
id off Match List I with List II and select the correct answer Assertion (A): Ceramic tools are used only for light,
different materials, which are using the codes given below the lists: g p
smooth and continuous cuts at high speeds.
List I (Cutting tools)
( l ) List II (Major constituent)
( )
(a) Cold mixed to make ceramic pallets Reason (R): Ceramics have a high wear resistance and
A. Stellite l. Tungsten high temperature resistance.
(b) Ground, sintered and palleted to make ready B. H.S.S. 2. Cobalt
ceramics C. Ceramic 3. Alumina correct explanation of A
D. DCON 4. Columbium
(c) Ground, washed with acid, heated and cooled (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
55. Titanium correct explanation of A
(d) Ground, sintered, palleted and after calcining Codes: A B C D A B C D
((a)) 5 1 33 4 ((b)) 2 1 4 3
cooled
l d in
i oxygen (c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 2 5 3 4
A i f l b R i
49 50 51
IES‐1996 IES 2007 IAS‐2000

A machinist desires to turn a round steel stock of Which one of the following is not a ceramic? Consider the following cutting tool materials used for
outside diameter 100 mm at 1000 rpm The
outside diameter 100 mm at 1000 rpm. The g p
metal‐cutting operation at
( ) Alumina
(a) Al i
material has tensile strength of 75 kg/mm2. The high speed:
((b)) Porcelain 1
1. Tungsten carbide
d
depth of cut chosen is 3 mm at a feed rate of 0.3
h f h i f d f
mm/rev. Which one of the following tool (c) Whisker 2. Cemented titanium carbide
materials will be suitable for machining the (d) Pyrosil
P il 3. High‐speed steel
Hi h d l
component under the specified cutting
p p g 4. Ceramic
conditions? The correct sequence in increasing order of the range of
cutting speeds for optimum use of these materials is
(a) Sintered carbides (b) Ceramic
(a) 3,1,4,2 (b) 1,3,2,4
(c) HSS (d) Diamond (c) 3,1,2,4 (d) 1,3,4,2
52 53 54
IAS‐2003 Coated Carbide Tools y The coatings
g must be fine g
grained, & free of binders
At room temperature, which one of the following y Coated tools are becoming the norm in the metalworking and porosity.
is the correct sequence of increasing hardness of industryy because coating g , can consistentlyy improve,
p , tool y Naturally,
Naturally the coatings must be metallurgically bonded
life 200 or 300% or more.
the tool materials? to the substrate.
y In cutting tools, material requirements at the surface of the
(a) Cast alloy‐HSS‐Ceramic‐Carbide tool need to be abrasion resistant, hard, and chemically y Interface coatings are graded to match the properties
(b) HH
HH‐Cast alloy‐Ceramic‐Carbide
Cast alloy Ceramic Carbide inert to pprevent the tool and the work material from of the coating
g and the substrate.
interacting chemically with each other during cutting. y The coatings must be thick enough to prolong tool life
(c) HSS‐Cast alloy‐Carbide‐Ceramic
y A thin, chemically stable, hard refractory coating of TiC, but thin enough to prevent brittleness.
brittleness
(d) Cast alloy‐HSS‐Carbide‐Ceramic TiN, or accomplishes this objective.
y The bulkAlof
2 O3the tool is a tough, shock
shock‐resistant
resistant carbide that y Coatings should have a low coefficient of friction so
can withstand high‐temperature plastic deformation and that the chips do not adhere to the rake face.
resist breakage.g y Multiple coatings are used,
used with each layer imparting
55 Contd…
56
its own characteristic to the tool. Contd…
57
y The most successful combinations are

IAS‐1999
TiN/TiC/TiCN/TiN and TiN/TiC/ Al2O3 . The coating materials for coated carbide tools,
y Chemical
h l vapour deposition
d (
(CVD)
) is the
h technique
h includes
used to coat carbides. (a) TiC, TiN and NaCN (b) TiC and TiN
(c) TiN and NaCN (d) TiC and NaCN
Contd…
58 59 60
TiN‐Coated High‐Speed Steel C t
Cermets
y Physical
y p
vapour p
deposition (PVD) has p
proved to be the y These sintered hard inserts are made by combining ‘cer’
cer from
y Coated high‐speed steel (HSS) does not routinely best process for coating HSS, primarily because it is a ceramics like TiC, TiN or TiCN and ‘met’ from metal (binder)
provide as dramatic improvements in cutting speeds as relatively low temperature process that does not likee Ni,, Ni‐Co,
Co, Fee etc.
do coated carbides, with increases of 10 to 20% being exceed the tempering point of HSS. y Harder, more chemically stable and hence more wear resistant
typical.
i l y Therefore,
Th f no subsequent
b t heat
h t treatment
t t t off the
th y More brittle and less thermal shock resistant
cutting tool is required. y Wt% of binder metal varies from 10 to 20%.
y In addition to hobs,, ggear‐shaper
p cutters,, and drills,,
y The advantage of TiN‐coated HSS tooling is reduced y Cutting edge sharpness is retained unlike in coated carbide
HSS tooling coated by TiN now includes reamers, taps,
inserts
chasers spade
chasers, spade‐drill
drill blades,
blades broaches,
broaches bandsaw and tool wear.
y Can machine steels at higher cutting velocity than that used for
circular saw blades, insert tooling, form tools, end y Less tool wear results in less stock removal during tool tungsten carbide, even coated carbides in case of light cuts.
mills and an assortment of other milling cutters.
mills, cutters regrinding,
i di thus
h allowing
ll i i di id l tools
individual l to be b y Modern cermets with rounded cutting edges are suitable for
reground more times. finishing and semi‐finishing of steels at higher speeds, stainless
steels but are not suitable for jerky interrupted machining and
For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Contd…
61
Page 166 of 276
62 machining of aluminium and similar materials. Rev.0
63
IES 2010 IES‐2000 IES – 2003
The
Th cutting
tti tool
t l material
t i l required
i d to
t Cermets are
The
Th correct sequence off cutting i tools
l ini theh
sustain high temperature is ascending order of their wear resistance is
( ) Metals for high temperature use with ceramic like
(a) M l f hi h i h i lik
(a) HSS‐Cast non‐ferrous alloy (Stellite)‐Carbide‐
((a)) High
g carbon steel alloys
y properties
Nitride
(b) Ceramics with metallic strength and luster
(b) Composite of lead and steel (b) Cast non‐ferrous alloy (Stellite)‐HSS‐Carbide‐
(c) Coated tool materials Nitride
d
(c) Cermet (d) Metal‐ceramic composites (c) HSS‐Cast
SS Cast non‐ferrous
o e ous aalloy oy (Ste
(Stellite)‐Nitride‐
te) t de
(d) Alloy of steel, zinc and tungsten Carbide
(d) Cast
C t non‐ferrous
f alloy
ll (St llit ) C bid Nit id
(Stellite)‐Carbide‐Nitride‐
HSS
64 65 66
Di d
Diamonds y Diamond tools have the applications in single point turning and
y Diamond is the hardest of all the cutting
y Diamond has the following properties:
g tool materials.
GATE –
GATE – 2009 (PI)
2009 (PI) boring
b i tools,
t l milling
illi cutters,
tt reamers, grinding
i di wheels,
h l honing
h i
tools, lapping powder and for grinding wheel dressing.
y extreme hardness,
hardness Di
Diamond
d cutting
tti t l are nott recommended
tools d d for
f y Due
D to their
h i brittle
b i l nature, the h diamond
di d toolsl have
h poor
y low thermal expansion, resistance to shock and so, should be loaded lightly.
y high
hi h heat
h conductivity,
d i i and d machining of ferrous metals due to
y Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools consist of a thin layer (0.5
y a very low co‐efficient of friction. to 1.5 mm) of'fine grain‐ size diamond particles sintered
(a) high tool hardness
y This is used when good surface finish and dimensional accuracy together
h and d metallurgically
ll ll bonded
b d d to a cemented d carbide
bd
are desired. substrate.
((b)) high
g thermal conductivityy of work material
y The work‐materials on which diamonds are successfully employed y The main advantages of sintered polycrystalline tools over
are the non‐ferrous one, such as copper,
pp brass, zinc, aluminium ((c)) p
poor tool toughness
g natural single‐crystal tools are better quality, greater toughness,
and magnesium alloys. and improved wear resistance, resulting from the random
y On ferrous materials,, diamonds are not suitable because of the (d) chemical affinity of tool material with iron orientation of the diamond grains and the lack of large cleavage
diffusion of carbon atoms from diamond to the work‐piece planes.
l
material. 67
Contd…
68 Contd…
69
y Diamond tools offer dramatic performance IES‐1995 IES‐2001

improvements over carbides. Tool life is often greatly Assertion (A): Non‐ferrous materials are best Assertion (A): Diamond tools can be used at high
improved, as is control over part size, finish, and
p p machined with diamond tools. p
speeds.
surface integrity. Reason (R): Diamond tools are suitable for high speed Reason (R): Diamond tools have very low coefficient
y Positive rake tooling is recommended for the vast machining. of friction.
majority of diamond tooling applications. (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A correct explanation of A
y If BUE is a problem, increasing cutting speed and the
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
use of more positive rake angles may eliminate it.
p g y correct explanation of A correct explanation of A
y Oxidation of diamond starts at about 450oC and (c) A is true but R is false (c) A is true but R is false
thereafter it can even crack For this reason the
thereafter it can even crack. For this reason the (d) A is false but R is true
A i f l b R i (d) A is false but R is true
A i f l b R i
diamond tool is kept flooded by the coolant during
cutting, and light feeds are used.
i d li h f d d
70 71 72
IES – 1999 IES‐1992 IAS – 1999
C id h f ll i Assertion (A): During cutting, the diamond tool is
A i (A) D i i h di d l i
Which of the following given the correct order of
p g y,
For precision machining of non‐ferrous alloys, diamond kept flooded with coolant.
increasing hot hardness of cutting tool material?
is preferred because it has Reason (R): The oxidation of diamond starts at
(a) Diamond, Carbide, HSS
1 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
1. about 4500C
(b) Carbide, Diamond, HSS
2. High wear resistance (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
(c) HSS, carbide, Diamond
HSS carbide Diamond correct explanation of A
l f
3. High compression strength
(d) HSS, Diamond, Carbide (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not
ot a d R a e d v dua y t ue but R s ot tthe e
4. Low fracture toughness
L f t t h
(c) A i t b t R i f l
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4
( ) 2 and 3
(c) d (d) 3 and 4
d
73 74 75
Cubic boron nitride/Borazon y The operative speed range for cBN when machining

grey castt iron
i is
i 300 ~400 m/min/ i
y Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest y CBN is less reactive with such materials as hardened
y Speed
p ranges
g for other materials are as follows:
material presently available.
available steels, hard‐chill cast iron, and nickel‐
steels hard chill cast iron and nickel and cobalt‐
and cobalt
y Hard cast iron (> 400 BHN) : 80 – 300 m/min based superalloys.
y It is made by bonding a 0.5 – 1 mm layer of
polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to cobalt based y Superalloys
S ll ( 35 RC) : 80
(> 8 – 140 m/min
/ i y CBN can be used efficiently and economically to
carbide substrate at veryy high g temperature
p and y Hardened steels ((> 45 RC) : 100 – 3 300 m/min machine these difficult‐to‐machine materials at higher
g
pressure. y It is best to use cBN tools with a honed or chamfered speeds (fivefold) and with a higher removal rate
y It remains inert and retains high hardness and fracture edge preparation,
preparation especially for interrupted cuts.
cuts Like (fivefold) than cemented carbide and with superior
(fivefold) than cemented carbide, and with superior
toughness at elevated machining speeds. ceramics, cBN tools are also available only in the form accuracy, finish, and surface integrity.
y It shows excellent performance in grinding any off indexable
i d bl inserts.
i
material of high
g hardness and strength.
g y The only y limitation of it is its high
g cost.
Contd…
76 Contd…
77 78
IES‐1994 IES‐2002 IES‐1996

Consider the following tool materials: Which one of the following is the hardest cutting Cubic boron nitride
1. Carbide
C bid 2. C
Cermet tool material next only to diamond? ( ) Has a very high hardness which is comparable to
(a) H hi h h d hi h i bl
33. Ceramic 4.
4 Borazon. (a) Cemented carbides that of diamond.
Correct sequence of these tool materials in increasing (b) Ceramics (b) Has a hardness which is slightly more than that of
order of their ability to retain their hot hardness is (c) Silicon HSS
(a) 1,2,3,4 (b) 1,2,4,3 (d) Cubic boron nitride (c) Is used for making cylinder blocks of aircraft
(c) 2, 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 1, 4, 3 engines
i
((d)) Is used for making optical glasses.
g p g
79 80 81
IES‐1994 IAS‐1998 C it
Coronite
y Coronite is made basically by combining HSS for strength and
Cubic boron nitride is used Which of the following tool materials have cobalt toughness and tungsten carbides for heat and wear resistance.
( ) As lining material in induction furnace
(a) A li i i l i i d i f as a constituent element? y Microfine TiCN particles are uniformly dispersed into the matrix.
matrix
1. Cemented carbide 2. CBN y Unlike a solid carbide, the coronite based tool is made of three
((b)) For making optical quality glass.
g p q yg layers;
(c) For heat treatment 3. Stellite 4. UCON y the central HSS or spring steel core
(d) For none of the above.
F f h b Select the correct answer using the codes given below: y a layer of coronite of thickness around 15% of the tool
Codes: diameter
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 y a thin (2 to 5 μm) PVD coating of TiCN
y The coronite tools made by y hot extrusion followed byy PVD‐
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 coating of TiN or TiCN outperformed HSS tools in respect of
cuttingg forces, tool life and surface finish.
82 83 84
IES‐1993 IES‐2003 IES‐2000

Match List I with List IT and select the correct answer using the Which one of the following is not a synthetic Consider the following tool materials:
codes given below the lists:
Li I (Cutting tool Material)
List ‐ I (C i l M i l) List ‐
Li I I(Major
I I(M j abrasive material? 1. HSS 2. C
Cemented carbide
d bid
characteristic constituent)
A. High speed steel 1. Carbon (a) Silicon Carbide (b) Aluminium Oxide 33. Ceramics 4.
4 Diamond
B. Stellite 2. Molybdenum (c) Titanium Nitride (d) Cubic Boron Nitride The correct sequence of these materials in decreasing
C. Diamond 3. Nitride
D. Coated carbide tool 4. Columbium order of their cutting speed is
5. Cobalt (a) 4, 3, 1, 2 (b) 4, 3, 2, 1
C d A
Codes: B C D A B C D
(a) 2 1 3 5 (b) 2 5 1 3 (c) 3, 4, 2, 1 (d) 3, 4, 1, 2
(c) 5 2 4 3 (d) 5 4 2 3
85 86 87
IES‐1999 IAS‐2001 Attrition wear

Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer Match. List I (Cutting tool materials) with List II y The strong bonding between the chip and tool material at
using the codes given below the Lists: (Manufacturing methods) and select the correct answer high temperature is conducive for adhesive wear.
List I List II using the codes given below the Lists:
i th d i b l th Li t y The adhesive wear in the rough region is called attrition
(Materials) (Applications) List I List II wear .
A Tungsten carbide
A. bid 1. Ab i h l
Abrasive wheels A HSS
A. 1
1. Casting y In the rough region, some parts of the worn surface are still
B. Silicon nitride 2. Heating elements B. Stellite 2. Forging covered by molten chip and the irregular attrition wear
C Aluminium
C. Al i i oxide
id 3. Pi f
Pipes for conveying
i C Cemented carbide
C. 3
3. Rolling occurs in this region .
liquid metals D. UCON 4. Extrusion y The irregular attrition wear is due to the intermittent
D Silicon carbide
D. 4
4. Drawing dies 5
5. Powder metallurgy adhesion during interrupted cutting which makes a
Code: A B C D A B C D Codes:A B C D A B C D periodic attachment and detachment of the work material
(a) 3 4 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1 (a) 3 1 5 2 (b) 2 5 4 3 on the tool surface.
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 4 3 1 2 (c) 3 5 4 2 (d) 2 1 5 3 y Therefore, when the seizure between workpiece to tool is
broken, the small fragments of tool material are plucked
and
d brought
b h away byb the
h chip.
h
88 89 90
IES‐1996 IES‐2005
The limit to the maximum hardness of a work Consider the following statements: An increase in
material which can be machined with HSS tools the cobalt content in the straight carbide grades
g g
even at low speeds is set by which one of the of carbide tools
following tool failure mechanisms? 1 Increases the hardness.
1. Increases the hardness
(a) Attrition 2. Decreases the hardness.
(b) Abrasion 3. Increases the transverse rupture strength
I h h
4. Lowers the transverse rupture strength.
4 p g
(c) Diffusion
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(d) Plastic deformation under compression.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3
91 92 93
NC, CNC, DNC, APT What is NC/CNC?
h / ? What is the difference between NC and CNC ?
A t
Automation, FMS
ti FMS y NC is an acronym for Numerical Control and CNC is an y The
Th difference
diff
capability.
between
b NC and
d CNC is
i one off age and
d
acronym for
f Computer Numericall Control.
l y The earliest NC machines performed limited functions
and movements controlled by punched tape or punch
cards.
y As the
h technology
h l evolved,
l d the
h machines
h were equiped d
with increasingly powerful microprocessors (computers)
with the addition of these computers, NC machines
become CNC machines.
y CNC machines have far more capability than their
By S K Mondal predecessor.
d contd…..
td
1 2 3
What is the difference between NC and CNC ? Where did CNC get started?
h dd d? IAS ‐ 1996
y Some of the enhancements that came along with CNC y 1940 Jhon Parson developed first machine able to drill Assertion
A i (A):
(A) The
Th temperature controll off an
electric iron is an example of servomechanism.
include:
l d Canned
d Cycles,
l Sub
b Programming, Cutter h l at specific
holes f coordinates
d programmed
d on punch
h Reason (R): It is an automatic control system.
Compensation Work coordinates,
Compensation, coordinates Coordinate system cards.
cards (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
rotation, automatic corner rounding, chamfering, and B
B‐ y 1951 MIT developed servo‐mechanism
spline interpolation. y 1952 MIT developed first NC machines for milling.
milling correct
co ect eexplanation
p a at o o
of A
y 1970 First CNC machines came into picture
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true
Now‐a‐day’s
y modified 1970’s
97 machines are used.
4 5 6
Do all machines speak the same CNC
D ll hi k th CNC What is a “Conversational Control”
h “ l l” Are CNC machines faster than
language y CNC machine tool builders offer an option what is conventional machines?
l h
y No, while there is fairly standard set of G and M codes, k
known as the
h conversationall control.
l This
h controll lets
l
y Yes, No, Sometimes. When it comes to making a single,
th
there i some variation
is i ti ini their
th i application.
li ti F example
For l the operator/programmer use simple descriptive
simple part it is hard to beat a conventional mill or lathe.
a G0 or G00 command is universally regarded as the language to program the part. The control then
CNC machines move faster in rapid travel than
command for rapid
p travel. Some older machines do not displayed a graphical representation of the instructions
conventional
i l machines.
hi
have a G00 command. On these machines, rapid travel is so the operator/programmer can verify the tool path.
commanded by using the F (feed) word address.
7 8 9
Are CNC machines more accurate GATE ‐ 1994 NC/CNC Machines‐Advantages
than conventional machines?
h l h CNC machines
hi are more accurate than
h conventional
machines because they have a high resolution
i l y High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts
y Volume of production is very high
encoder and digital read‐outs for positioning.
y Yes, they
y can be. But like anything
y g else it depends
p on y Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. E.g.
Turbines
who is running the machine, how well the machines has True or false?
y Flexibility in job change,
change automatic tool settings,
settings less
been maintained, quality of setup and so on. scrap
y More
M safe,
f higher
hi h productivity,
d i i better
b quality
li
y Less ppaper
p work,, faster p
prototype
yp pproduction,, reduction
in lead times
10 11 12
NC/CNC Machines‐Disadvantages IES ‐ 1999

Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i statements regarding
di
y Costly setup, skilled operators numerically controlled machine tools:
y Computers, programming knowledge required 1. They reduce non‐productive time
2 They reduce fixturing
2.
y Maintenance is difficult
3. They reduce maintenance cost
( ) 1, 2 and
(a) d 3 (b) 1 and d2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
13 CNC Machine Tool 14 15
IES ‐ 1995 DNC Di t

Direct numerical control(DNC)
i l t l(DNC)
Consider
C id the
h following
h i i off y Direct Numerical Control is a system that uses a
production jobs: central computer
p to control several machines at the same
1. Processing of parts frequently in small lots time
2 Need to accommodate design changes of products.
2. products y Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): the central
3. Low rate of metal removal computer downloads complete programs to the CNC
machines,
hi which
hi h can be
b workstations
k i or PCs,
PC and d can get
4. Need for holding close tolerances
the information for the machine operations.
Th
The characteristics
h t i ti which
hi h favour
f th choice
the h i off
y The speed of the system is increased, large files can be
numerically controlled machines would include
handled and the number of machine tools used is
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 expanded.
(c) 1,
1 3 and 4 (d) 1, 1 2 and 4
16 17 18
Distributed numerical control (DNC) DNC Configuration‐2
DNC
DNC
y In early 1980s, Distributed numerical control (DNC)
comes into picture. Configuration 1
Configuration‐1
y Now, many CNC machines together with robots,
programmable logic controllers, and other computer‐
based controllers have been integrated into DNC
systems to make automated manufacturing systems
possible.
ibl
19 20 21
Components of DNC
Components of DNC Advantages of DNC
Advantages of DNC Satellite Computers
Satellite Computers
y Central computer y Greater computational capability and flexibility y Satellite computers are minicomputers and they serve
y Bulk memory for storing programs y Central computer and bulk memory, which stores the to take some of the burden of central computer, Each
y Communication network
C i i k NC programs
NC programs. satellite computer control several machine tools
satellite computer control several machine tools.
y CNC machines y Shop floor control
y Establishes the framework for evolution of future
automation, CIM
22 23 24
IES ‐ 2009 GATE – 1993, IES‐2017 (Prelim)

( l ) IES ‐ 2007
In
I which
hi h off the
h following
f ll i machining
hi i manuall part With
Wi h reference
f to NC machine, hi which
hi h off the
h What
Wh are the h main i components off an NC machine?hi ?
programming is done? following statement is wrong? 1. Part program
p g
(a) CNC machining (b) NC machining (a) Both closed‐loop and open‐loop control systems are 2. Machine Control Unit
(c) DNC machining (d) FMS machining used 3. Servo
S motor
(b) Paper tapes, floppy tapes and cassettes are used for Select the correct answer using
g the code ggiven below:
data storage
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) Digitizers
g t e s may
ay be used as interactive
te act ve input
put dev
devices
ces
( ) 2 and
(c) d 3 only
l (d) 1 and d 3 only
l
(d) Post processor is an item of hardware
25 26 27
JWM 2010 IES ‐ 2009 IES ‐ 1999
Consider the following components regarding numerical What
Wh is
i theh purpose off satellite lli computers ini Consider
f ll i components:
control system : Distributed Numerical Control machines? 1. A dedicated computer
p
1. Programme of instructions (a) To act as stand‐by systems 2. Bulk memory
2 Machine control unit
2. (b) To share the processing of large‐size
large size NC programs 3. Telecommunication
Tl i i lines
li
3. Processing equipment (c) To serve a group of NC machines p
Which of these components are required
q for a DNC
Which of these are correct ? (d) To network with another DNC setup system?
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only ( ) 2 and
(a) d3 (b) 1 andd2
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
28 29 30
JWM 2010 IES – 2002 S‐1 IES – 2002 Contd….. From S‐1

d
Consider the following advantages of DNC systems : Match
M t h List
Li t I with
ith List
Li t II and d select
l t theth correctt C.
C DNC system
t 3. The
Th controller
t ll consists
i t off
1. Time‐sharing answer: soft‐wired computer and
List I List II h d wired
hard‐ i d logic
l i Graphic
G hi
2. Greater computational capability display of tool path is
((NC machine tool systems)
y ) ((Features))
3 Remote computer location
3. Remote computer location also
l possible
ibl
A. NC system 1. It has an integrated automatic tool
D. Machining centre 4. The instructions on tape is
changing unit and a component
prepared in binary
Which of the above is/are correct ? indexing device
decimal form and operated
p byy
( ) d l
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) d l
(b) 2 and 3 only B CNC system
B. t 2. A numberb off machine hi t l are
tools a series of coded
(c) 2 only
y (d) 1, 2 and 33 controlled by a computer. No tape instructions
reader,
d the
th partt program isi
transmitted directly to the Codes:A B C D A B C D
machine
hi tool
t l from
f th
the (a) 4 2 3 1 (b) 1 3 2 4
31 computer memory 32
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 1 2 3 4 33
Machining Centre Machining Centre Machining Centre

y A machining centre or work centre consists of a single, but y Some machines are equipped with two work‐tables that can be y The main components of a product are usually small (about 10%)
sometimes, two machine tools with the specific p feature of an moved into or out of the machine. While the work is g
going
g on one but are expensive
p (theyy represent
p about 550% of the p
product value)
automatic tool changer and capable of performing a number of works table, the next component can be set up on the other work‐ because they have considerable material value and usually require
operations (drilling, tapping, milling, boring and turning etc.) on table. When the job is complete on the first work‐table, it is a large amount of machining. For such components, the
a workpiece. moved out of the way and the second work‐table is moved into machining centre is generally most economical.
y Most machines are numerically y controlled, but other types
yp of position. y Machining g centres have high
g metal removal rate capabilities.
p The
controls will work as well. y For storing the preset tools, various magazine systems are used. high degree of accuracy and multi‐operation in the same set up,
y The major
j advantage g is that the jjob needs clampingp g on the work These preset tools are removed from their slots by a hand‐arm make the machining centres highly versatile and increase
holding surface only once; the machine then performs a variety of mechanism. When a particular machining operation is completed, productivity. Some models are made with manual tool change
machining g operations
p on all the jjob's faces except
p the base. the tool is removed from the spindle and returned to its storage facility.
y Work handling time is thus decreased because there is no
slot, then another tool is picked up and mounted in the tool
movement of the workpiece from one machine to another. spindle.
y A machining centre is mainly used for batch production of main
34 components of a product.Page 174 of 276
35
Rev.0
36
Punched Tape
Punched Tape
g p
Program Input Device In the earlier NC machines, the most commonly used
program storage
t medium
di was paper tape.
t A paper tape
t is
i
y The p
program
g input
p device is the mechanism used to one inch wide tape is considered to have eight tracks
(called channels) that run along the length of the tape.
enter the part program into the NC/CNC control. The The channels are numbered 1 through g 8 from right
g to
main components of program input devices are: left. Arrays consisting of 1 to 8 holes are punched across
the width of the tape.
tape (Small holes between the third
y Punch tape recorder and fourth channels are for the tape drive sprocket teeth.
y Magnetic tape recorder
y Computer via RS‐232‐C communication
y NIC card for network communication

Fig. 5 axes CNC vertical axis machining centre configuration 37 38 39
Punched Tape and Parity Check

Punched Tape and Parity Check Pi
Prime Movers
M
yW e numerical
When u e ca data aaree tthee input,
put, cchannel
a e numbers
u be s 1,, y Practically every industrial process requires
2, 3, 4, and 6 are employed.
objects to be moved, manipulated, held, or
y The
Th tapet reader
d makes
k elementary
l t checks
h k on the
th subjected to some type of force.
accuracy with which the tape has been punched. This is
called Parity Check.
y There must be an odd number of holes in each row or y The three most commonly
y employed
p y methods for
the tape reader and machines stops. producing the required forces/motions are:
y If a command d needs
d an even no off holes
h l tot be
b punched,
h d ¾Electrical
l l – motors, solenoids
l d
an additional one must be punched in channel 5, the
parity check channel. ¾ Air – Pneumatics
y The sprocket drive holes are not considered in the parity ¾ Liquids
q ‐ Hydraulics
y
check. 40 41 42
Stepper Motor
Stepper Motor y For
F each
h pulse
l it receives,
i th drive
the di unit
it • The 1.8 degree stepping motor
y The stepper
pp motor is special
p yp of synchronous
type y manipulates the motor voltage g and current, is the predominant standard for
motor which is designed to rotate through a causing the motor shaft to rotate by a fixed angle
industrial automation.
specific angle (Called step) for each electrical (one step).
• Stepper motors are off
pulse received from the control unit.
p y A stepping motor provides open‐loop as
permanent magnet, hybrid or
cumulative
l ti error and d maximum
i error is
i one step,
t
y The ferromagnetic multiple pole rotor moves g
digital control of the p
position of a workpiece
p in a variable reluctance type.
i id a multipole
inside lti l stator.
t t The
Th alternate
lt t teeth
t th on numerical control machine.
rotor and stator are magnetized
g to act as north
y In Robotics,
Robotics stepper motors are used for relatively
and south poles. light duty application (Open Loop Only)
y The
Th drive
d i unit i receives
i a direction
di i i
input (
(cw or y In computer peripherals stepper motors mostly
ccw)) and p
pulse inputs.
p used
43 44 45
IES 2018 (Prelims)
IES‐2018 (Prelims) Choice of a stepper motor based on
Which
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i devices
d i produces
d y Load,
L d friction
f i i and
d inertia
i i – Higher
Hi h load
l d can cause
incremental motion through equal pulses? slipping.
(a) AC servomotor (b) DC servomotor y Torque‐speed curve and quantities such as
(c) Stepper motor (d) Series motor holding torque, pull‐in and pull‐out curve.
y Torque‐speed
Torque speed characteristic determined by the
drive –Bipolar chopper drives for best
performance.
Fig Open loop control of a step motor
Fig. Open‐loop control of a step motor y Maximum slew‐rate:
slew rate: maximum operating
frequency with no load (related to maximum
46 47
speed). 48
Performance characteristic of stepper motors
pp IES‐2020 Prelims
1. Pull in IES 2017 (Prelims)
IES‐2017 (Prelims) Statement (I): The stepper motor is a device that produces
torque (inner rotation throughg equal
q g
angles, p for each
the so‐called steps,
curve)) is
i the
th Consider
C id the
th following
f ll i statements
t t t regarding
di digital pulse supplied to its input.
torque
required
q to pp motor:
a stepper Statement (II): Stepper motors can be used to give
start and controlled rotational steps but cannot give continuous
accelerate 1. The rotation angle of the motor is
without losing proportional
i l to the
h input
i pulse.
l rotation as a result their applications are limited to step
rotation,
steps. angles only.
2. Pull ll out
2 The motor has full torque at standstill.
2. standstill (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
torque (outer 3. Speed and electric control signal of the true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of
curve) is the St t
Statement t (I)
maximum motor vary mutually linearly.
torque that (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
can be
b applied
li d Whi h off the
Which th above
b statements
t t t are correct?
t? true but
b Statement (II) ( ) is not theh correct explanation
l off
at a given step‐
rate without (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only Statement (I)
losing steps. (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
49 (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 50
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true 51
Comparison between VR and PM type stepper motor

Comparison between VR and PM type stepper motor Servomotor
IES‐2020 Prelims y Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that
Variable Reluctance Type
V i bl R l T Permanent Magnet Type
P M T produce precise degrees of rotation.
Which of the following features is/are relevant
Step size relatively larger Step size small y A servo motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor
to variable reluctance stepper motors? combined with a position sensing device.
Smaller rotor mass; more More sluggish y Servomotors are also called control motors as they are
responsive 1. Smaller rotor mass; more responsive involved in controlling a mechanical system.
y A reference
f input is sent to theh servo amplifier,
lf which
h h
Relatively high‐speed High precision application 2. Step size is small controls the speed of the servomotor.
applications
y In many servo systems, both velocity and position are
No retaining torque Retaining torque due to the
3. More sluggish monitored.
problem permanent magnet section (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 y Servomotors provide accurate speed, torque, and have ability
of the rotor of direction control.
control
52 53 54
Control Systems
Control Systems
Encoders p p y
•Open Loop Systems
y A device used to convert linear or rotational position
•Closed Loop Systems
information into an electrical output signal.
Fig. Closed Loop Systems
55 Fig. Open Loop Systems 56 57
Feedback GATE ‐ 2007 IES ‐ 1994

CNC systems use two different feedback principles. The
indirect feedback, which monitors the output of the Which type of motor is NOT used in axis or spindle
Whi h f i NOT d i i i dl Feed
F d drives
d i in
i CNC milling
illi machines
hi are provided
id d
servomotor. The direct feedback monitors the load drives of CNC machine tools? by
condition in the feedback loop and that is the reason (a) Induction motor (b) DC servo motor (a) Synchronous motors
that is more accurate than the indirect feedback. (c) Stepper motor (d) Linear servo motor (b) Induction motors
(c) Stepper motors
(d) Servo‐motors.
Indirect Feedback
Direct Feedback 58 59 60
IES ‐ 2002 Basic Length Unit (BLU)

h ( )
In
I a CNC machine
hi tool,
l encoder
d isi used
d to sense and
d y In
I NC machine,
hi the
h displacement
di l length
l h per one pulse
l
control output from machine is defined as a Basic Length Unit
(a) Table position (BLU).
(b) Table velocity y In the CNC computer each bit (binary digit) represents 1
(c) Spindle speed BLU.
(d) Coolant flow Bit = BLU
y Example:
a p e: If oonee pu
pulse
se makes
a es a se
servo
vo motor
oto rotate
otate by o
onee
degree and the servo motor moves the table by 0.0001
mm one BLU will be 0.0001
mm, 0 0001 mm.
mm
y The lead of a ball screw is related to the displacement
unit of the machine tool table.
61 62 63
GATE ‐ 1997 GATE – 2007 (PI)
( ) GATE – 2008 (PI)
In
I a point
i to point
i controll NC machine,
hi the
h slides
lid In
I a CNC machine hi feed
f d drive,
di a stepper
t motor
t A stepper motor has 150 steps. The output shaft of the
are positioned by an integrally mounted stepper with step g of 1.8o drives a lead screw with
p angle
motor drive. If the specification of the motor is pitch of 2 mm. The Basic Length Unit (BLU) for motor is directly
d l coupled
l d to a lead
l d screw off pitch
h 4 mm,
1o/p
/pulse,, and the p
pitch of the lead screw is 33.6 mm,, this drive is which drives a table.
table If the frequency of pulse supply to
what is the expected positioning accuracy?
((a)) 10 microns ((b)) 20 microns the motor is 200 Hz, the speed of the table (in mm/min)
( a ) 1μ m (b) 10 μm
(c ) 50 μm (d ) 100 μm (c) 40 microns (d) 100 microns is
(a) 400 (b) 320 (c) 300 (d) 280
64 65 66
Example IES 2011 Conventional
y A DC servomotor is coupled directly to a leadscrew IFS‐2015 y The
h table
bl off a CNC machine
h is driven
d by
b a Lead
d screw which
h h
which drives the table of an NC machine tool. A A DC servomotor is coupled directly to a lead is rotated by a DC servomotor. A digital encoder which emits
digital encoder, which emits 500 pulses per screw which drives the table of an NC machine
1000 pulses per second is mounted on the lead screw as a
revolution is mounted on the other end of the
revolution, tool. A digital encoder which emits 500 pulses per
leadscrew. If the leadscrew pitch is 5 mm and the revolution is mounted on the other end of the feedback device. If the lead screw pitch is 6 mm and motor
motor rotates at 600 rpm,rpm calculate lead screw.
screw If the lead screw pitch is 5 mm and the rotates
t t att 500 rpm, find
fi d
motor rotates at 650 rpm, calculate
(a) The linear velocity of the table 1
1. Basic length Units of the system
(i) The
Th linear
li velocity
l it off the
th table
t bl
(b) The BLU of the NC system
(ii) The BLU of the NC system 2. Linear velocity of the table.
( ) The
(c) Th frequency
f off pulses
l t
transmitted
itt d by
b the
th encoder.
d
(iii) The frequency of the pulses transmitted by the
3. Frequency of pulses generated by the feedback device.
encoder [8 ‐ Marks]
[5 Marks]
67 68 69
GATE – 2010 (PI) GATE‐2018 (PI) GATE‐2016 (PI)

For
F a 3 –axes CNC table,
bl the
h slide
lid along
l the
h vertical
i l axis
i
The worktable in a CNC machine is driven by a A single axis CNC table is driven by a DC servo motor
of the table is driven by a DC servo motor via a lead
screw‐ nut mechanism. The lead screw has a pitch of 5 leadscrew with a pitch of 2 mm. The leadscrew is that is directly coupled to a lead screw of 5 mm pitch.
mm. This lead screw is fitted with a relative
(incremental) circular encoder. The basic length unit directly coupled to a stepper motor of step angle The circular encoder attached to the lead screw
(BLU) of the slide along the vertical axis of the table is generates 1000 voltage
oltage pulses per revolution
re olution of the lead
0.005 mm. When the table moves along the vertical axis 1.8°. The number of pulses required to move the
b 9 mm, the
by th corresponding
di number b off pulses
l generated
t d screw The table moves at a constant speed of 6 m/min.
screw. m/min
worktable by 50 mm is ______
by the encoder is p g frequency
The corresponding q y (in kHz) of the voltage
g
(a) 1400 (b) 1800 (c) 4200 (d) 9000
pulses generated by the circular encoder is_________.
70 71 72
GATE – 2014(PI)
I an open loop,
In l point‐to‐point
i i controlledll d CNC drilling
d illi
machine, a stepper motor, producing 200 angular steps per
Statement for Linked Answers questions: S‐1 GATE – 2008 Q‐1 (Statement in S‐2)
( )
revolution, drives the table of a drilling machine by one In
I the
h feed
f d drive
d i off a Point‐to‐Point
P i P i open loop
l CNC The
Th Basic
B i Length
L h Unit
U i (BLU),
(BLU) i.e.,
i the
h table
bl
g
angular steppp
per each ppulse g
generated byy a ppulse g
generator drive, a stepper motor rotating at 200 steps/rev drives a movement corresponding to 1 pulse of the pulse
(shown in figure). Each angular step moves the table by table through a gear box and lead screw‐nut mechanism generator, is
g Unit ((BLU)) along
one Basic Length g X axis with a lead screw (pitch = 4 mm,, number of starts = 1).
(p ) (a) 0.5
0 5 microns (b) 5 microns
Output rotational speed
having a pitch of 4 mm. If the frequency of pulse generator The gear ratio = Input rotational speed is given by U = 14 (c) 50 microns (d) 500 microns
is doubled,
doubled the BLU will
The
h stepper motor (driven
(d b voltage
by l pulses
l f
from a pulse
l
generator) executes 1 step/pulse of the pulse generator.
The frequency of the pulse train from the pulse
(a) become double of previous value generator is f = 10,000 pulses per minute.
(b) become half of previous value
( ) remain
(c) i the
h same
(d) become zero 73 74 75
GATE – 2008 Q‐2 (Statement in S‐3)

( ) GATE – 2009 (PI) IES‐2017 (Prelim)
( l )
A customer insists
i i on a modification
difi i to change
h the
h BLU A stepper motor is to be used to drive the linear
The total angular movement (in degrees) of a lead‐screw
of the CNC drive to 10 microns without changing the
table speed. The modification can be accomplished by with a pitch of 5.0 mm to drive the work‐table by a axis of a certain mechatronics system. The motor
di
distance off 200 mm in
i a NC machine
hi isi output shaft is connected to a screw thread with a
( ) 14400
(a) (b) 28800
88 ( ) 57600
(c) 6 (d) 72000 30 mm pitch.
i h Linear
Li resolution
l i off 0.5 mm is
i
stipulated.
i l d WhatWh is
i the
h needed
d d step angle?
l ?
(a) 9° (b) 8° (c) 7° (d) 6°
76 77 78
IAS 2010 Main

IAS‐2010 Main IAS 2013 Main
IAS‐2013 Main
GATE‐2014 (PI) p p NC system
In open‐loop y pp g motor is
the shaft of a stepping
An open loop type NC machine has a stepper motor with
Each axis of NC machine is driven by a stepper motor connected directly to the lead screw x‐axis of the
a step of 0.9 degree. The lead screw of the machine is of
drive with a lead screw.
screw The pitch of lead screw is p mm.
mm machine table. The pitch of the lead screw is 3.0 mm.
4 mm pitch.i h
The step angle of stepper motor per pulse input is α The number of step angles on the stepping motor is 200.
degrees/pulse The ratio of gear drive in stepper motor
degrees/pulse. ((i)) If the tool has to be moved byy 2.877 mm,, how manyy
Determine how closely the position of the table can be pulses will have to be fed?
drive is g(number of turns of the motor for each single
controlled assuming that there are no mechanical errors
controlled, (ii) If the
th motor
t is
i rotating
t ti att 15 rpm, what
h t is
i the
th pulse
l
turn off the
h lead
l d screw). ) The
Th number b off pulses
l required
i d
in the positioning system. frequency and the feed rate of the machining operation?
to achieve a linear movement of x mm is
αg 360 g g 360 g Also, what is the required frequency of the pulse train [10 –Marks]
(a) x (b) x (c ) x (d ) x
360 p p 360 p pα and the corresponding rotational speed of the stepping
motor in order to drive the table at a travel rate of 100
mm/min? [8 Marks]
[8‐
79 80 81
GATE‐2020 S1
GATE‐2020 S1 GATE‐2020 S2
GATE‐2020 S2 Control Systems possible in CNC Machine
A point P on a CNC controlled XY‐stage is moved to Ap
pair of stepping
pp g motors with maximum speed
p of
another point ‘Q’ using the coordinate system y Point
P i to point
i mode:
d
shown in the figure
g below and rapid
p p positioning
g 800 rpm, controlling both the X and Y motion of the
command (G00). (All dimensions are in mm) stage, are directly coupled to a pair of lead screw,
each with a uniform pitch of 0.5 mm. The time
needed to position the point 'P’ to the point ‘Q' is
________minutes.
minutes (round off to 2 decimal places).
places)
Contd….
82 83 84
GATE ‐ 1992 Point‐to‐point straight line mode

In
I a point‐to‐point
i i type off NC system
((a)) Control of pposition and velocityy of the tool is
essential
(b) Control of only position of the tool is sufficient
(c) Control of only velocity of the tool is sufficient
(d) Neither position nor velocity need be controlled
85 86 87
GATE ‐ 2006 GATE‐2005

NC contouring i isi an example l off
Which among the NC operations given below are
((a)) Continuous ppath ppositioning
g continuous path operations?
(b) Point‐to‐point positioning Arc Welding (AW) Milling (M)
( ) Absolute
(c) Ab l positioning
ii i Drilling (D) Punching is Sheet Metal (P)
((d)) Incremental p
positioningg Laser Cutting of Sheet Metal (LC) Spot Welding (SW)
(a) AW, LC and M (b) AW, D, LC and M
( ) D, LC, P and SW
(c) d (d)
(d) D, LC, and SW
d
88 89 90
Co‐ordinate system
d
y All the
h machine
hi tooll use Cartesian
C i Co‐ordinate
C di system.
y The first axis to be identified is the Z – axis,, This is
followed by X and Y axes respectively.
Right‐hand coordinate systems 91 92 93
IES ‐ 2000
Assertion
A i (A):
(A) The
Th axis i off an NC drilling
d illi machine
hi
spindle is denoted as z‐axis.
Reason (R): In NC machine tool, the axis
perpendicular to both x x‐ and y
y‐axis
axis is designated as
z‐axis
( ) Both
h
94 95 96
IES ‐ 1996 Absolute and Incremental Coordinate System

Assertion
A i (A):
(A) Numerically
N i ll controlledll d machines
hi
having more than three axes do not exist.
Reason (R): There are only three Cartesian
coordinates namely x x‐y‐z
y z.
correct explanation
l off A
(b) Both
d v dua y ttrue
ue but R iss not
ot tthee
( ) A is
(c) i true
t b t R is
but i false
f l
5 axes CNC vertical axis machining centre configuration Absolute Coordinate System Incremental Coordinate System
97 98 99
GATE 2015
GATE-2015 IES ‐ 2003 S‐1 IES – 2003 Contd.. From S‐1
d
A drill is p
positioned at p
point P and it has to p
proceed to
While
Whil part programming i If incremental
i l co‐ordinates
di system is
i used,d theh co‐
point Q. The coordinates of point Q in the in CNC machines, the ordinates of each point A, B and C are
input of dimensional (a) A: X 5.0, Y 10.0 (b) A: X 5.0, Y 10.0
incremental system of defining position of a point in
information for the tool B: X 20.0,
20 0 Y5.0
Y5 0 B: X 25
25, Y 15.0
15 0
CNC part program will be path can be given in the
absolute co‐ordinate C: X 10.0, Y‐ 10.0 C: X 35, Y 5.0
a)) (3,12)
( ) (c) A: X 10.0, Y 5.0 (d) A: X 10.0, Y 5.0
system or in incremental
b) (5,7)
(5 7) co‐ordinate
di t system.t Th
The B X 15.0, Y 25.0
B: B X 5.0, Y 20.0
B:
above figure shows the C: X 15.0, Y 35.0 C: X 10.0, Y 10.0
c) (7,12)
route to be
b followed
f ll d by
b theh
d) (4,7) tool from O to C, i.e., O ‐ A
‐ B ‐ C.
100 101 102
M hi C t l U it
Machine Control Unit
GATE ‐2012
GATE ‐2012 Same Q in GATE‐2012 (PI)
Same Q in GATE 2012 (PI) y The machine control unit (MCU) is the backbone of
CNC systems. Following six functions are being done by
A CNC vertical milling machine has to cut a MCU:
straight slot of 10 mm width and 2 mm depth by a y Read coded instructions
cutter of 10 mm diameter between points (0, (0 0) y Decode
D d coded d d instructions
i i
and (100, 100) on the XY plane (dimensions in y Implement
p interpolations
p to g
generate axis motion
mm). ) The
Th feed
f d rate usedd for
f milling
illi is
i 50 mm/min.
/ i commands
Milling time for the slot (in seconds) is y Feed axis motion commands to amplifier circuits to drive
(a) 120 (b) 170 (c) 180 (d) 240 axis mechanisms y For a CNC machine
h controll unit (MCU)
( ) decides
d d cutting
speed,
p feed, depth
p of cut, tool selection , coolant on off
y Receive the feed back signals of position and speed for
each drive axis and tool paths. The MCU issues commands in form of
numeric data to motors that position slides and tool
y Implement
I l t auxiliary
ili control
t l functions
f ti such
h as coolant
l t
103 ON/OFF, spindle ON/OFF, and tool change 104
accordingly. 105
Part Programming Programming Variety

Programming Variety Programming Variety
Programming Variety
y Ma ua
Manual a t
Part og a
Programming: g: Ma ua
Manual pa
partt espect to tthee geo
respect et y, tthen
geometry, e tthee co pute pe
computer o s aall
performs
y FANUC CONTROL programming is the oldest method and still quite necessary calculations and generates tool path
popular This technique requires the programmer to
popular. information This tool path data is then post‐processed
information.
y SIEMENS CONTROL
examine a part drawing then 'manually' calculate all tool into the format required for a specific CNC machine tool.
paths.
th This
Thi information
i f ti isi recorded
d d on a manuscript. i t A F complex
For l parts, t computer t assisted
i t d partt programming
i
punched tape is prepared from the manuscript. may be necessary and the savings in programming time
y Computer Assisted Part Programming(CAPP): In can be substantial.
computer assisted part programming, much of the y Computer Aided Drafting/Computer Aided
tedious work required to calculate tool offsets, partial Manufacturing: This method of programming machine
arcs and the geometry of the part,
arcs, part is performed by the tools is sophisticated and growing in popularity. popularity As
computer. When using computer assisted part CAD/CAM software systems become more user friendly,
programming,
i the
h programmer utilizes ili a high
hi h level
l l i
inexpensive,
i and d reliable,
li bl more and d more manufacturers
f
106 language to describe Page
part geometry
182 of 276 and cutter path with
107 are turning to CAD/CAM for part programming. Rev.0
108
Programming Variety
Programming Variety Programming Variety
Programming Variety
sse t a y, C
Essentially, /C M eenables
CAD/CAM ab es a p og a
programmere to p og a for
program o a pa t cu a machine
particular ac e too
tool.. O te tthese
Often ese IES‐2020 Prelims
manipulate CAD data so CAM software is capable of conversational systems reside on the machine tool The
Th method h d off CNC programming i which
hi h
understanding the data.
data Once properly manipulated,
manipulated the controller and the interaction (programming) is done on enables the programmer to describe part
CAM software per‐forms all necessary calculations and the shop floor, hence, the term shop floor programming. geometry using variables is
generates
t CNC toolt l pathth data
d t that
th t are maded to
t part‐ t Thi method
This th d off programmingi isi generally
ll restricted
t i t d to t ( )
(a)Computer assisted part programming
processed for a variety of machine tools. relatively simple geometry.
(b) Computer aided drafting programming
• Conversational and Shop Floor Programming: • Parametric Programming: An enhancement to the
Conversational programming is an interactive method of methods above more so than a method in and of itself, ((c)) Conversational p
programming
g g
generating CNC code. The CNC programmer or machine parametric programming software systems enable the (d) Parametric programming
tool operator answers questions and provides data about programmer to describe part geometry using variables.
variables
tool paths when prompted by a conversational Once described, entering specific values for the variables
programmingi software
f system. These
Th answers to that
h uniquely
i l identify
id if the h part generates an actuall tooll
questions and associated data are translated into a CNC
109 path CNC program. 110 111
The following are the steps to be followed CNC i
CNC programming
while developing the CNC part programs.
while developing the CNC part programs Important things to know:
Programming Key Letters
y O ‐ Program number (Used for program identification)
y Process planning
p g • Coordinate System y N
N ‐ Sequence number (Used for line identification)
y Axes selection y G ‐ Preparatory function
y Tool selection
T l l ti • Units, incremental or absolute positioning y X ‐ X axis designation
g
y Y ‐ Y axis designation
y Cutting process parameters planning
gp p p g • Coordinates: X,Y,Z, RX,RY,RZ
, , , , , y Z ‐ Z axis designation
g
y R ‐ Radius designation
y Job and tool setup planning
• Feed rate and spindle speed
p p y F – Feed rate designation
y Machining path planning
M hi i th l i y S ‐ Spindle speed designation
y Part program writing
p g g • Coolant Control: On/Off, Flood, Mist
Coolant Control: On/Off Flood Mist y H ‐ Tool length offset designation
y D ‐ Tool radius offset designation
y Part program proving y T ‐ Tool Designation
• Tool Control: Tool and tool parameters y M ‐ Miscellaneous function
112 113 114
Table of Important G codes
p Table of Important G codes
p Table of Important G codes
p
Code Meaning Format
Code Meaning Format Code Meaning Format
G44 Tool length compensation N__G44H__
N G44H
G00 Rapid Transverse N__G00 X___ Y___ Z___ G20/G70 Inch Unit (minus)
G01 p
Linear Interpolation N__G01 X___ Y___ Z___ F___ 7
G21/G71 Metric Unit G49 Tool length compensation
G02 Circular Interpolation, N__G02 X__ Y__ Z___ R___ F___ G28 Automatic Return to Reference cancel
CW N G X
N__G02 X___ Y__Z__I ___J __K __ F __
Y Z I J K F
Point G8
G80 C
Cancel canned cycles
l d l
G03 Circular Interpolation, N__G03 X___ Y___ Z__R__F___ G40 Cutter compensation cancel G81 Drilling cycle N__G81 Z__R__F__
CCW G
G41 C tt
Cutter compensation left
ti l ft N G D
N__G41D__ G82 Counter Bore Cycle N__G82Z__R__P__F_
N__G03 X__ Y__Z__I __J __K __ F __
G04 Dwell N__G04P___ G42 Cutter compensation right N__G42D__ G83 Deep Hole Drilling Cycle
eep o e g Cyc e N G83Z__ R
N__G83 R__ Q
Q_F__
G17 XY Plane G90 Absolute positioning
G43 Tool length compensation N__G43H__
G8
G18 XZ Pl
XZ Plane (plus) G91
G IIncremental positioning
t l iti i
G19 YZ Plane G92 Absolute preset, change the N__G92X__Y__Z__
d
datum position, Reposition
Origin Point
115 116 117
p
Rapid traverse: G00 p
Linear interpolation: G01 Circular interpolation: G02, G03
Circular interpolation: G02, G03
y G01: y G02, G03:
y G00: y For circular interpolation, the tool destination and the circle
For circular interpolation the tool destination and the circle
y linear interpolation at feed speed. center are programmed in one block
y to make the machine move at maximum speed.
G91 G0l X200.0 Y100.0 F200.0 y G02 is clockwise interpolation, G03 is counterclockwise
y It is used for positioning motion.
It is used for positioning motion i
interpolation
l i
G90 G00 X20.0 Y10.0 Y
⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫
G91:
9 End G17 ⎨ ⎬ X __ Y __ ⎨ ⎬ F __;;
End incremental 100.0 ⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ I __ J __ ⎭
G90: coordinates
absolute
(20,10) ⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫
G18 ⎨ ⎬ X __ Z __ ⎨ ⎬ F __;;
coordinates (10,10) ⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ I __ K __ ⎭
⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫
G19 ⎨ ⎬Y __ Z __ ⎨ ⎬ F __;;
(0,0)
⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ J __ K __ ⎭
Start
Start 200.0 X End Circle center, radius
,
point
118 119 120
Circular interpolation: G02, G03 Circular interpolation: G02, G03
Circular interpolation: G02 G03 Circular interpolation: G02, G03
N0010 G92 X200.0 Y40.0 Z0 ;
Y y Specify Center with I, J, K
Y End N0020 G90 G03 X140.0 Y100.0 I ‐60.0 F300；
R=-50mm N0030 G02 X120. 0 Y60.0 I‐ 50.0； G92:
X y I, J, K are the incremental
J
End Specify R with
S if R i h Or To define working
T d fi ki
distance from the start of
sign before it: N0010 G92 X200.0 Y40.0 Z0； coordinate
X the arc;
N0020 G90 G03 X140.0 Y100.0 R60.0 F300；
≤180° +R y Viewing the start of arc as N0030 G02 X120.0 Y60.0 R50.0；
Start the origin, I, J, K have
R=50mm >180° ‐R
Start Y
j positive or negative signs.
ii i i G
G90:
Center absolute 100 R50
i coordinates 60 R60
40
G91 G02 X60.0 Y20.0 R50.0 F300.0
G91 G02 X60.0 Y20.0 R‐50.0 F300.0 X
O 90 120 140 200
122 123
121
GATE 2014
GATE‐2014 GATE – 2007 (PI)
( )
Circular interpolation: G02 G03 p p g g p
For the CNC part programming, match Group A with
Group B: The
Th interpolator
i t l t in
i a CNC machine
hi controls
t l
Annotation for Circular Interpolation
p Group A Group B (a) Spindle Speed (b) Coolant flow
y I0.0, J0.0, and K0.0 can be omitted.
P: circular interpolation, counter I: G02 (c) Feed rate (d) Tool change
y If X,Y,Z are all omitted in the program, that means
If X Y Z are all omitted in the program that means
clock wise
start and end of arc are same points.
N0020 G02 I20 0 (a full circle)
N0020 G02 I20.0 (a full circle) Q: dwell II: G03
y If I, J, K, and R all appears in circular interpolation R: circular interpolation, clock wise III: G04
i t ti R i lid d I J d K i
instruction, R is valid and I, J, and K are invalid
lid S: point to point countering IV: G00
P Q R S P Q R S
(a) II III I IV (b) I III II IV
(c) I IV II III (d) II I III IV
124 125 126
GATE‐2018 GATE ‐ 2004 GATE ‐ 2010
Interpolator
I l in
i a CNC machine
hi During
D i the h execution
i off a CNC part program block
bl k In
I a CNC program block,bl k N002
N G02
G G91
G X40X Z40…,
Z
N020 G02 X45.0
45 Y25.05 R5.0
5 the type
yp of tool motion will G02 and G91 refer to
(a) controls spindle speed
be (a) Circular interpolation in counterclockwise direction
(b) coordinates axes movements and incremental dimension
(a) Circular Interpolation – clockwise
(c) operates tool changer (b) Circular Interpolation ‐ counter clockwise (b) Circular interpolation in counterclockwise direction
(d) commands canned cycle (c) Linear Interpolation andd absolute
b l d
dimension
(d) Rapid
R id feed
f d (c) CCircular
cu a interpolation
te po at o in cclockwise
oc se d
direction
ect o aandd
incremental dimension
(d) Circular
Ci l interpolation
i t l ti i clockwise
in l k i direction
di ti andd
absolute dimension
127 128 129
IES ‐ 2009 GATE 2015

GATE-2015 GATE ‐ 2001
The function of CNC machine controller is to In
I an NC machining
hi i operation,
i the
h tooll has
h to beb
Interpolation in the controller refers to control of
a) Control spindle speed moved from point (5, 4) to point (7, 2) along a
which
h h one off the
h following
f ll in a CNC machine?
h circular path with centre at (5, 2). Before starting the
b)Coordinate feed rates of axes operation,
p , the tool is at (5, 4)
4). The correct G and M
( ) Loading/unloading
(a) L di / l di off jobs
j b on machine
hi
c) Control tool rapid approach speed code for this motion is
(b) Loading/unloading
L di / l di off tools
t l from
f th tool
the t l changer
h (a) N010 G03 X7.0
X 0 Y2.0
Y2 0 I5.0
I 0 J2.0
J2 0
d)Perform miscellaneous(M) functions (tool change,
(b) N010 G02 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
(c) Axes of machine for contouring coolant control etc.) (c) N010 G01 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
(d) Coolant and miscellaneous functions on machine (d) N010
N G X7.0
G00 X Y
Y2.0 I
I5.0 J
J2.0
130 131 132
GATE ‐ 2005 GATE – 2019 (PI)

( ) GATE 2017
GATE‐2017
Circular arc on a ppart p
profile is beingg machined
The
Th tooll off an NC machine hi has
h to move alongl a In
I a NC milling
illi operation,
i the
h tooll path
h is
i generated
d
circular arc from (5, 5) to (10,10) while performing an
on a vertical CNC milling machine. CNC part
using
g absolute p programming
g g for the trajectory
j y
operation. The centre of the arc is at (10, 5). Which program using metric units with absolute
shown in the figure
one of the following g NC tool p path commands dimensions is listed below:
performs the above mentioned operation? N60 G01 X30 Y55 Z‐5 F50
(a) N010G02 X10 Y10 X5X Y5
Y R5R
The corresponding
p g block
N70 G02 X50 Y35 R20
(b) N010G03 X10 Y10 X5 Y5 R5 of the NC program is
(a) G02 X 120.0 Y 60.0 R 60.0; N80 G01 Z2
(c) N010G01 X5 Y5 X10 Y10 R5
((b)) G02 X 60.0 Y 120.0 R 60.0;; The coordinates of the centre of the circular arc are:
(d) N010G02
N G X5 X Y5
Y X10
X Y10Y R5 R
(c) G03 X 60.0 Y 120.0 R 60.0; (a) (30, 55) (b) (50, 55)
(d) G03
G X 120.0 Y 60.0
6 R 60.0;
6
(c) (50, 35) (d) (30, 35)
133 134 135
GATE-2015
GATE 2015
In a CNC milling operation, the tool has to machine GATE‐2014 (PI) p
Tool Compensation
the circular arc from point (20, 20) to (10, 10) at a A CNC instruction G91G01X30Y40F100 commands the
y Tool‐Radius Compensation
oo Rad us Co pe sat o
sequence number 5 of the CNC part program. If the movement of tool along the path at a feed rate of 100 y Left hand G41
center of the arc is at (20,
(20 10) and the machine has mm/min (G91‐ incremental format and G01‐ linear y Right hand G42
y Cancel tool‐radius compensation G40
incremental mode of defining position coordinates, interpolation) The feed rate of the tool (in mm/min)
interpolation). y Tool‐Height Compensation
the correct tool p
path command is along the X axis will be _______ y Positive G43
os e G43
a) N05 G90 G01 X‐10 Y‐10 R10 y Negative G44
b)N05 G91 G03 X‐10 Y‐10 R10 y Cancel tool‐height compensation G49
Cancel tool height compensation G49
c) N05 G90 G03 X20 Y20 R10
d)N G90
d)N05 G G02
G X20
X Y20Y R10
R
136 137 138
GATE ‐ 2000
p
Tool‐Radius Compensation p
Cancel Tool Compensation: G40
In
I finish
fi i h machining
hi i off an island
i l d on a casting i with
ih
y Tool‐radius compensations make it possible to CNC milling machine, an end mill with 10 mm
program directly from the drawing, and thus eliminate
program directly from the drawing and thus eliminate y Note the difference between two ways
the tool‐offset calculation diameter is employed. The corner points of the
N0060 G01 X2.000 Y1.700
X2 000 Y1 700 island are represented
p by
y ((0,, 0),
), ((0,, 330),
), (5
(50,, 330),
), and
G (G ) D
G41 (G42) D×× N0060 G40 G01 X2.000 Y1.700 M02
y D××: the radius of tool to compensate is saved in a memory unit that
N0070 G40 M02 (50, 0). By applying cutter radius right
is named D×× compensation the trajectory of the cutter will be
compensation,
y G41/G42 is directly related with direction of tool movement and
which side of part is cut. (a) (‐5, 0), (‐5, 35), (55, 35), (55, ‐5), (‐5, ‐5)
(b) (0, ‐5), (55, ‐5), (55, 35), (‐5, 35), (‐5, ‐5)
(c) (5,
(5 5),
5) (5,
(5 25),
25) (45,
(45 25),
25) (45,
(45 5),
5) (5,
(5 5)
ramp off block effective to the end point
(d) (5, 5), (45, 5), (45, 25), (5, 25), (5, 5)
139 140 141
GATE 2014
GATE ‐
For machining a rectangular island represented by g p
Tool‐Height Compensation Tool‐Height Compensation
Tool‐Height Compensation
coordinates P(0, 0), Q(100, 0), R(100, 50) and S(0, 50) on
a casting
ti using i CNC milling
illi machine,hi an end d mill
ill with
ith a G43 (G44) H×× y Example:
diameter of 16 mm is used. The trajectory of the cutter y N0010 G91 G00 X12.0 Y80.0 G91:
y H××: specified memory unit used to save height
center to machine
h the
h island
l d PQRS is y N0020 G44 Z‐32.0 H02；
N G Z H iincremental
t l
compensation of tool. coordinates
(a) ((–8,
8, –8),
8), (108, – 8), (108, 58), ((–8,
8, 58), ((–8,
8, –8)
8) y Positive compensation (G43):
y If we put 0.5mm into H02,
(b) (8, 8), (94, 8), (94, 44), (8, 44), (8, 8) real position = specified position + value saved in H××
y real position = ‐32.0 ‐
p 3 0.5 = ‐32.5
5 3 5
( ) (–8,
(c) ( 8),
) (94,
( 0),
) (94,
( 44),
) (8,
( 44), ) (–8,
( 8)) y Negative compensation (G44):
(d) (0, 0), (100, 0), (100, 50), (50, 0), (0, 0) real position = specified position ‐
p p p value saved in H×× y Cancel tool‐height compensation: G49
142 143 144
GATE ‐ 2009 GATE 2016
GATE‐2016
Table of Important M codes Match the following part programming codes with their
y M00 Program stop respective functions.
y M01 Optional program stop Part Programming
g g Functions
y M03 Spindle on clockwise
Codes
y M04 Spindle on counterclockwise
M S i dl t l k i P G01
P. G01 I Spindle Stop
I. Spindle Stop
y M05 Spindle stop Q. G033
Q II. Spindle rotation, clockwise
p ,
y M06 Tool change
y M07 Coolant on ‐1
7
R. M03 III. Circular interpolation,
y M08 Coolant on‐2
anticlockwise
i l k i
y M09 Coolant off S. M055 IV. Linear interpolation
p
y M10 Clamps on
(a)P‐II, Q‐I, R‐IV, S‐III
Q (b) P‐IV, Q‐II, R‐III, S‐I
Q
y M11 Clamps off
M Cl ff
(c) P‐IV, Q‐III, R‐II, S‐I (d) P‐III, Q‐IV, R‐II, S‐I
y M02 or M30 Program stop, reset to start 145 146 147
GATE 2017 (PI)

GATE‐2017 (PI)
The p p
preparatoryy and miscellaneous codes used in CNC
part programming and the functions are given in the
Block Format
Block Format
N135 G01 X1.0 Y1.0 Z0.125 F5 Sequence and format of words:
Table.
Group I Group II Sample Block N3 G2 X+1.4 Y+1.4 Z+1.4 I1.4 J1.4 K1.4 F3.2 S4 T4 M2
• Restrictions on CNC blocks
P G
P. G01 1. Circular interpolation, counter‐clock wise
Ci l i l i l k i • Each may contain only one tool move
• Each may contain any number of non-tool move G-codes sequence no destination coordinates dist to center of circle tool
Q. G033
Q 2. End of program
p g • Each mayy contain onlyy one feed rate
• Each may contain only one specified tool or spindle speed feed rate spindle speed
R. M06 3. Tool change • The block numbers should be sequential preparatory function
• Both the program start flag and the program number must be miscellaneous function
i ll f ti
S
S. M02 4. Linear interpolation
i i l i independent of all other commands (on separate lines)
• The data within a block should follow the sequence shown
The correct combination of code and the respective in the above sample block
function is
( ) P‐4,
(a) P Q‐1,
Q R‐3,
R S‐2S (b) P
P‐4, Q‐1,
Q R‐2,
R S‐3S
(c) P‐1, Q‐4, R‐3, S‐2 (d) P‐2, Q‐1, R‐3, S‐4 148 149 150
Programming Formats P i F t
Programming Formats Programming Formats
y TAB Sequential Format or interchangeable format
y Fixed
Fi d Block
Bl k Format
F
y Word Address Format or variable block format
Here the alphabets
p are replaced
p byy a Tab code,, which is In fixed block format no letter address of Tab code are
This type of format uses alphabets called address, inserted between two words. The MCU reads the first used and none of words can be omitted. The main
advantage of this format is that the whole instruction
identifying the function of numerical data followed. This Tab and stores the data in the first location then the block can be read at the same instant, instead of reading
format is used by
b most of the NC machines.
machines second
d word
d is recognized
d by
b reading
d the
h record
d Tab.
b Iff character
h t byb character.
h t All instructions
i t ti mustt be
b given
i i
in
every block, including those instructions which remain
N20 G00 X1.200
X1 200 Y0.100
Y0 100 F325 S1000 T03 M09 <EOB> the word remains same in the succeeding block,
block the
unchanged from the preceding blocks. This format can
The MCU uses this alphabet for addressing a memory word need not be repeated
p but TAB is required
q to onlyy be used for p
positioning
g work only.
y
maintain the sequence of words. 20 00 1.200 0.100 325 1000 03 09 <EOB>
location in it.
>20 >00 >1.200 >0.100 >325 >1000 >03 >09
151 152 153
IES ‐ 1993 IES ‐ 1996 Example 1
Example‐1
p g g g
Part program for Drilling three holes without using Canned
A 'block'
'bl k' off information
i f i in
i N.C.
N C machine
hi program In
I manuall programmingi and d tape preparation
i for
f a Cycle.
means NC drilling machine, the spindle speed was coded
(a) One row on tape as S 684 (using the magic‐three code). The spindle
(b) A word comprising several rows on tape speed
p in rpm
p will be
(c) One complete instruction (a) 684
(d) One complete program for a job (b) 68.4
(c) 840
(d) 6840
154 155 156
% real position = specified position + value saved in H××

N120 G00 Z2.0<EOB>(Rapid return to X55.00 Y50.0 Z2.0)
01001 <EOB> (Program number) N075 G00 X25.00 Y35.0 Z2.0 <EOB>(Rapid travel X25.0,
N130 X75.0
X75 0 Y70.0<EOB>(Rapid
Y70 0<EOB>(Rapid travel to X75.00Y70.0Z2.0)
X75 00Y70 0Z2 0)
N010 G92 X0 Y0 Z50 <EOB>(Absolute presetting at A) Y35.0, Z27.0 real position = 2 + 25)
N140 G01 Z-18.0 F125 <EOB>(X and Y not changing no
N020 G90 <EOB> (Absolute programming) N080 G01 Z-18.0 F125 <EOB> ((X and Y not changing g g no
needd so specify,if Z = -15
15 (thickness
(thi k off plate)
l t )-3
need so specify, Z = -15 (thickness of plate) - 3
N030 G71 <EOB> (Dimension in metric unit) (Breakthrough distance or cone height) G01-
((Breakthrough g distance or cone height)
g ) G01-
N040 T01 M06 <EOB> (Tool change, M06-Tool Change) li
linear interpolation
i t l ti cutting
tti ffrom X75
X75.00
00 Y70
Y70.0 0
linear interpolation cutting from X25.00 Y35.0
N050 S500 M03 M07 M10 <EOB>
EOB (Speed 500 rpm, Z2.0 to X75.00 Y70.0 Z-18.0)
Z2.0 to X25.00 Y35.0 Z Z-18.0)
18.0)
M03 – Spindle on, CW N150 G00 Z2.0<EOB>(Rapid return to X75.00 Y00.0 Z2.0)
N090 G00 Z2.0<EOB>(Rapid return to X25.00 Y35.0 Z2.0)
N160 M05 M09 <EOB>(M05 – spindle off off, M09 – Coolant off)
M04 – Spindle
S i dl on, CCW N100 X55
X55.00 Y50
Y50.0<EOB>(Rapid
0 EOB (R id ttravell tto X55X55.00
00 Y50
Y50.0Z2.0)
0Z2 0)
M05 – Spindle stop) N170 X0 Y0 Z50<EOB> (Rapid travel to X75.00 Y00.0 Z2.0)
N110 G01 Z-18.0 F125 <EOB> (X and Y not changing no
need so specify, Z = -15 (thickness of plate) - 3 N180 M11 <EOB>
EOB (U l
(Unclamp) )
M07 – Coolant 1 on M10- Clamp on
N060 G49 <EOB> (Cancel tool
tool-height
height compensation) ((Breakthroughg distance or cone height)
g ) G01- N190 M30 <EOB> ((Program
g Stop) p)
linear interpolation cutting from X55.00 Y50.0
N070 G43 H25.00<EOB> (Positive compensation (G43) 157 Z2.0 to X55.00 Y50.0 Z-18.0) 158 159
IES 2016
IES‐2016
Formatt off Canned
F C d cycle
l
IES ‐ 1995 A part programme for any arbitrary object is given as
N___G81 X___Y___Z___R___F___
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer follows:
using the codes given below the lists:
N001 G91 G71 M03 S600 EOB
R is Position of the clearance plane (same as the zz- axis List I List II
(A function connected (Associated parameter) N002 G00 X10.00 Y10.00 EOB
position of the clearance plane)
with NC m/c tool) N003 G00 Z
Z-10
10.00
00 EOB
F is
i the
th feed
f d rate.
t
A. Interpolation 1. Tape preparation N004 G83 Z-60.00 F100 EOB
B Parity check
B. 2 Canned cycle
2. N005 G80 EOB
G80 is cancel Canned cycle C. Preparatory function 3. Drilling
N006 M02 EOB
D Point
D. P i t to
t point
i t control
t l 4. Contouring
C t i
5. Turning The above programming format will be used as Canned
C d A
Code:A B C D A B C D Cycle for
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 4 1 2 5 (a) Drilling (b) Tapping
( ) 5
(c) 1 3 2 (d) 1 4 3 2 (c) Boring (d) Grooving
160 161 162
APT Language W d
Words IES ‐ 1998
y APT (Automatically
(A i ll Programmed
P d Tools)
T l ) Which
f ll i are theh rules
l off
y The words to be used in the statements are built up from
y The APT language consists of many different types of programming NC machine tools in APT language?
statements made up of the following valid letters, numerals one to six letters
l or numerals
l with
h the
h first
f one being
b a 1. Only capital letters are used
and p
punctuation marks.
letter No special character is allowed in the words.
letter. words 2 A period is placed at the end of each statement
2.
y Letters: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
3. Insertion of space does not affect the APT word
y Numerals: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
/ A slash divides a statement into two sections. eg.,
GO/PAST, ( ) 1 and
(a) d2 (b) 2 and d3
,, A comma is used as a separator between the elements in
p (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 alone
a statement generally to the right of the slash.
= An equals is used for assigning an entity to a symbolic
name, e.g., P1 = POINT/25,50,30. 163 164 165
The complete APT part program consists of APT Language
the following four types of statements
the following four types of statements APT Language
APT Language Other capabilities of APT, the macro facility, with use variable argument as in a
Oh bili i f APT h
FORTRAN subroutine, for example:
f ili i h i bl i
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.3, 0.1

Additional statements:
y Geometry FROM/P0
¾ MACHIN/DRILL, 2 CALL/DRILL, X=1.0, Y=1.0, Z=0.1, DEPTH=0.7
¾ COOLNT/
y Motion / , X=2.0,
CALL/DRILL, , Y=1.0,
, Z=0.1,
, DEPTH=0.7
For example: COOLNT/MIST COOLNT/FLOOD COOLNT/OFF GOTO/P0
¾ FEDRAT/
y Post processor when the definition of the macro DRILL is:
h th d fi iti f th DRILL i
¾ SPINDL/ DRILL = MACRO/X, Y, Z, DEPTH
For example: SPINDL/ON SPINDL/1250, CCLW
y Compilation control GOTO/X,Y,Z
¾ TOOLNO/ GODLTA/0,0, -DEPTH
¾ TURRET/ GODLTA/0,0, DEPTH
TARMAC
¾ END
166 167 168
Point (POINT) Point (POINT)

( ) Point (POINT)
( )
A = POINT/ 3,4,5 B = POINT/ INTOF, L1, L2 D = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, L3, C1 y

D = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, L3, C1
C = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, L3, C1
y C = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, L3, C1 C
(3, 4, 5)
L2
A
z L3
B C1
L1
D
x
169 170 171
Point (POINT)
( ) Line (LINE) Line (LINE)
( )
L12 = LINE/ P4, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS
E = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2 L14 = LINE/ P1, ATANGL, 40
E = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2 y L1 = LINE/ P1, P2 L15 = LINE/ 32, -3, 2, ATANGL, -15, XAXIS
F = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2 L16 = LINE/ P3, ATANGL, 40, YAXIS
F = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2 C1 y
y
E P3 L14
P2
40°
P1 L12
L16
P1
P4
F C2
L1 40° 20°
x x 15° x
L15
(32, ‐3, 2)
172 173 174
Line (LINE)
( ) Line (LINE)
( ) Line (LINE)
( )
LIN = LINE/ POINT,
POINT ATANGL,
ATANGL ANGLE (in degrees),
degrees) LINE L2 = LINE/ P5,
P5 RIGHT,
RIGHT TANTO,
TANTO C1
The LEFT & RIGHT modifier indicates whether the line
L3 = LINE/ P4, RIGHT, TANTO, C1
is at the left or right
g tangent
g ppoint,, depending
p g on how
y L4 = LINE/ P4, LEFT, TANTO, C1
one looks at the circle from the point.
L2
L3 Right
P1 L1 = LINE/ P5, LEFT, TANTO, C1

P4
L1
30° L1 L1 Left
C1 Left L4
L2 = LINE/ P1, ATANGL, 30, L1
3
P5 P5
x Right L2
175 176 177
Line (LINE)
( ) Line (LINE)
( )
L6 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C3, LEFT, TANTO, C4
L6
IAS‐2012 Main
IAS‐2012 Main
L6 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C4, RIGHT, TANTO, C3
C4
Left
C3
Right L6
Right
C4
L8 L9
C3
L7
Left
The descriptive words LEFT and RIGHT are used by L8 L9
In the above figure define the lines L1, L2, L3 and L4 in
looking from the first circle written towards the L7
the APT language. [10 Marks]
second
d circle.
i l
178 179 180
Line (LINE)
( ) Plane (PLANE)
( ) Circle (CIRCLE)
L3 = LINE/ P6, PARLEL, L5 PL1 = PLANE/ P6, P12, P15

C1 = CIRCLE/ 3, 6, 5, 4.3
L4 = LINE/ P5,
P5 PERPTO,
PERPTO L3
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 4.3
PL1
y P15 y
P6 P5
L3 P6 P12 C1
L4 y 3.0
4.3
P3
L5
L3 P4 (3,6,5)
z
PL2
x x
181 x 182 183
The Machining Plan The Machining Plan The Machining

g Plan
Contouring: z
Check surface
y Part surface: the surface on which the end of the Drive surface CS CS CS
y
tool is riding.
riding
Direction of
y Drive surface: the surface against
g which the edge
g of cutter cutter motion
the tool rides. x

DS DS DS
y Check surface: a surface at which the current tool

motion is to stop. Part surface
TO ON PAST
184 185 186
GOUP
The Machining Plan FROM/PTARG
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL2, TO, L3
Motion commands: GORGT/L3, PAST, L4
GOLFT
GOLFT/ : Move left along the drive surface GOFWD
GORGT/ : Move right along the drive surface
Present tool
GOUP/ : Move upp along
g the drive surface GOBACK position
p
GODOWN/ : Move down along the drive surface GORGT
GOFWD/ : Move forward from a tangent position
GODOWN
GOBACK/ : Move
M b k d from
backward f a tangent
t t position
iti
Previous
187 tool position
Page 191 of 276
188
Rev.0
189
Machining Specifications Machining Specifications Machining Specifications
Postprocessor commands for a particular machine tool are: FEDRAT/ : specifies the feed rate for moving the tool along the TOLERANCE SETTING: Nonlinear motion is accomplished in
MACHIN/ : used d to
t specify if the
th machine
hi t l and
tool d call
ll the
th part surface
f i inches
in i h per minute:
i straight-line
straight line segments,
segments and INTOL/ and OUTTOL/ statements
postprocessor for that tool: dictate the number of straight-line segments to be generated.
FEDRAT/ 4.5
MACHIN/ DRILL, 3 INTOL/ 0.0015
SPINDL/ : gives the spindle rotation speed in revolutions per
COOLNT/ : allows the coolant fluid to be turned on or off: OUTTOL/ 0.001
minute:
i
COOLNT/ MIST SPINDL/ 850
COOLNT/ FLOOD TURRET/ : can be used to call a specific tool from an automatic
COOLNT/ OFF t l changer:
tool h
TURRET/ 11
190 191 192
Machining Specifications Machining Specifications IES‐2008

Name the four types of statements in a complete APT
PARTNO: identifies the part program and is inserted at the start of FINI: specifies the end of the program. part program. Prepare part program for geometry
the program.
program description
p of the contour shown in the figure
g below:
Y
[15‐Marks]
CLPRNT: indicates that a cutter location printout is desired. 30 40
CUTTER: specifies a cutter diameter for offset (rough versus finish 20
L2 C1
g) If a milling
cutting). g cutter is 0.5 in. in diameter and we have L3 20
R
135°
CUTTER/ 0.6
then the tool will be offset from the finish cut by 0.05 in. L4
80 L1
C2
L5
20
R P1
P2 20
X
193 194 195
30 40
20
Answer: Contd….
P5 PARTNO CONTOUR CUTTER/25.0
L2 C1 TOLER/0.1
L3 20 MACHIN/MILL,, 1
R
135° CLPRNT INTOL/0.05
p4 P3
UNITS/MM OUTTOL/0.05
P0 = POINT/0
POINT/0.0,
0 0.0,
0 0 0.0
00 FEDRAT/200
L4
P1 = POINT/110.0, 20.0, 0.0 SPINDL/500, CLW
80 L1 P2 = POINT/20.0, 20.0, 0.0 COOLNT/ON
C2 P3 = POINT/90.0, 110.0, 0.0 FROM/P0
L5 P4 = POINT/20.0, 100.0, 0.0
20 GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, L5
R P1 P5 = POINT/50
POINT/50.0,
0 130.0,
130 0 0.0
00
P2 20 GOLFT/L1, PAST, L2
X L1 = LINE/P2, ATANGL, 90, XAXIS
L2 = LINE/P4, ANTNGL, 45, XAXIS GORGT/L2, PAST, L3
L3 = LINE/P5, ATANGL, 135, L2 GORGT/L3 TANTO,
GORGT/L3, TANTO C1
L4 = LINE/P1, PERPTO, L3 GOFWD/C1, PAST, L4
L5 = LINE/P1,
LINE/P1 PERPTO,
PERPTO L4 GOFWD/L4 PAST,
GOFWD/L4, PAST C2
C1=CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 20.0 GORGT/C2, PAST, L5
C2=CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 20.0 GORGT/L5, PAST, L1
PL1=PLANE/P1, P2, P3
196 197 198
Contd….
RAPID IES ‐ 1997 IES ‐ 1995
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF Which
f ll i are valid
lid statements forf In
I APT language,
l the
h cutter motion
i in
i incremental
i l
SPINDL/OFF point to point motion of the tool in APT language? coordinate mode is addressed as
END
FINI 1. GO/TO/............ (a) GO/TO/.....
2 GO DLTA/............
2. DLTA/ (b) GO/TO.....
GO/TO
3. GO/TO, ………. (c) GO DLTA/....
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (d) GO FWD/...
( ) 1 and
(a) d2 (b) 2 and d3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
199 200 201
GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE ‐2008 (PI) CAD
Suppose point P1 in APT programming is coded by statement
P1 = POINT/XSMALL, INTOF, LN1, CR1 Computer Aided Design (CAD): Used for creating the
The
h coded
d d geometric situation without
h causing error is product database
y Geometric Modeling
y Engineering Analysis
l
y D i Review
Design R i and
d Evaluation
E l i
y A t
Automated
t d Drafting
D fti
202 203 204
C
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Aid d M f i (CAM)
CAM
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM):
d d f ( ) Computer Numerically Controlled Machine Tools (CNC)
CAD
y Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
p g( )
y Computerized material Resource Planning (MRP) Distributed Numerically controlled machine Tools (DNC)
y NC part programming
Robots
y Robot Programming
y Computerized Scheduling
Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)
y Computerized process control
Computer Aided Computer Aided y Computerized Manufacturing Control by FMS Automated material handling System (AMH)
D i &
Design & E i
Engineering
i y Shop floor control
Sh fl t l
y Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC) Automated storage and retrieval Systems (AS/RS)
Drafting (CADD)
g( ) ((CAE))
y Computer Aided Inspection
205 206 207
IES ‐ 2006 Automation
y Automation is the process of following a predetermined
Which
Whi h item
i best
b describes
d ib a CAM technology?
h l ? ISRO‐2011 sequence of operations with little or no human intervention,
intervention
using specialized equipment and devices that perform and
((a)) Geometric modeling
g ((b)) Documentation control the manufacturing gp
process.
I CAM,
In CAM " Part
P t programming"
i " refers
f to t Why go for Automation?
(c) Drafting (d) Numerical control
1. Increased productivity
p y
(a) Generation of cutter location data
2. Reduced cost of labour
(b) On‐line
On line Inspection 3. Improved quality
4. Reduced in‐process inventory
(c) Machine Selection 5 Reduce Manufacturing time
5.
6. Increased safety
(d) Tool Selection There are three types of Automation
1. Fixed Automation
2 Flexible Automation
2.
208 209
3. Programmable Automation 210
Fixed Automation or Hard automation

Fixed Automation or Hard automation Flexible Automation
Flexible Automation
y Used to produce a standardized product, High initial IES‐2020 Prelims y It is also known as FMS,, and uses C
CAD/CAM
/C
investment for custom‐engineered equipment Hard
H d automation i is
i also
l called
ll d
y High investment for a custom‐engineered system
y Used for very large quantity production (Mass (a) Selective automation
Production) of one or few marginally different y Produce different products on the same equipment in
components Relatively inflexible in accommodating
components.
(b) Total automation anyy order or mix. Continuous p production of variable
product variety. (c) Group technology mixtures of products
y Highly specialized tools, devices, equipment, special (d)Fixed position automation y Medium
M di P d ti Rates
Production R t
purpose
p p machine tools,, are utilized to p produce a y Flexibility
y to deal with product design
g variations
product. y e.g., CNC milling machine
y Very efficient,
efficient high production rate , low unit cost.
cost
y e.g., single spindle and multi‐spindle lathes, sewing,
small parts.
211 212 213
Programmable Automation
Programmable Automation IES ‐ 2012
yC
Can change
g the design
g of the p
product or even change
g the
Programmable automation is suitable for
product by changing the program.
(a) Low production volume and large varieties of parts
y Used for the low quantity production of large number of
different components. (b) Low production volume and small varieties of parts
y Equipment are designed to be flexible or programmable.

( )
(c) High production volume and small varieties of parts
High investment in general purpose equipment (d) Hi h d i l

(d) High production volume and large varieties of parts
d l i i f
y Most suitable for batch production

y Lower production rates than fixed automation
214 215 216
What is an FMS? FMS Components FMS Goals
y A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a y Reduction in manufacturing cost by lowering direct
y Most FMS systems comprise of three main
manufacturing system in which there is some labor cost and minimizing scrap, re‐work, and material
systems
y
amount off flexibility
fl ibili that
h allows
ll the
h system to wastage.
t
y Work machines (typically automated CNC
react in the case of changes.
g y Less skilled labor required.
q
machines) that perform a series of operations;
y Two categories of flexibility y Reduction in work‐in‐process inventory by eliminating
y An integrated material transport system and a
y Machine
M hi flexibility,
fl ibilit covers the
th system's
t ' ability
bilit to
t be
b the need for batch processing.
processing
computer that controls the flow of materials,
changed to produce new product types, and ability to tools,, and information ((e.g.
g machining g data y Reduction in production lead time permitting
change
h the
h order
d off operations
i executed
d on a part. manufacturers to respond more quickly to the variability
and machine malfunctions) throughout the
y Routing g flexibility,
y which consists of the abilityy to of market demand.
system;
use multiple machines to perform the same operation y Better process control resulting in consistent quality.
on a ppart, as well as the system's
y abilityy to absorb y Auxiliary work stations for loading and
large‐scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or unloading,
l d cleaning,
l inspection, etc.
capability. 217 218 219
Advantages of FMS Disadvantages of FMS IES ‐ 1996

y Faster,
F t lower‐
l costt changes
h from
f one partt to
t another
th y Limited
Li i d ability
bili to adapt
d to changes
h in
i product
d or product
d Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?
Whi h f h f ll i i l h d?
which will improve capital utilization mix (e.g., machines are of limited capacity and the 1. CNC machine…… Post processor
p
y Lower direct labor cost, due to the reduction in number tooling necessary for products, even of the same family,
of workers 2. Machining centre….Tool magazine
is not always
y feasible in a g
given FMS))
y Reduced inventory, due to the planning and 3. DNC…………. FMS
DNC FMS
y Substantial pre‐planning activity
programming
p g gp
precision ((a)) 1, 2 and 3
, 3 ((b)) 1 and 2
y Expensive, costing millions
ll off dollars
d ll
y Consistent and better quality, due to the automated (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
control y Technological
ec o og ca p problems
ob e s o of eexact
act co
component
po e t pos
positioning
to g
y Lower cost/unit of output, due to the greater and precise timing necessary to process a component
productivity
d ti it using
i the
th same number b off workers
k y Sophisticated
S hi ti t d manufacturing
f t i systems t
y Savings from the indirect labor, from reduced errors,
rework, repairs and rejects
220 221 222
IES ‐ 2006 IES ‐ 2004 IES – 2019 Prelims.

l
Flexible
Fl ibl manufacturing
f i allows
ll for:
f Consider
C id theh following
f ll i characteristics:
h i i Which
Whi h one off the
h following
f ll i systems is
i consisting
i i
((a)) Tool designg and pproduction g machine tool
1. Single of processing stations, material handling and
(b) Automated design 2. Manual materials handling system storage, computer control system and human
( ) Quick
(c) Q i k and d inexpensive
i i product
d change
h 3. Computer
C controll l b ?
labour?
((d)) Q
Qualityy control 4. Random sequencing
4 q g of p
parts to machines (a) Portable manufacturing system
Which of the above characteristics are associated with (b) Focused integrated system
fl ibl manufacturing
flexible f t i system?t ?
(c) Flexible manufacturing system
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 (d) Automated
A d integrated
i d system
223 224 225
IES ‐ 2012 C
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
t I t t dM f t i (CIM) C
t I t t dM f t i (CIM)
y A number
u be oof act v t es aand
activities d ope at o s vviz.. des
operations g g,
designing, y The Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) defined CIM
y g g ( )
Rank order clustering as applied to manufacturing
R k d l i li d f i as
analyzing, testing, manufacturing, packaging, quality
automation is
control etc.
control, etc are involved in the life cycle of a product or
(a) A technique of identifying process sequence in a system. ‘CIM is the integration of the total manufacturing
production of a component
y Application of principles of automation to each of these enterprise through the use of integrated systems
(b) A just in time (JIT) method activities enhances the p productivityy onlyy at the
(c) An approach of grouping the machines into cells in individual level. These are termed as ‘ islands of and
d data
d communications coupled
l d with
h new
a
an FMS system
S syste automation' .
automation
managerial
i l philosophies
hil hi that
h i
improve
(d) A tool to generate bill of materials y Integrating all these islands of automation into a single
system
t enhances
h th overall
the ll productivity.
d ti it organizational
i ti l and
d personall efficiency'.
ffi i '
y Such a system
y is called as “ Computerp Integrated
g
Manufacturing (CIM)”.
226 227 228
C
t I t t dM f t i (CIM) C
t I t t dM f t i (CIM)
y CIM basically involves the integration of advanced yC M bas
CIM ca y involves
basically vo ves tthee integration
teg at o oof adva ced
advanced
technologies such as computer aided design (CAD), technologies such as computer aided design (CAD), Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
computer aided manufacturing (CAM),(CAM) computer
computer aided manufacturing (CAM), computer
numerical control (CNC), robots, automated material
numerical control (CNC),
(CNC) robots,
robots automated material h dli systems,
handling t etc.
t
handling systems, etc. y Todayy CIM has moved a step p ahead byy includingg and
y Today CIM has moved a step ahead by including and integrating the business improvement activities such as
integrating the business improvement
impro ement activities
acti ities such as customer satisfaction, total quality and continuous Computer aided
improvement. These activities are now managed by Management Planning (CAP) &
customer satisfaction, total quality and continuous
computers.
computers Information system C
Computer aided
id d
improvement. These activities are now managed by
((MIS)
) Process Planning
computers.
t (CAPP)
229 230 231
CIM: Advantages
g
y Nicely suited for batch due to the high flexibility and
l df b hd h h h fl b l d CIM Ad t
CIM: Advantages CIM Di Ad t
CIM: Dis‐Advantages
automation of CIM systems y Higher quality of finish
g q y y A detailed manufacturing gp q
plan is required.
y Suited for volume and mass due to the fully automated y More choice, Can design in own requirements y It requires an expensive investment.
nature of CIM y cheaper products y The hourly price rate is high.
high
y Monitoring of system at all times y Parts easily manufactured and changed y Compared to conventional machines require more
y Great machine utilisation y Random introduction of parts careful
f l handling
h dli and d maintenance.
i
y Fewer errors and waste y Less lead time y Cutting
g speeds
p must be used and high
g qqualityy cutting.
g
y Improvements in productivity and quality control y Higher quality of finish y Periodic maintenance should be performed regularly by
y Greater consistency y System is constantly monitored soil there is a
S t i t tl it d il th i experts and authorized persons.
y Cheaper products breakdown: the type and location of breakdown is easily y Involve difficulties in adapting working patterns of new
y Parts easily manufactured and changed
P il f d d h d id tifi d ki i t
identified making maintenance easier
i technology
y Less lead time y reduces cost of maintenance y Workers training needed.
y Less labor y After the high initial greater profits will be achieved y Reduction in short term profit.
232 233 234
IES 2017 (Pre)
IES‐2017 (Pre) Lean Production
Lean Production Ten steps to lean production
Ten steps to lean production
g
Consider the following benefits of CIM: y A manufacturing strategy is presented that attacks the y Step
Step‐I:: Design
es g oor Reco gu e tthee Ma
Reconfigure u actu g
Manufacturing
materials cost, indirect costs, and general System‐Design cells and manufacturing system with
1. Less direct labour administration costs in addition to labour costs. The Internal and External Customers in Mind.
Mind Internal
2. Less scrap and rework material costs include the cost of storing and handling customers are employees.
3. Higher machine use
Hi h hi the materials within the plant. The strategy is called lean
y Step‐II: Setup Reduction – Changing Methods and
production.
Which of the above are correct? changing
g g designs
g of toolingg and dies to reduce setup
p
time. Do SMED everywhere. SMED = Single Minute
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only y In the 1980s
9 a strategy
gy veryy different from CIM has Exchange of Dies.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only emerged. This new strategy requires a systems‐level y Step‐III: Integrate Quality Control into the
change for the factory,
factory a change that will affect every manufacturing
f t i system.
t I
Inspect
t to
t preventt defects.
d f t
segment of the company, from accounting to shipping, Pokayokes. Empower the internal customers. Every
that begins with the manufacturing system.
system worker is an inspector.
235 236 237

Ten steps to lean production Ten steps to lean production
Types of Material Handling Devices
y Step‐IV: Integrate Preventive Maintenance ‐ Make y Step‐VIII: Integrate the Vendors ‐ making them JIT y Industrial truck
machines
hi andd people
l reliable
li bl and d dependable.
d d bl ffolks.
lk DoD steps
t 1‐7.
y Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
y Step‐V:
p Level & Balance the manufacturing g system
y ‐ y Step‐IX:
p Autonomation = Automate + Robotize +
Smoothing the material flow. Computerize y Conveyors
y Step‐VI:
Step VI: Integrate Production Control ‐ begin to pull y Step‐X
Step X Restructure the rest of the company
y Cranes and Hoists
material to final assembly linking the cells to final
assembly.
bl Integrate
I t t kanban
k b pull. ll Minimize
Mi i i information.
i f ti
y Step‐VII:
p Integrate
g Inventoryy Control ‐ Reduce WIP in
the links.
238 239 240
IES-2010 Conv. IES‐2016 GATE 2019 (PI)

GATE‐2019 (PI)
Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) Statement (I) : Automated guided vehicle (AGV) is a The layout for an AGV
y These are battery‐powered, driverless vehicles for automatic programmable
bl mobilebil vehicle
hi l without
ith t human
h system is
i shown
h in
i figure.
fi
transport of parts and tooling on the shop floor. intervention and used for material handling. The loading time is 0.5
y These moves on fixed paths laid underneath the factory minutes and the
Statement (II) : Automated storage and retrieval
p
floor, and transport materials from the workstation to storage
g unloading time is also 0.5
locations, load stations, etc. system (AS/RS) is a part of CNC machine and used minutes. All distances are
y Thoughg the p path of travel is laid underneath the factoryy for machining operation. in meters. Considering a
floor, it is made of segments which allow the AGV to have a (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and vehicle velocity of 50
flexible p path. These are one of the first choices for ( ) p ()
Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I). m/min, availabilityy of 0.95
95
automating the material movement. and traffic factor of 0.9,
y A class of AGVs called rail‐guided
g vehicles ((RGVs)) have fixed Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I).
Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I) the number of vehicles
rails on which they move. This is far more restricted in terms required to satisfy a
of the path the RGV can take and service only a few (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false.
demand of 50
workstations. (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true delivery/hour is_____
241 242 243
FMC‐Flexible
FMC machining cell
Flexible machining cell
y An arrangement with more than one machining centre
with integrated material handling arrangement is
called as FMC.
244 245
Robotics IES‐2017 Syllabus
IES‐2017 Syllabus
y Robotics
y Robot Classification
y Robot Specification, notation
p , T
Transformations
f ti
y Direct and Inverse Kinematics
y Homogeneous Coordinates and Arm Equation of four
Axis SCARA Robot
1 2 3
Matrix Multiplication : Mondal’s Method Matrix Multiplication : Mondal’s Method Matrix Multiplication : Mondal’s Method

Step‐1: Step‐2:
Step 2:
Example:
p Write first matrix no of times equal to the no of In second matrix the elements which is present
columns present in second matrix. Here second vertically will be multiplied horizontally.
matrix has 2 columns so we have to write first ⎡ a1 × l1 b1 × m1 c1 × n1 a1 × l2 b1 × m2 c1 × n2 ⎤
⎡ a1 b1 c1 ⎤ ⎡ l1 l2 ⎤ matrix twice. ⎢ a b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 ⎥⎥
⎢a b2 c2 ⎥⎥ ⎢m m2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2
⎢ 2 ⎢ 1 ⎡ a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 ⎤ ⎢⎣ a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ a3 c3 ⎥⎦ ( 4×3) ⎢⎣ n1 n2 ⎥⎦ ( 3×2) ⎢a c2 ⎥⎥
b3
⎢ 2 b2 c2 a2 b2 ⎡ a1 × l1 b1 × m1 c1 × n1 a1 × l2 b1 × m2 c1 × n2 ⎤
⎢a × l b × m c × n c2 × n2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 1 2 1 2 1 a2 × l2 b2 × m2
4 5
⎢⎣ a3 × l1 b3 × m1 c3 × n1 a3 × l2 b3 × m2 c3 × n2 ⎥⎦
6
Matrix Multiplication : Mondal’s Method 2D Transformations 1. Translation

Given a 2D object,
object transformation is to change the object
object’ss
y Re‐position a point along a straight line
Step‐3: add 1 Position (translation)
1. y Given a point (x, y), and the translation distance (t
Given a point (x y) and the translation distance (tx, t
ty)
⎡ a1 × l1 + b1 × m1 + c1 × n1 a1 × l2 + b1 × m2 + c1 × n2 ⎤ 2. Orientation (rotation) The new point: (x’, y’)
⎢a × l + b × m + c × n a2 × l2 + b2 × m2 + c2 × n2 ⎥⎥ x’ = x + tx
⎢ 2 1 2 1 2 1
33. Mirror image
g ((Reflections )
⎢⎣ a3 × l1 + b3 × m1 + c3 × n1 yy’ = y + t
y + ty
a3 × l2 + b3 × m2 + c3 × n2 ⎥⎦
4. Size ((scaling)
4 g) y In Matrix form
5. Shapes (shear) ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡t x ⎤ ⎡ x + t x ⎤
⎢ y ⎥ + ⎢t ⎥ = ⎢ y + t ⎥
All transformations are Euclidean Transformations ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ y⎦ ⎣ y⎦
7 8 9
2. Rotation GATE‐2014
y Homogeneous transformation matrix of translation A robot arm PQ with end coordinates P(0, 0) and Q(2, 5)
⎡1 0 t x ⎤ (i) Rotation about origin rotates counter clockwise about P in the XY plane by 90

l k b h l b o.
Txy = ⎢⎢0 1 t y ⎥⎥
(ii) Rotation about any arbitrary Point P The new coordinate pair of the end point Q is
(a) (–2 5)
(a) (–2, 5) (b) (–5 2)
(b) (–5, 2)
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
(c) (–55, –2)
(c) ( 2) (d) (2 –5)
(d) (2, 5)
10 11 12
GATE‐2019 GATE‐2016 MCQ

uuur
The position vector O P of P(20,
P(20 10) is rotated anti‐
anti The figure below represents a triangle PQR with initial
clockwise in X‐Y plane by an angle θ = 30° such that the coordinates of the vertices as P(1,3), Q(4,5) and R(5,3.5). Point P(3, 1) is to be scaled by a factor of 2 and then
point
i P occupies i position
i i Q,Q as shown
h i the
in h figure.
fi Th
The The triangle is rotated in the X‐Y
X Y plane about the vertex
P by angle θ in clockwise direction. If sinθ = 0.6 and cosθ rotated by 45° in the counter clockwise direction.
coordinates (x, y) of Q are
= 0.8,
0 8 the new coordinates of the vertex Q are C di
Coordinates off the
h new point
i are:
(a) (13.40, 22.32)
(a) (4.6, 2.8) ( ) (4, )
(a) (4, 8 ) ( )(
(b) (2.828, 5.657 )
, 5 57 )
(b) (18.66,
( 8 66 12.32))
(b) (3.2, 4.6) (c) (6, 2 ) (d) (5.657, ‐2.828)
(c) (22.32,
3 8.26) (c) (7.9, 5.5)
(d) (12.32, 18.66) (d) (5.5, 7.9)
13 14 15
3 R fl ti
3. Reflections GATE‐2013
(i) x‐axis reflections In a CAD package, mirror image of a 2D point
GATE‐2019
P(5,10)
( ) is to be
b obtained
b d about
b a line
l which
h h passes The transformation matrix for mirroring a
(ii) y –axis reflections
point in x‐y plane about the line y = x is
( ) Reflection about origin
(iii) through the origin and makes an angle of 45o given by
b
counterclockwise with the X
X‐axis.
axis. The coordinates
(i ) Reflections about y = x line
(iv) R fl i b li ⎡ −1 0 ⎤ ⎡0 1 ⎤
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥
of the transformed point will be ⎣ 0 1⎦ ⎣1 0 ⎦
( ) Reflection about y = ‐x line
(v) R fl i b li
(a) (7.5, 5) (b) (10, 5) (c) (7.5, ‐5) (d) (10, ‐5) ⎡ 0 −1⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
(c ) ⎢ ⎥ (d ) ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 −1⎦
16 17 18
4. Scaling 5. Shear 3D Transformations
1. Co‐ordinate Frames
2. Mappings
3. Generalized homogeneous transformation
matrix
4. Transformation of vectors
19 20 21
C
Co‐ordinate Frames
di t F Mappings MCQ for IES only
Mapping refers to changing the description of a point (or
vector) in space from one frame to another frame with
reference
f t robotic
to b ti manipulation
i l ti and d control.
t l
Select the CORRECT statement from the following:
(a) II frame is rotated with respect to the I frame, the origin
of both the frames is same. This is referred as changing g g the
orientation.
(b) II frame is moved away from the I frame,
frame the axes of both
frames remain parallel. This is a translation of the origin of
the II frame from the I frame in space
(c) II frame is rotated with respect to the I frame and moved
away from
f it, i.e., the
h II frame
f is translated
l d and d its orientation
22 23 is also changed. (d)All of these 24
IES 2018 (Prelims)

IES‐2018 (Prelims)
Generalized homogeneous
Generalized homogeneous Consider the following g statements regarding
homogeneous coordinate transformation matrix:
g g 3D Translations of a Vector
3D Translations of a Vector
1. A homogeneous transformation matrix can be
transformation matrix
transformation matrix considered to consist of four sub‐matrices.
(HTM) 2 The upper left 3 × 3 sub‐matrix
2.
position vector.
sub matrix represents the
3. The
Th upper right
i ht 3 × 1 sub‐matrix
b t i representst the
th
rotation matrix.
4. The lower left 1 × 3 sub‐matrix represents perspective
transformation.
Which of the above statements are correct ?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
25 26 27
3D Translations of Frames
3D Translations of Frames Example IES‐2020 Prelims
Consider a frame {2} which is obtained from the For the vector v = 25i + 10j + 20k, perform a
frame {1} by translating it 2 units along y and 1 translation by a distance of 8 in the x‐
unit along z. Find HTM and 1P if 2P = [ 0 2 3 ]T direction, 5 in the y‐direction and 0 in the z‐
direction. The translated vector Hv, will be
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡33 ⎤ ⎡15 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
⎢ 20 ⎥ ⎢15 ⎥ ⎢33 ⎥ ⎢15 ⎥
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥ (c ) ⎢ ⎥ (d ) ⎢ ⎥
⎢33 ⎥ ⎢ 20 ⎥ ⎢1 ⎥ ⎢ 20 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣15 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦ ⎣ 20 ⎦ ⎣33 ⎦
28 29 30
3D R
3D Rotation of a Vector
i f V IES 2019 (Prelims)
Rotate the vector v = 55i + 3j + 8k byy an angle
g of
3D Rotation
3D Rotation 90° about the x‐axis. The rotated vector (Hv)
Example
p would be
Principal Axis Rotation
p The co‐ordinate of p
point P in frame {{1}} are ⎡1⎤ ⎡ −8⎤ ⎡3⎤ ⎡5⎤
⎢3⎥ ⎢5⎥ ⎢ −8⎥ ⎢ −8⎥
[ 3 2 1 ]T . The p
position vector P is rotated
(a) ⎢ ⎥ (b) ⎢ ⎥ (c ) ⎢ ⎥ (d ) ⎢ ⎥
about the z axis byy 45o . Find the co‐ordinate of ⎢ −8⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⎢5⎥ ⎢3⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
point Q, the new position of P. ⎣5⎦ ⎣3⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣1⎦
31 32 33
GATE 2016
GATE‐2016 3D R
3D Rotation of Frames
i fF T
Translation and rotation combined
l i d i bi d
A point
i t P(1,
P( 3, ‐5)) is
i translated
t l t d by
b 2îî + 3ĵĵ ‐ 4k
k and
d then
th
rotated counter clockwise by 90o about the z
z‐axis.
axis. The Example
p Example
p
new position of the point is Frame {{2}} is obtained from the frame {{1}} byy Frame {{2}} is rotated w.r.t frame {{1}} about the x‐
(a) (‐6, 3, ‐9)
rotating g of 330o.
g it about its z – axis byy an angle g of 60o. The p
axis byy angle position of the origin
g
(b) (‐6, ‐3, ‐9)
Find HTM. of frame {2} as seen from frame {1} is 1D2 = [ 7 5
(c) (6, 3, ‐9)
7 ]T. Obtain the transformation matrix 1T2 and
(d) (6, 3, 9)
1P if 2P = [ 2 4 6 ]T.
34 35 36
Representation of a frame Relative
Representation of a frame Relative Representation of a Rigid body in
Representation of a Rigid body in D
Description of Object
i ti f Obj t
to a fixed reference frame.
to a fixed reference frame space e ttransformation
The a s o at o matrix
at o tthe
T for e e d e ecto
end‐effector
with respect to the coordinate frame {n o a} is
written as
⎡ nx ox ax px ⎤ ⎡ nx ox ax px ⎤ ⎡ nx ox a x d x ⎤
⎢ n o a d ⎥ ⎡ r r r ur ⎤
⎢n p y ⎥⎥ ⎢n p y ⎥⎥ n o a d
oy ay oy ay T =⎢ y y y y⎥
=⎢ ⎥
F =⎢ y Fobject =⎢ y ⎢ nz oz a z d z ⎥ ⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎦
⎢ nz oz az pz ⎥ ⎢ nz oz az pz ⎥ ⎢
⎣0 0 0 1⎦
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ r
⎣0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣0 0 0 1⎦ In th e tra n s fo rm a tio n m a trix T , th e v e c to r d is
th e tra n s la tio n o f e n d − e ffe c to r fra m e fro m th e
r r r
re fe re n c e fra m e a n d v e c to rs ( n , o , a ) d e s c rib e
37 38
th e o rie n ta tio n o f e n d − e ffe c to r. 39
r r r Rotation Matrix R (For IES Only)
The vectors n, o, and a represent the X, Y, Z r r r
Orientation is specified by the submatrix R. The vectors n, o and a are in three mutually
axes of the end − effector frame.
This is general rotation matrix. perpendicular directions and hence the
Matrix T is applicable
pp to any
y co-ordinate
⎡ xˆ.uˆ xˆ.vˆ xˆ.wˆ ⎤ ⎡ nx ox ax ⎤ rotation
i matrix i R is
i an Orthogonal
O h l
frame and any y joint
j of the manipulator.
p
r R = ⎢⎢ yˆ .uˆ yˆ .vˆ yˆ .wˆ ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ n y oy a y ⎥⎥ T
Transformation
f i . Because
B the
h vectors
n is normal vector in the X axis.
r ⎢⎣ zˆ.uˆ zˆ.vˆ zˆ.wˆ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ nz oz az ⎥⎦ i the
in th dot
d t products
d t are all
ll unit
it vectors,
t
o is orientation vector in the Y axis.
r it is
i also
l called
ll d Orthonormal
O th lTTransformation
f ti .
a is approach
pp vector in the Z axis.
40 41 42
3.The vector pproduct of two different columns

1.The scalar dot p
product of two different 2.The scalar dot product of any column with gives the third column in a cyclic order, that is
r r r
columns is zero, that is itself is unity, that is n × o = a .....(7)
rr rr r r r
n.o = 0 or nx ox + n y o y + nz oz = 0 .....(1) n.n = 1 or nx2 + n y2 + nz2 = 1 .....(4) o × a = n .....(8)
rr rr r r r
o.a = 0 or ox ax + o y a y + oz az = 0 .....(2) o.o = 1 or ox2 + o y2 + oz2 = 1 .....(5)
( ) a × n = o .....(9)
rr rr iˆ ˆj kˆ
a.n = 0 or ax nx + a y n y + az nz = 0 .....(3)
( ) a.a = 1 or ax2 + a y2 + az2 = 1 .....(6)
nx ny nz = ax iˆ + a y ˆj + az kˆ
ox oy oz
43 44 45
4.The determinant of the rotation matrix is unity, MCQ for IES only
This means that the orientation is completely
r r that is How many variables of a rotational transformation
defined by any two of the three vectors n, o matrix are independent?
r nx ox ax
q
and a from this three equations yyou mayy (a) 9 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 6
ny oy ay = 1
replace
p first three equations.
q This cross p
product nz oz az
equations are recommended because it indicate
correct Right Handed Frame but dot product
5 R −1 = RT
5. and RRT = I
equations are scalar and same for Left hand
Only
O l three
th off the
th nine
i elements
l t are independent
i d d t or, the
th
and Right hand frame. 46 rotation matrix representation has redundancy. 47 48
MCQ for IES only MCQ for IES only MCQ for IES only

Consider the following statements regarding robotics: Which of the following can be matrix representation of a In homogeneous transformation matrix
All rotational transformation matrix are orthogonal frame?
1. ⎡ 2R 2
D1 ⎤
matrix. ⎡0.707 0 1 7⎤ ⎡ 0.707 0 0.707 7⎤ T1 = ⎢ 1
2
⎥
‐1 ⎢ 1 0 −0.707 5 ⎥⎥ ⎢0.707 0 −0.707 5 ⎥⎥ ⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦
2 For any rotational transformation matrix (R = RT)
2. (a) ⎢ (b) ⎢
⎢ 0 1 0 3⎥ ⎢ 0 0.707 0 3⎥ Where 2 R1 and 2 D1 is rotational transformation matrix
3. For any rotational transformation matrix (RRT = 1) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦
and translation vector respectively, Then 2T1 is
4. Scale factor σ > 1 is used for enlarging and σ < 1 is
⎡0.707 0 0.707 7 ⎤ ⎡0.707 0 −0.707 7 ⎤
used for reducing. ⎢0.707 ⎡ 2 R T 2 R1T 2 D1 ⎤ ⎡ 2 R T − 2 R1T 2 D1 ⎤
0 −0.707 5 ⎥⎥ ⎢ 0.707 0 −0.707 5 ⎥⎥ (a) ⎢ 1 (b) ⎢ 1
Which of the above statement is/are correct? (c ) ⎢ (d ) ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ 0 1 0 3⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 3⎥ ⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦
( ) 1 and 2
(a) ( ) 1, 2 and 3
(b) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦ ⎡ 1R T − 1R2T 1D2 ⎤ ⎡ R
1 T 1
R2 D2 ⎤
T 1
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) ⎢ 2 ⎥ (d) ⎢ 2 ⎥
49 50
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦
51
MCQ for IES only Example for IES Only

Example for IES Only
In this case, assume the same p point pp(7, 33, 1)T, attached Answer:
Consider 2 frames x, x y,
y z and u,
u v,
v w with a common
to Fnoa is subjected to the same The matrix equation representing the transformation is:
origin. Let there be a point P in the space such that 1P transformations, but the transformations are performed
and 2P represent position vector 0f point P with respect in a different order. Find the coordinates of the point pxyz = Ry ( 90 ) × Trans ( 4, − 3, 7 ) × Rz ( 90 ) × pnoa
to x, y, z and u, v, w frame respectively. relative to the reference frame at the conclusion of
⎡0 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 4 ⎤ ⎡ 0 −1 0 0⎤ ⎡7 ⎤ ⎡ 8 ⎤
Given: 2P = 2R1[1P] transformations. ⎢0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0 1 0 −3⎥⎥ ⎢⎢1 0 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 3 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 4 ⎥⎥
2
Where R1 is rotation matrix. Then R1 can be written as
2 1. A rotation of 90° about the z‐axis, =⎢ × × × =
⎢ −1 0 0 0⎥ ⎢0 0 1 7 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ −1⎥
2 Followed by a translation of [4, ‐3,
2. 3, 7], ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡ uˆ.xˆ uˆ. yˆ uˆ.zˆ ⎤ ⎡ xˆ.uˆ xˆ.vˆ xˆ.wˆ ⎤ ⎡ uˆ.zˆ uˆ. yˆ uˆ.xˆ ⎤ ⎡ xˆ.wˆ xˆ.vˆ xˆ.uˆ ⎤
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
(a ) ⎢⎢ vˆ.xˆ vˆ. yˆ vˆ.zˆ ⎥⎥ (b) ⎢ˆ ˆ yˆ.vˆ yˆ .wˆ ⎥⎥ (c) ⎢ vˆ.zˆ vˆ. yˆ vˆ.xˆ ⎥ (d ) ⎢ yˆ.wˆ yˆ.vˆ yˆ .uˆ ⎥⎥ 3. Followed by a rotation of 90° about the y‐axis.
⎢ y.u ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ wˆ .xˆ wˆ . yˆ wˆ .zˆ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ zˆ.uˆ zˆ.vˆ zˆ.wˆ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ wˆ .zˆ wˆ . yˆ wˆ .xˆ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ zˆ.wˆ zˆ.vˆ zˆ.uˆ ⎥⎦
52 53 54
Example for IES Only Example for IES Only
In this case, assume the same p p(7, 33, 1)T, attached
point p Answer: A frame F was rotated about the yy‐axis 990°, followed byy a
to Fnoa is subjected to the same The matrix equation representing the transformation is: rotation about the 0‐axis, 30°, followed by a translation
transformations, but the transformations are performed of 5 units along the n
n‐axis,
axis, and finally, a translation of 4
in a different order. pxyz = Ra ( 90 ) × Trans ( 4, − 3, 7 ) × Ro ( 90 ) × pnoa units along the x‐axis. Find the total transformation
Fi d the
Find th coordinates
di t off the
th point
i t relative
l ti tot the
th reference
f matrix.
matrix
⎡ 0 −1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 4 ⎤⎡ 0 0 1 0⎤ ⎡7 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
frame after transformations are completed ⎢1 0 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0 1 0 −3⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 5⎥⎥
1. A rotation of 90° about the a‐axis, =⎢ × × =
⎢0 0 1 0⎥ ⎢0 0 1 7 ⎥ ⎢ −1 0 0 0⎥ ⎢1 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
2 Then a translation of [4,
2. [4 ‐3,
3 7] along n‐,
n o‐,
o a‐axes
a axes ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦
3. Followed by a rotation of 90° about the o‐axis.
55 56 57
Answer:
The following set of matrices, written in the proper order to
represent transformations relative to the reference frame or
the current frame describes the total transformation:
Origin of the word ROBOT
Origin of the word ‘ROBOT’ Objective Question
Objective Question
T = Trans(4,
(4 0,
0 0) x Ry(90) x Ro (30) x Trans(5,
(5 0,
0 0) y Origin of the word ‘robot’
robot can be traced in the Czech Robot is derived from a Czech word
⎡1 0 0 4⎤ ⎡ 0 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0.866 0 0.5 0 ⎤ word ‘robota’, which means ‘forced’ or compulsory
p y (a) Rabota
⎢0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥
=⎢ × × × labour. (b) Robota
⎢0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ −1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ −0.5
05 866 0 ⎥
0 00.866
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ( )
(c ) Rebota
⎣0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦
(d) Ribota
⎡1 0 0 5 ⎤ ⎡ −0.5 0 0.866 1.5 ⎤
⎢0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢
⎢0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ −00.866
866 0 −00.55 4 33⎥
−4.33
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎦ 58 59 60
What is RUR? What is an industrial robot? IES ‐ 2006

A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional Which
f ll i is
i the
h third
hi d basic
b i
y RUR was a play. component of robots besides power supply and
manipulator
p designed
g to handle material,, pparts,, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed control (memory) console?
y The first use of the word ‘robot’ appeared in 1921
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
tasks (a) Software (b) Coaxial cable
in the play Rossum’s Universal Robots (RUR) (c) Mechanical unit arm (d) Microcomputer
written by the Czech writer Karel Capek.
y It was a fictional manufacturer of mechanical

creatures designed a robot to replace human
workers.
61 62 63
History of Robots
y 1954‐ Devol & Engleburger – establish Unimation
Generations of Robot
Generations of Robot y The
e tthird
d ge e at o robots
generation obots aaree tthose
ose eenabled
ab ed w
human intelligence. The technological growth in
t
with
y The first generation robots are the repeating, non ‐ computers led to high speed processing information
Incorporation. servo, pick and place, or point to point kind. Nearly 80% and, thus, robots also acquired artificial intelligence,
y 1961‐ Robots are used in die casting application.
of industries use these robots.
robots It has been predicted that self‐learning
lf l i andd conclusion
l i – drawing
d i capabilities
biliti
these first generation robots will continue to be in use through past experience. On‐line computation and
y 1968‐ AGVs (automated
( d guided
d d vehicles)
h l ) implemented.
l d f a long
for l time.
i control, artificial vision, and active force/ torque
y The addition of sensing g devices and enabling g the robot interaction with environments are some of the
y 1970‐ Stanford
S f d arm developed.
d l d significant characteristics of these robots. This
to alter its movement in response to sensory feed back
y 1979‐ SCARA robot
b t for
f assembly
bl developed
d l d in
i Japan.
J marked the beginning of second generation.
generation These technology is still in its infancy and has to go a long way.
robots exhibit path–control capabilities. This
technological breakthrough came around 1980s and is
64 yet to mature. 65 66
MCQ Indian Scenario

Indian Scenario
y Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR) is a
y Fourth generation may be a reality only during this Consider the following statements about first generation laboratory of the DRDO develops NETRA, an
of robots: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ((UAV).
) It is mainlyy a
millennium. It is difficult to predict its feature. It may be
1. The first generation robots are repeating, non servo, surveillance robot.
true android or artificial biological robot or a super p
pick‐and‐place, or point to point kind.
p , p p
humanoid capable of producing own clones. This might 2. The technology for these robots is fully developed and
at present about 80% robots used in the industry are of
t t b t 8 % b t d i th i d t f
provide for fifth and higher generation robots. this kind.
Select the incorrect answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) both 1 and 2 (d) neither 1 nor 2
67 68 69
Indian Scenario Indian Scenario Indian Scenario

Indian Scenario
y Developments
eve op e ts related
e ated to robotics
obot cs from
o tthe
eN S
NISTEP
y Defence
f robot
b ‘Daksh’
‘ k h’ by
b DRDO
y DRDO labs to develop military robots for next gen (National Institute of Science and Technology
y It is an electrically
y p
powered and Policy) 2030 report:
remote controlled robot which is
warfare and would be deployed in difficult warfare zones y By 2013‐2014 — Agricultural robots
used to locate,
locate handle and destroy
y By 2013‐2017 — Robots that care for the elderly
risky objects safely.
like the LoC with the abilityy to differentiate between a y By 2013 – 2020 ‐ Nano robot
y The main role of this military robot is
to recover improvised
p explosive
p y By 2015 — To have one third of its fighting capacity
threat and friend.
friend
devices. provided by robots
y This
Thi robot
b t can even climb
li b stairs.
t i y By 2017 ‐Medical
Medical robots performing low
low‐invasive
invasive surgery
Moreover, it can also scan objects y By 2017‐2019 — Household robots
using its portable X‐ray Device. Used y By 2035 — To have first completely autonomous robot
For 2021
for Bomb disposal (IES, GATE & PSUs)
also. Page 206 of 276 soldiers on the battlefield Rev.0
70 71 72
Ad t fR b t
Advantages of Robots Di d t fR b t
Disadvantages of Robots
y Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase
MCQ productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and consistency of
y Robots a e cost
are y, due to
costly,
products ¾High initial cost of equipment
Which of the following is a flying robot?
y Robots
b h
have repeatable
bl precision at all
ll times ¾High
h installation
ll costs
(a) PUMA y Robots can work in hazardous environments (Painting, welding,
¾High maintenance costs
(b) KUKA h dli toxic
handling i materials,
i l handling
h dli explosive)
l i )
(c) NETRA y Remote areas (Deep sea, space and other planets) ¾Need for programming
y Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and ¾Need for training
(d) SCARA
illnesses, need no environmental comfort.
¾Need for peripherals
y R b
Robots can be
b much h more accurate than
h humans,
h they
h may have
h
mili‐ or micro inch accuracy due to sensors.
y R b t can process multiple
Robots lti l stimuli
ti li or tasks
t k simultaneously,
i lt l y Robot can take the place of the humans in several
humans can only one.
situations,, replace
p humans,, lead to unemployment.
p y
y Robots replace human workers who can create economic
73
problems 74 75
What Can Robots Do?
Di d t fR b t
Disadvantages of Robots
y Robots a
aree not
ot intelligent
te ge t o or se t e t, They
sentient, ey ca eve
can never
improve the results of their jobs outside of their Industrial Robots
MCQ
predefined programming.
programming Which of the following places would be LEAST
•Material handling
y Incorporating industrial robots does not guarantee •Material transfer likely to include operational robots?
y p
results. Devising a specific production plan from the •Machine loading and/or unloading
beginning
g g to the end is absolutelyy crucial. •Spot welding (a) warehouse
•Continuous
C ti arc welding
ldi Material Handling
y Robots can store large amounts of data but the storage, •Spray coating
Manipulator (b) factory
access and retrieval is not as effective as the human
access, •Assembly
Assembly
( ) h
(c) chemical research laboratories
l hl b
•Inspection
brain, can perform the repetitive tasks for long but they
d nott gett better
do b tt with
ith experience
i such
h as the
th humans
h d
do. (d) private homes
Assembly
Manipulator
76 Spot Welding 77 78
Manipulator
Ai
Asimov's three laws of robotics
' h l f b i IES 2017(Prelims)
IES‐2017(Prelims) What are the four D’s of robotics?
Consider the following g statements regarding
g g
First law (Human safety): the laws of Robotics: Four D’s
y A robot may not injure a human being, being or,
or through
1. A Robot
b shall
h ll not injure a human
h b
being or, I the
Is h task k
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
through inaction, allow a human being harmed. 1 Dirty
1.
S
Second d law
l (R b
(Robots are slaves):
l )
y A robot must obey y orders ggiven it byy human beings,
g, 2. A Robot must obey orders given by humans 2. Dull
except where such orders would conflict with the First except when such orders conflict with first law. 3. Dangerous
Law.
Law 3 A Robot must always protect its own existence.
3. existence 4. Difficult
Third law (Robot survival): Which of the above statements are correct? If so,
so a human will probably not be able to do the
y A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only job efficiently for hours. Therefore, the job is
protection does not conflict with the First or Second
Law. (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 appropriate for automation or robotic labour.
79 80 81
Wrist Configurations E d Eff
End Effectors
MCQ y The special tooling for a robot that enables it to
y Wrist assembly is attached to end‐of‐arm
Wrist assembly is attached to end of arm Which of the following terms refers to the perform a specific task
y End effector is attached to wrist assembly rotational motion of a robot arm? y Two types:
yFFunction of wrist assembly is to orient end effector
i f i bl i i d ff (a) swivel y Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g.,
to grasp and manipulate objects (e g
(b) retrograde parts) during work cycle
y Body‐and‐arm determines global position of end
effector ( ) roll
(c) ll y Tools –
Tools to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray
to perform a process e g spot welding spray
painting
y Two or three degrees of freedom:
g ((d)) yyaw
y Roll
y Pitch
y Yaw
82 83 84
R b tC t lS t
Robot Control Systems IES ‐ 2000
Grippers and Tools
Grippers and Tools y Limited sequence control –
q p p
pick‐and‐place
operations using mechanical stops to set positions
Consider
C id theh following
h i i off a robot:
b
1. The tip of the robot arm moves from one point to
y Playback with point‐to‐point control –
Playback with point to point control records
another with its in‐between path not being defined.
work cycle as a sequence of points, then plays back
2. It can be used for drilling holes at difference points in a
th
the sequence during program execution
d i ti
workpiece.
y Playback with continuous path control –
y p
3. It can be used for V butt joint welding between two
greater memory capacity and/or interpolation
points.
p y p ( p
capability to execute paths (in addition to points))
4. The memory capacity required for its control unit is low.
y Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes
Which of these are the characteristics associated with a point
p
it seem intelligent e g responds to sensor inputs
it seem intelligent, e.g., responds to sensor inputs,
to point robot?
makes decisions, communicates with humans
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1,1 3 and 4
85 86 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 87
Degrees of Freedom D
Degrees of Freedom (contd.)
fF d ( td ) D
Degrees of Freedom (contd.)
fF d ( td )
y A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a ¾ The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction
y The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be
robot’s hand at any point in its work space. of the arm or the in‐and‐out motion relative to the
compared to the way in which the human body moves. y Althoughg six degreesg of freedom are needed for base.
y For each degree of freedom a joint is required. maximum flexibility, most robot employee only three to ¾ The vertical traverse: provides the up‐and‐down
g
five degrees of freedom.
motion
ti off the
th arm off the
th robotic
b ti system.
t
y The degrees of freedom located in the arm define the y The more the degrees of freedom, the greater is the
y The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist,
configuration.
fi ti complexity of motions encountered.
encountered
which bear the names of aeronautical terms, are
y The three degrees of freedom located in the arm of
y Each of the five basic motion configurations utilizes three ¾Pitch or bend: is the upup‐and‐down
and down movement of the
a robotic
b i system are:
degrees of freedom in the arm. wrist.
¾The e rotational
otat o a reverse:
eve se: iss tthee movement
ove e t o
of tthee aarm
¾Yaw:
Y i the
is h right‐and‐left
i h d l f movement off the
h wrist.
i
y Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end assembly about a rotary axis, such as left‐and‐right
swivel of the robot
robot’ss arm about a base.
base ¾Roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.
effector all the flexibility.
88 89 90
Use MCQ
y 6 (DOF) required for arbitrary task in 3D.
y Painting and welding can be done by 5 DOF The number of moveable joints in the base, the
robot.
b t arm, and the end effectors of the robot determine?
y Electronics assembly usually done by 4 DOF, ( ) degrees
(a) d off freedom
f d
SCARA robot.
(b) payload capacity
y For extra flexibility/working volume, 5 or 6 DOF
robot mounted on 2 or 3 DOF gantry or wheeled ((c)) operational
p limits
mobile robot. (d) flexibility
y Redundant robot with more than 6 DOF for
avoiding obstacles,
obstacles more flexibility etc.
etc
91 92 93
IES 2019 Prelims. MCQ
Question: Discuss various ways of classifying a
What is the minimum number of degrees of Consider
d theh following
f ll statements about
b manipulator
l in
robotics: robot.
freedom that a robot needs to have in order to
1. A manipulator with 6‐DOF is called a spatial Answer:
locate its end effectors at an arbitrary point with p
manipulator.
an arbitrary
b orientation in space? y Fixed or mobile.
mobile
2. A spatial manipulator with more than 6‐DOF is
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6 known as redundant manipulator.
manipulator y Serial or parallel.
3. A planer manipulator can only sweep a 2‐D space or a y According to degree of freedom (DOF).
plane and can have any number of degree of freedom.
freedom
y Rigid or flexible.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 y Control
C l — Point‐to‐point,
P i i autonomy andd
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1,
1 2 and 3 “intelligence”.
g
94 95 96
Types of Robot (Based on Coordinate axis)
Question: What is the difference between SERIAL y Cartesian
C t i or Gantry
G t
and PARALLEL Robot? robot(3P):
y It's
I ' a robot
b whose
h arm
has three prismatic
Answer: joints whose axes are
joints,
coincident with a
y Serial robot — A fixed base, links and joints Cartesian coordinator.
coordinator
connected sequentially and ending in a end‐ y Used for pick and place
effector
ff t work
work, application of
sealant, assembly
y Parallel robot — More than one loop, no natural operations
operations, handling
end‐effector machine tools and arc
PUMA 560 serial robot Parallel robot — welding.

97 Gough‐Stewart platform
Page 209 of 276
98
Rev.0
99
y Despite the fact that Cartesian arm gives high Types of Robot
y Cylindrical
C li d i l
precision and is easy to program, it is not robot(R2P):
y It's a robot whose axes
preferred for many applications due to limited form a cylindrical
manipulatability. coordinate system.
y Used for assembly y
y Gantry configuration is used when heavy loads operations, handling at
ac e too
machine tools,
s, spot
must be precisely moved. welding, and handling
at die casting
y The Cartesian configuration gives large work machines.
100
volume but has low dexterity. 101 102
IES 2016
IES‐2016 MCQ
A Cylindrical Robot can reach any point in a cylinder of Consider the following statements about 3‐DOF 3 DOF
a height
g L and radius 2L, except
p for the p
points in an cylindrical arm configuration and its workspace:
1. It uses a revolute joint and two perpendicular
inner cylinder of height L and radius L. The volume for
prismatic jjoints.
p
the Cylindrical Robot work envelope will be 2. Its workspace is a hollow cylinder.
(a) 9.42 L3 (b) 6.24 L3 Select
l the
h correct answer using the
h codd given below:
b l
(a) 1 only
9 12 L3
( ) 9.12
(c) 9 86 L3
(d) 9.86
(b) 2 only
( ) both 1 and 2
(c)
(d) neither 1 nor 2
103 104 105
Types of Robot Types of Robot

Types of Robot
y Its mechanical stiffness is lower than Cartesian p p
Articulated or Revolute or Anthropomorphic (3 )
Robot(3R):
y Spherical or Polar
and Cylindrical configurations y It's a robot whose arm
robot(2RP):
has at least three
y It's a robot whose rotary joints.
y The wrist positioning accuracy decreases with the
axes form a polar y Used for assembly
coordinate
di t system.
t increasing radial stroke.
stroke operations die casting,
operations, casting
fettling machines, gas
y Used for machining,
y The
Th construction
t ti is i more complex.
l welding arc welding
welding,
welding, spray and spray painting.
painting
i ti etc.
t y Needs smaller
workspace
y Ex. PUMA560
106 107 108
These five revolute (5R) joints MCQ
are associated with the basic y The anthropomorphic structure is the most Consider the following statements about articulated
manipulator movements of a configuration:
vertically articulated robot.
robot dexterous one.
1. The articulated arm is often referred as an
y Because of all joints are revolute,
revolute and the anthropomorphic
p p manipulator.
p
2. The work volume of this configuration is spherical
positioning accuracy varies with arm endpoint shaped.
h d
location in the workspace. Select the correct answer using g the codes g
given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
y The arm endpoint can reach the base point and ( ) both
(c) b th 1 and
d2 (d) neither
ith 1 nor 2
below the base.
base
109 110 111
Types of Robot
Types of Robot y SCARA has vertical major axis rotations so that
gravitational load, Coriolis, and centrifugal forces do
y SCARA robot(2R1P) y This is an example of a
not stress the structure as much as they would if the
y The SCARA acronym stands basic SCARA robot axes were horizontal. It can move very fast due to this
for Selective Compliant configuration. advantage
Assembly Robot y Note the three rotary y Best suited to planner task.
A
Arm or Selective
S l ti Compliant
C li t joints and the single y This
Thi configuration
fi ti provides
id high
hi h stiffness
tiff t the
to th arm
Articulated Robot Arm. in the vertical direction, and high compliance in the
vertical joint used in horizontal plane.
plane
y It's a robot which has two
this horizontally y It provides a larger work envelope than the Cartesian,
parallel rotary joints to
articulated
l d cylindrical,
li d i l or spherical
h i l configurations.
fi ti
provide compliance in a plane
configuration. y Disadvantages g to the revolute configuration.
g It
y Used
U d for
f pick
i k andd place
l work,
k requires a very sophisticated
h d controller,
ll and
d
application of sealant, (3R1P)(4 DOF Robot) programming is more complex than for the other
assembly operations and three
h configurations.
fi i
handling machine tools 112 113 114
IES‐2020 Prelims
IES 2018 (Prelims)
IES‐2018 (Prelims) IES 2017 (Prelims)
IES‐2017 (Prelims) Statement (I): SCARA configuration provides substantial
Consider the following features relating to g y for the robot in the vertical direction,, but
rigidity
Robot kinematics with reference to SCARA compliance in the horizontal plane.
The degrees of freedom of a SCARA robot are Robot: Statement (II): A special version of the Cartesian
1. Shoulder and elbow rotational axes are vertical. coordinate robot is the SCARA, which has a very high lift
((a)) six ((b)) five ((c)) four ((d)) three capacity as it is designed for high rigidity.
rigidity
2. The Robot could perform insertion tasks along the
vertical direction.
direction true and d Statement
S ( ) is
(II) i theh correct explanation
l i off
3. Its general configuration is analogous to that of a Statement (I)
human arm. (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
Which of the above features are correct? true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of
Statement (I)
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
115 116 117
Types of Robot IES 2016
IES‐2016
IES ‐
IES ‐ Conventional y Parallel
P ll l robot
b Which of the following Robots has application for
What are the five different types of robot systems? One use is a mobile mobile platform

p handling
g in cockpit
p flight
g
platform handling
simulators?
cockpit flight
Answer:
simulators. It's a robot (a) SCARA Robot (b) Articulated Robot
1 Cartesian or Gantry robot
1. whose
hose arms ha e
have
2. Cylindrical robot concurrent prismatic (c) Parallel Robot (d) Cylindrical Robot
3. Spherical or Polar robot or rotary joints.
4 Articulated or Revolute Robot
4.
5. SCARA robot
118 119 120
PUMA Robot
PUMA Robot IES ‐ 2012
y PUMA is an industrial robot.
The configuration of a robot using a telescoping arm that
Th fi i f b i l i h
y Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly, can be raised or lowered on a horizontal pivot mounted
or Programmable Universal Manipulation Arm) on a rotating base is called
(a) Polar
PUMA robot
y The functioning of this robot is like a human arm.
(b) Cylindrical
y A totall off 6 variables
bl are required,
d for
f specifying
f the
h (c) Cartesian coordinate
position and orientation of a rigid body in space.
space (d) Jointed arm
y Therefore PUMA has 6 axis of rotation with 1 DOF
(degree of freedom) per axis.
121 y Each DOF has an actuator for motion. 122 123
IES 2011 Classification Based On Locomotion
Trajectory of a robot mean : MCQ
y Walking Robots. Eg. Humanoids
(a) Path traced by the end effectors What is the name for the space inside which a
(b) Kinematics of Robot y Tracked Robots. Eg. NASA’s Urban Robot Urbie
robot unit operates?
p
(c) Robot joints y Flying Robots. Eg. Cruise Missiles, NETRA (By DRDO)
(a) environment
(d) Robot programming
(b) spatial base y Snake Robots. Eg. Japanese ACM‐ R5
( )d
(c) danger zone y Swimming Robots. Eg. Aqua Penguin Germany.
(d) work envelop
y Legged Robots – DARPA Eg. Big Dog
124 125 126
Robot Notation
Robot Notation
y The p y
physical g
configuration of the robot IES‐2020 Prelims
manipulator can be described by means of a joint Revolving joint of the robot is referred to as
R l i j i f h b i f d
notation scheme.
scheme (a) L joint (b) 0 joint
Orthogonal
y The notation system can be expanded to include
Linear joint ( L )
joint (U)
(c) T joint (d) V joint
O P i
Or Prismatic Joint (P)
ti J i t (P)
wrist motions by designating the two or three (or
more)) types
t off wrist
i t joint.
j i t
y Separates body
body‐and‐arm
and arm assembly from wrist Rotational joint (R) Twisting joint (T)
gj ( )
assembly using a colon (:)
y Eg. A polar coordinate robot with a three‐axis
wrist might be designated as TRL: TRT
127
Revolving joint ( V‐joint, V from the “v” in revolving) 128 129
Robot Notation
Robot Notation
IES‐2020 Prelims Robot Notation: Example
Robot Notation: Example
ROBOT Configuration (arm and Body)
f ( d d ) Symbol
b l Which
Whi h one off the
h following
f ll i symbols
b l is
i used
d as
Cartesian LLL the notation for designating arm and body of
Cylindrical TLL, LTL, LVL a robot with jointed arm configuration?
((a)) TRL (b) TLL, LTL, LVL
Polar TRL
(c) LLL (d) TRR, VVR
R l J i d
Revolute or Jointed arm TRR VVR
TRR,
Wrist Configuration Symbol
Two –axis wrist :RT
Three‐axis wrist :TRT
130 131 132
R b i A W ldi C ll
Robotic Arc‐Welding Cell R b tP i
Robot Programming
IES‐2017 (Prelims) yO e p
On line og a g: Here
programming: e e tthee robot
obot aarm itself
tse iss
used during the direct programming operation.
y Robot performs
Th number
The b off degrees
d off freedom
f d i a 3D
in D flux‐cored arc
fl d ¾ Teach by lead through
welding (FCAW) ¾ teach by pendent
Robot of TRL : R type configuration is : operation at one

i y Off line Programming: It involves creating the
workstation p g
program for a robot task,, without the need to be
(a) 4 (b) 3 while fitter
hil fi connected physically to the robot or even to be anywhere
changes parts at
near its physical presence.
presence We may coupled it with
the other
(c) 2 (d) 1 workstation
simulation. Program is prepared at a remote computer
terminal and downloaded to robot controller for
execution.
133 134 135
TTeach by lead through or Lead through
hb l d h h L d h h Lead through Programming Lead through Programming Advantages
programming y Advantages:
Ad t
1. Powered lead through y Easily learned by shop
y Work cycle is taught to robot by moving the y Common for point‐to‐
C f i personnel
manipulator through the required motion cycle and point robots
y Logical way to teach a robot
g y
simultaneously
i lt l entering
t i th program into
the i t controller
t ll y Uses teach pendant
memory for later playback. y No computer programming
2. Manual lead through
g
y Disadvantages:
Disad antages
y Convenient for
continuous path y Downtime during
y This is used for programming continuous path
control robots programming
operations such as are found in spray painting.
y Human programmer y Limited programming logic
p g g g
physical moves capability
manipulator y Not compatible with
136 137
supervisory control 138
Teach by Pendant
Teach by Pendant Teach by Pendant
Teach by Pendant Teach by Pendant
Teach by Pendant
q
y For work that requires p
point to p
point, and p
point to y The robot arm is p g
programmed byy moving
g the end p p
point 2 at a speed of 200 mm/s. At p point 2 it mayy be
point with coordinated path, movements this is the effectors to a desired position using the joystick, and instructed to open its gripper, operate a spot welding
normal method of programming. once the arm is at the required position and gun, or open a valve to allow adhesive to be dispensed.
y It involves the programmer using a hand‐held pendant orientation a key in the keyboard is pressed to record y Thus two files will be constructed, one with the
which
hi h transmits
t it commands d though
th h a cable
bl to
t theth the point in memory.
memory d i d end
desired d effector
ff t l ti
locations, and
d one with ith the
th
robot controller, the robot then responds to these y On a six axis robot this will be recorded as a six instructions connecting the robot operation and
commands. coordinate location x, y, z, α, β, γ. sequence and speed of movements.
y In this way the programmer can lead the robot y In this way all the points to which the robot is desired y We may use a computer for on line programming, this
through a task. to go will be recorded in memory within a ‘point file’. makes more complex programs easier to create.
y Tech
T h pendants
d h
have as many different
diff configurations
fi i y An
A ‘instruction
‘i i file’
fil ’ is
i then
h created d using
i the
h keyboard
k b d
as there robot models. Essentially they all contain command. This file contains the instructions as to
sufficient controls to send the necessary instruction to what the robot should do between each point, e.g. the
the controller. 139
robot may be instructed to move from point 1 to 140 141
R b
Robot programming languages
i l Fi G
First Generation Languages
i L S
Second Generation Languages
dG i L
y Textual programming language to enter commands y Combine teach pendant procedures with the y Structured programming languages
into robot controller.
y When
Wh using
i on‐line
li programmingi methods,
h d command
d statements.
t t t y Capability:
C bilit motion
ti control,
t l can use sensor data,
d t can
instructions can be given to the robot by using control y Mainly control motions ( Motion level language) communicate with other computers.
computers
switches, knobs and buttons in conjunction with
simple coded commands. This method allows simple y Example:
p VAL (Victor’s Assemblyy Language)‐
g g for p
Example
programs to be constructed. PUMA Robot. y AML: A Manufacturing Language
y For more complex programs a robot language must be
used and for off‐line working a programming language y Incapable to use complex sensor data, limited y MCL: Manufacturing control Language
i essential.
is ti l communication ability with other computer. y RAIL
y Commercial robot languages are all termed ‘explicit’
languages. Each robot manufacturer provides their
own language with
For 2021 (IES,the
GATEcontrol system.
& PSUs)
142
Page 214 of 276
143
Rev.0
144
F
Future Generation Languages
G i L MCQ MCQ
y They should be model based or task based language. Consider the following statements about robot A typical vocabulary of robot programming includes
programming: command verbs for:
y If we give
i command
d ‘Tighten
‘Ti ht a nut’
t’ it mustt find
fi d the
th 1. In on‐line programming, the manipulator executes the 1. Definition of points, paths, frames etc.
nut and the spanner,
spanner pick them up,
up and place them in commands as soon as it is entered and the programmer
p g 2 Motion of joints,
2. joints links and end effector.
effector
can verify whether robot executes the desired task. 3. Interaction with sensors, environment, and other
an orderlyy fashion and finally,
y it should tighten
g the
2. In
I off‐line
ff li programming,
i th robot
the b t is
i nott tied‐up
ti d and
d devices.
nut with the spanner. can continue doing its task i.e. there is no loss of Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
production.
y These languages should allow complete offline (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
programming. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only ( ) 1, 2 and 3
(c) ( ) 1 and 3
(d)
( ) Both
(c) B th 1 and
d2 (d) Neither
N ith 1 nor 2
145 146 147
Subsystems of Industrial Robots Actuators
Anatomy of Robot
Anatomy of Robot y Actuators y Actuators are basically prime movers providing both
force and motion.
y Anatomy and Sub‐System of robots
Anatomy and Sub System of robots y Transmission systems
T i i t y Pneumatic cylinders, hydraulics, permanent magnet
y Manipulators y Power supplies & power storage system motors,, stepper
pp motors,, linear motors are some
conventional actuators.
y Robot control y Sensors
y More
M advanced
d d ones are based
b d on hi‐tech
hi t h polymers,
l
y Microprocessors & controllers shape memory alloys, piezo patches, and pneumatic
muscles.
y Algorithms & software (higher level & lower level)
y Brushless servo motors also exist for low noise levels,
and printed armature motors are used for quick
response.
response
148 149 150
Question: compare of pneumatic & hydraulic

actuators T
Transmission Systems
i i S P
Power Supplies
S li
Answer: y The transmission system used in robot to transmit power y Hydraulic and Pneumatic power packs:
y Air used in p
pneumatic actuators is clean and safe. and motion consists of chains, timing belts, metal belts, These consist of a motor driving a positive displacement
y Oil in hydraulic actuator can be a health and fire cables
bl and d pulleys
ll andd linkages.
li k pump or compressor to generate the h high
h h pressure fluid
fl d flow.
fl
hazard especially
p y if there is a leakage.
g y Gear boxes and harmonic drives serve to p provide speed
p In using hydraulic systems the necessity of having an oil tank
increases the weight of the system, additionally the issue of
y Pneumatic actuators are typically light‐weight, reduction.
portable and faster.
faster ensuring that the oil is free of contaminants is to be handled.
y Ball
B ll screws are usedd with
ith suitable
it bl mechanisms
h i t convertt
to In pneumatics power pack dry air is desired.
y Air is compressible (oil is incompressible) and hence rotary motion to linear motion and if needed back to
pneumatic actuators are ‘harder’
harder to control.
control y Electric motors:
oscillatory motion.
y Hydraulic actuators have the largest force/power It use what are known as PWM (pulse width modulation)
density compared to any actuator.
actuator y Drive stiffness is an important consideration in robotics amplifiers These are electronic devices,
amplifiers. devices consisting of
and so also is backlash. transistors used as switches to rapidly switch on and off the
y With compressors, accumulators and other
components, the h space requirement
i i larger
is l than
h supply
l in
i a controlled
t ll d manner to t control
t l motor
t speeds.d Such
S h
electric actuators. drives have higher efficiency.
151 152 153
Sensors Question: What are the desirable features in
sensors? MCQ
y The sensors for feedback in robots consists of
Answer:
t h
tachometers
t and
d encoders
d and
d potentiometers
t ti t t sense
to What is the name for information sent from robot
y High accuracy.
Hi h
sensors to robot controllers?
motor motions
motions, simple switches
switches, force sensors
sensors, y High precision.
g p
( )
(a) temperature
y Linear response. (b) pressure
p
acceleration sensors, optical systems,
y special
p cameras
y Large operating range.
L i (c) feedback
and vision systems. y Low response time.
p ( ) g
(d) signal
y Easy to calibrate.
y Reliable and rugged.
R li bl d d
y Low cost
154
y Ease of operation 155 156
5 Types of Industrial Robot Sensors MCQ El
Electronics
i
Consider the following sensors and select which of the y Electronics
1. Status sensors
following sensors are used in robotics: There are a host of electronic circuits, motor controllers,
2. Environment sensors 1. Status sensors.
analog to digital converters and digital to analogue
2. Environment sensors
3. Quality sensors
3 Quality control sensors
3. converters, frame grabbers and so on utilized to handle
4. Safety sensors 4. Safety sensors sensors and vision systems and convert the inputs from
5. Work cell control sensors 5. Work cell control sensor them into a form usable by the processor for control of
(a) 2 3 and 4
(a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 4 and 5
(b) 1, 4 and 5
the entire system in conjunction with the algorithms and
(c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 (d) All of these
software developed specifically for the purpose.
157 158 159
Why are ADC and DAC required in
Why are ADC and DAC required in Software Manipulators
y The software used consists of several levels.
robots? y Motor control software consists of algorithms which help
y The mechanical unit,
unit often called the "arm
arm," that
y Analog output, need ADC for digital control. does the actual work of the robot.
the servo to move smoothly utilizing the data from feed
feed‐
y It is composed
d off mechanical
h l linkages
l k and
d joints with
h
back units.
y A digital‐to‐analog converter (DAC) needed so that actuators to drive the mechanism directlyy or
y At the
th nextt level
l l there
th i software
is ft t plan
to l theth trajectory
t j t indirectly through gears, chains, or ball screws.
motor currents can be commanded to the current‐ of the end effector and translate the same into
y Manipulator are built as serial chains or parallel
commands to individual motor controllers.
driver circuits. The current flowing through the chains or occasionally a combination of both.
y The output of sensors is also to be interpreted and
motor is controlled in analog circuitry by adjusting y Links and joints (revolute
( and prismatic)) that are
decisions made.
mostlyy used in manipulators.
p
the voltage across the armature as needed to y At
A theh highest
hi h l l there
level h i software
is f which
hi h accepts
y In spatial manipulators (open chains) adjacent axes
commands from the user of the robot and translates it
maintain the
h desired
d d armature current. are parallel or perpendicular to each other.
other
into appropriate actions at the lower level.
160 161 162
The relationships among the five major systems that make
MCQ p an industrial robot are shown in this diagram.
up g
Robot control
Robot control
Which of the following terms is NOT one of the For control of the robot we have several levels:
five basic parts of a robot?
(a) peripheral tools y Control of individual motors and actuators.
Control of individual motors and actuators
(b) end effectors y Planning trajectory & individual actuators in motion.
g j y
(c) controller
(d) drive and sensor y Planning trajectories of end effector.
y Acting upon sensors input
y Planning tasks
163 164 165
IES – 2018 (Prelims)
( l ) IES 2017(Prelims)
IES‐2017(Prelims)
Direct and Inverse Kinematics
Direct and Inverse Kinematics g
Consider the following statements with
Consider
C id the
h following
f ll i statements :
reference to SCARA Robot :
1. Robots only take permissible action.
1. It has four degrees of freedom
2. All actions that are obligatory for robots are
actually performed by them subject to ties and 2. It has only one forward kinematic solution.
It h l f d ki ti l ti
conflicts among g available actions. Will be discussed in class 3. It has two inverse kinematic solutions.
3. All permissible actions can be proved by the robot Which of the above statements are correct?
to be
b permissible
i ibl and d iti can be b explained
l i d in
i
ordinaryy English.
g
( ) d l (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) d
( ) 1 and
(a) d 3 (b) 1 andd 2 (c)
( ) 2 and
d 3 (d) 1,2 and
d3
166 167 168
MCQ
Q
Statement (I): The inverse kinematics problem is to
determine the jjoint angles, g , g given the p position and
Denavit‐Hartenberg Notation
orientation of the end‐effector. y The definition of a manipulator with four joint‐link
Statement (II): Computing the position and orientation of p
parameters for each link and a systematic
y procedure for
p
end‐effector of manipulator when the joint angles are known, assigning right‐handed orthonormal coordinate frames,
is known as forward kinematics problem.
problem one to each link in an open kinematic chain, chain was
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually proposed by Denavit and Hartenberg (1955) and is
true and d Statement (II)( ) is theh correct explanation
l off known as Denavit‐Hartenberg
Denavit Hartenberg (DH) notation.
notation
Statement (I) y A frame {i} is rigidly attached to distal end of link i and it
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually moves with link i. An n‐DOF manipulator will have (n+1)
true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
p of frames
a es with thee frame
a e {{0}} o
or base
ase frame
a e ac
acting
g as thee
Statement (I) reference inertial frame and frame {n} being the "tool
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false frame .
frame" DH convention i f
for assigning
i i f
frames to links
li k and d
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true identifying joint link parameters
169 170 171
• Figure shows a pair of adjacent links, link (i‐1) and link i, iii. The origin of the ith coordinate frame, frame {i}, is y Link Length (ai) — distance measured along xi‐axis
their associated joints,
joints joints (i‐1),
(i 1) i and (i+1),
(i+1) and axes (i‐
(i located
l t d att the
th intersection
i t ti off axisi off joint
j i t (i+1),
(i ) that
th t is,
i from
f the
th pointi t off intersection
i t ti off xi‐axis
i with
ith zi_1‐axis
i
2), (i–1 ), and i, respectively. axis i, and the common normal between axes (i‐1) and i (point C) to the origin of frame {i}, that is, distance CD.
• Line
Li AB, AB ini the
th figure,
fi i the
is th common normall to t (i‐2)‐
(i ) (common normal is CD), as shown in the figure. y Link twist (αi) — angle between zi_1‐ and zi‐axes
and (i‐1)‐axes and line CD is the common normal to (i‐
iv Finally, yi‐axis
iv. axis completes the right
right‐hand
hand orthonormal measured about xi‐axis
axis in the right
right‐hand
hand sense.
sense
1)‐
) and d i‐axes.
i
coordinate frame {i} y Joint distance (di)— distance measured along zi_1 axis
• A frame (i) is assigned
g to link i as follows:
i. The zi‐axis is aligned with axis i, its direction being
N
Note that
h theh frame
f {i} for
f link
li k i is
i at the
h distal
di l end d off f
from the
h origin
i i off frame
f {i } (point
{i‐1} ( i B) to the h
arbitrary. The choice of direction defines the positive link i and moves with the link. intersection of xi‐ axis with zi_1‐axis (point C), that is,
sense of joint variable θi . distance BC.
ii The xi‐axis
ii. axis is perpendicular to axis zi‐1 and zi and points With respect to frame {i‐1}
{i 1} and frame {i},
{i} the four DH‐
DH y Joint angle (θi) — angle between xi_1‐ and xi‐axes axes
away from axis zi‐1, that is, xi‐axis is directed along the parameters — two link parameters (ai, αi) and two measured about the zi_1‐axis in the right‐hand sense.
common normal CD. CD j i patameters (di , θi ) — are defined
joint d fi d as:
172 173 174
y Two parameters, ai and αi are known as link parameters y Joint distance (di) is the perpendicular distance between
and are constant for a given link. the two adjacent common normals ai‐1 y The convention outlined above does not result in a
link i and ai measured
along axis (i‐1). unique attachment of frames to links because
y For industrial robots,, the links are usually
y straight,
g , that
is, the two joint axes are parallel, giving link length equal y In other words, joint distance is the translation needed alternative choices are available.
to physical link dimension and link twist equal to zero.
zero along joint axis (i
(i— 1 ) to make ai_1 intersect with ai.i y F example,
For l joint
j i axis
i i has
h two choices
h i off direction
di i to
y For two links connected by either a revolute or a y Joint angle (θi) is the angle between the two adjacent point zi‐axis,
‐axis one pointing upward (as in Fig.)
Fig ) and
prismatic joint, the relative position of these links is common normals ai_1 and ai, measured in right‐handed
other pointing downward.
measured by the displacement at the joint,
joint which is direction about the axis (i‐1).
(i‐1) It is the rotation about joint
either joint distance or joint angle, depending on the axis (i‐‐1) needed to make ai_1 parallel to ai. These two y To minimize such options and get a consistent set of
t
type off joint.
j i t parameters
t are called
ll d joint
j i t parameters.
t
frames, different algorithm is there to assign frames to
all links of a manipulator.
175 176 177
MCQ Manipulator Transformation Matrix
Consider the following statements about robotics in DH y This model describes position and orientation of the last
convention: link ((tool frame)) with reference to the base frame as a
1. Link parameters (ai and αi) are constant for a given function of joint displacements q1 through qn.
link. y An n‐DOF
n DOF manipulator consists of (n+ 1) links from base
2. For industrial robots, links are usually straight. to tool point and a frame is assigned to each link. Figure
3. θi and d
d di are called joint variable.
ll d bl shows
h the
h (n+1)
( ) frames,
f f
frame { } to frame
{0} f { } attached
{n}, h d
Which of the above statements are correct? to the links of the manipulator.
(a) (a) 1 only (b) 3 only y The position and orientation of the tool frame relative to
the base frame can be found by considering the n
( )
(c) 1 and 3 only ( )
(d) 1, 2 and 3
consecutive link transformation matrices relating frames
fi d to
fixed t adjacent
dj t links.
li k
Refer fig. in the next slide
178 179 180
y Thus,
y Above equation is known as the kinematic model of the
Tn = 0T1 ( q1 ) × 1T2 ( q2 ) .......... n −1Tn ( qn )
0
n‐DOF
DOF manipulator.
i l t
Where, i −1Ti ( qi ) for i = 1, 2,...., n is the homogeneous link, y It p
provides the functional relationship
p between the tool
transformations matrix between frames {i − 1) and {i} frame (or end‐effector) position and orientation and
displacement of each link qi, which may be angular or
y The
h tooll frame,
f f
frame { } can also
{n}, l beb considered
d d as a
linear, depending on joint being revolute or prismatic.
translated and rotated frame with respect p to base That is,
is T = f(qi),
) i = 1,
1 2,
2 ..., n
frame {0}. The transformation between these two
nx ox ax dx r11 r12 r13 r14
frames is denoted by end‐effector
end effector transformation
matrix T. In terms of tool frame orientation (n, o, a) ny oy ay dy r21 r22 r23 r24
=
and its displacement (d) from the base frame {0}, nz oz az dz r31 r32 r33 r34
Geometric relationship between adjacent links frame {n} is the tool frame, thus, T is equal 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
181 T = 0Tn = 0T1 × 1T2 × ........ × n −1Tn 182 183
y where coefficient rij, are functions of joint displacements F ti

Function atan2(y, x)
t 2( ) y Implementation of two argument, four‐quadrant
qi. For
F the
th known
k joint
j i t displacements
di l t q1 for
f i = 1, 2, ..., n, y Two‐argument
T t arctangent
t t function
f ti denoted
d t d by
b atan2 function
the end‐effector orientation (n o a) and position d can be atan2(y,y x) x atan2(y, x)
atan2(y x)
computed from above equation.
y It gives angles in the entire range [ ‐ π, π ]. Positive atan(y/x)
y This function is defined for all (x , y) ≠ 0, and zero [sign(y)]π/2
equals the unique angle θ such that Negative atan(y/x)+[sign(y)]π
x y
cos θ = i θ=
, andd sin y In any
an value
alue of θ,
θ wee can add 2π
2 = 360°.
360° In third
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 quadrant yyou mayy use
q
⎛ y⎞ ⎛ y⎞
or x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ Where, r = x 2 + y 2 θ = − 180° + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or 180° + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
184 185
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ 186
E
Examples atan2(y, x)
l t 2( )
y atan2(1,
t ( 1)) = atan2
t (5,
( 5)) = 45°° Robot Dynamics
Robot Dynamics
y atan2(1, ‐1)
1) = atan2 (5, ‐5)
5) = 135
135°
y atan2(‐1, ‐1) = atan2 (‐5, ‐5) = ‐135°
y atan2(‐1, 1) = atan2 (‐5, 5) = ‐ 45°
y atan2(0,
atan2(0 1) = 0
0°
y atan2(1, 0) = 90°
y atan2(0, ‐1) = 180°
y atan2(‐1,
( 0)) = ‐90°
187 188 189
Precision of Movement Resolution Resolution
y The
Th response speed
d and
d stability
bili isi concerned
d with
ih y Control
C l resolution
l i is
i the
h smallest
ll increment
i that
h y Spatial
S i l resolution
l i is
i defined
d fi d as the
h smallest
ll
the dynamic performance of the robot. the robot arm can move by means of digital to increment of motion achieved by robotics
y Another measure of performance is precision of the analog converter commands for position feedback manipulator at its tool or end effector.
robot s movement.
robot's movement We will define precision as a control. y The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest
function of three features: y If a linear robot arm is to move a distance ‘d’ by ‘n’ increment of movement into which the robot can
1. Resolution
l i bit digital to analog converter through the divide its work volume.
volume
2.. Accuracy
ccu acy controller then the linear resolution will be d/2n. y Spatial resolution depends on two factors:
y For the rotary motion one has to divide the angular ¾ The system's control resolution
3. Repeatability
range by 2n to obtain the angular resolution. ¾ and
d the
th robot's
b t' mechanical
h i l inaccuracies.
i i
Angular resolution multiplied by the arm length
gives the control resolution.
resolution
190 191 192
E
Example
l E
Example
l E
Example
l
Question
Q i Solution
S l i y This
Thi example
l deals
d l with
i h only
l one joint.
j i A robot
b with
ih
y The number of control increments can be several degrees of freedom would have a control
Ui
Using our robot
b t with
ith 1 degree
d off freedom
f d and
d we will
ill resolution for each joint of motion.
determined as follows:
assume it has one sliding joint with a full range of 1.0
1 0 m.
m y Number
N b off increments
i = 212 = 4096
6 y To obtain the control resolution for the entire
robot, component resolutions for each joint would
The robots control memoryy has a 12‐bit storage
g capacity.
p y y The total range g of 1 m is divided into 4 40969
have to be summed vectorially.
vectorially
increments. Each position will be separated by 1
The problem is to determine the control resolution for y The total control resolution would depend on the
m/4096 = 0.000244
0 000244 m or 0.244
0 244 mm
this axis of motion. wrist motions as well as the arm and body motions.
y The control resolution is 0.244 mm.
y Since some of the joints are likely to be rotary while
y This example deals with only one joint. A robot with
others are sliding, the robot's control resolution can
several degrees
g of freedom would have a control
b
be a complicated quantity to determine.
li t d tit t d t i
193
resolution for each joint of motion. To obtain 194 195
IES 2019 Prelims

IES‐2019 Prelims. Accuracy Accuracy
Using
Ui a robot
b t withith 1 degree
d off freedom
f d and
d y There
Th is
i not yet a unified
ifi d definition
d fi i i off robot
b accuracy. y Absolute
Ab l Accuracy
A : A measure off difference
diff between
b
havingg 1 sliding
g jjoint with a full range
g of 1 m, if y The International Standards Organization,
g , the Robot the actually attained position/path of a robot end
the robot's control memory has a 12‐bit storage Industries Association, and the National Bureau of effector and the input position/path (in absolute world
capacity the control resolution for the axis of
capacity, Standards (now National Institute of Standard and coordinate frame)) commanded byy the robot controller.
motion will be Technology) have been making strides towards
definitions of accuracy
accurac and devising
de ising standard tests to y Relative
l i Accuracy : A measure off difference
d ff b
between
(a) 0.236 mm (b) 0.244 mm make performance measurements of robot accuracy. the actually attained position/path of a robot end
( ) 0.252 mm
(c) (d) 0.260
6 mm y The following definitions are used. effector and the input position/path (relative to an
y Robot Accuracy : A measure of difference between the intermediate reference frame) commanded by the robot
actually attained position/path of a robot end effector controller .
and
d the
th input
i t position/path
iti / th commanded d d by
b the
th robot
b t
196 controller. Page 220 of 276
197
Rev.0
198
Factors Affecting Robot Accuracy Factors Affecting Robot Accuracy
1. "Environmental" factors, such as temperature, 4. "Computational" factors, such as robot‐path
humidity,y, and electrical noise. computation
p errors from digital
g computer
p round‐off,,
2. "Parametric" factors, including kinematic parameters, steady‐state control error, tracking control error, etc.,
such as robot link lengths,
lengths joint zero‐reference
zero reference angles,
angles 5 "Application"
5. Application factors,
factors such as installation errors,
errors part
dynamic parameters such as structural compliance, presentation errors, errors in defining workpiece
di
drive‐train
i compliance,
li fi i
friction parameters, varying
i coordinate
di f
frame, etc.
inertia, and other nonlinearities, such as hysterisis, y Each categoryg y of inaccuracyy mayy not be totallyy
backlash, etc. independent from one another. For instance,
3 "Measurement"
3. Measurement factors,
factors such as resolution and temperature change affects link length, length friction
nonlinearity of encoders, resolvers, etc. coefficients, drifts in control electronics, and
measurementt sensitivity.
iti it
199 200 201
Robot Repeatability Robot Repeatability Robot Repeatability

y Repeatability is the ability of the robot to reposition y ‐programmed point when commanded to do so. y For many applications where the robot is frequently
itself to a p position to which it was p previouslyy y Repeatability will generally always be better than reprogrammed
p g for new tasks,, onlyy short‐term
commanded or trained. Repeatability describes the accuracy exclusive of drift. repeatability is important. Short‐term repeatability is
positional error of the tool tip when it is automatically y Both
B h short‐term
h and
d long‐term
l repeatability
bili exist.
i influenced most by temperature changes within the
returned to a position previously taught. control and the environment, as well as tran‐sient
y Long‐term
g repeatability
p y is of concern for robot
y Repeatability
R bili and d accuracy are similar.
i il B repeatability
But bili conditions between shut downed start‐up
start up of the system.
system
applications requiring the same identical task to be
and accuracy refer to two different aspects of the robot's y The factors that influence both short‐term and long‐
performed over several months.
months Over a long time period,
period
precision. Accuracy relates to the robot's capacity to be the effect of com‐ponent wear and aging on repeatability term repeatability commonly are referred to as drift.
programmed
p og a ed to
o ac
achieve
e eag given
e target
a ge popoint.. Thee ac
actual
ua mustt be
b considered.
id d
programmed point will probably be different from the
target point due to limitations of control resolution.
resolution
Repeatability refers to the robot's ability to return to 202 203 204
MCQ IES 2018 (Prelims)

Consider the following g statements relatingg to the
Statement
St t t (I):
(I) Even
E robots
b t do d nott provideid good
d
repeatability. term ‘Robot Repeatability’ :
Statement (II): Errors due to mechanical sources 1. It isi a statistical
t ti ti l term
t associated
i t d with
ith accuracy in
i
decrease repeatability . the action.
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are 2. It is a measure of the ability of the robot to
individuallyy true and Statement ((II)) is the correct position the tool tip in the same place repeatedly.
repeatedly
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are 33. It does not describe the error with respect p to
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct absolute coordinates.
explanation of Statement (I) Which of the above statements are correct?
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false ((a)) 1 and 2 onlyy ((b)) 1 and 3 onlyy
( ) Statement (I)
(d) ( ) is false but Statement (II)
( ) is true
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
205 206 207
IES 2010 IES – 2019 (Prelims)
( l ) IES‐2020 Prelims
Assume
A that
h the
h joint
j i mechanisms
h i at serial
i l link
li k A compliant motion control of robots can be
Good dynamic performance is usually difficult to achieve
i robots
in b which
hi h contain i a rotary base
b b
because
manipulators are frictionless. The joint torque t
required to bear an arbitrary end point force F is understood by the problem of controlling of
1. Position, speed and acceleration of the other joints cause
variations in the reflected torque and moment of inertia. ( ) J‐1F
(a) ( ) JF
(b) (a) Position and velocity of joints
2. The moment of inertia reflected at the base depends
p upon
p the
(c) JTF (d) J‐11FT (b) Position and acceleration of the end‐effector
weight of the object being carried.
3 The moment of inertia reflected at the base also depends upon
3.
( ) Manipulator
(c) M i l motion
i and
d its
i force
f i
interactions
i with
ih
the distance between the base axis and the manipulated object.
Which of the above statements is/are correct? the environment
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 only (d) 1 and 3 only (d) Joint
J i t velocities
l iti of given
i end‐effector
d ff t velocity
l it
208 209 210
211
Equationo ofFlowCurvve
Ana
alysis
s of Forg
ging (a)Withsttrainhardening
Vo K(T )n
e.g. Vo 0 (T )0.3
1000

True stress and Trrue Strrain Here ı o iss flow stresss but it is truee stress and İ T is truestraain.
Th
he true strress is defiined as thee ratio of th
he load to the cross section are
ea at any (b)Withou
utstrainhard
dening:
lload V o V y
nstant. TT

in T 1 F
Instanta
aneous area
a
W
Where T annd F is thee engineering stress and
a engineeering strain
n respective
ely.
Trrue strain
L
Elongation
E dxx L¬ A ¬ d ¬
FT
¨ ln ln 1 F
ln o 2 ln o
Instan
ntaneouslennght L x Lo ® A ® d ®
o
ng strain ( F ) = e FT -1
orr engineerin
The volume of the specimen

s iss assumed to
t be consta
ant during plastic defformation.
[ ' Ao Lo AL ] It is valid
v till th
he neck form
mation.
Wewillannalyzeonlyoopendieforgingusingsllabmethodofanalysisffor
(1)RectanngularBarforging,and
Flow Stress
s (2)AxiͲsym
mmetricforgging
Whenam
materialdeformsplasticalllystrainharrdeningoccurs. 1. Rec
ctangu
ular Bar Forgiing

Beforeforging Afterfforging (lenggth n height p)
B B
h
h1
2L
2L1
x Here we are using plane

p strain n i.e. width won’t increease.
n condition
x At the en
nd of the forging,
f forrce will be maximum m because oof the area involved
between the die and
d the workp piece is ma
aximum.
x Geometry should bee taken at end
e of forgiing
P
dx
B Wx
x
Forgingoccursinplassticzonei.einbetween V y and Vult (Vx+d Vx)
h x
V y –YieldStress x =0
V o – For forging,
f we need flow stress
s and fllow stress iss not constaant and depends on stress of the 2L
L Wx
P
workpiecee.
Vult –Ultimmatetensilestresshereneckformationstarts. x 0 , is the point at
a which thhe material does not move
m in any
y direction.
Take an element dxx at a distance of x (en
nlarged view
w):

As 2 0 (' Plane stra
ain conditioon)
V2 QV1 QV3
0
E E E
V2 Q( V1 V3 )
Fig. FBD
F of Elements orr V2 Q( Vx P)
§ 1·
Now elem
ment will loook like a slab
s and hence its nam
me slab metthod of ana
alysis. Note: In theories off plasticity ¨ Poisson's ratio,ǎ
r = ¸ as volume change nott occur.
© 2¹
x On left sidee (stress x area) = Force V x u Bh and on other side force e will be
1
V x dV x Bh
B .
Therefore, V2 V P
2 x
x Upper die will
U w give preessure on upper
u surface and lower surface will get pre
essure by From Vo
on-Mises theory:
t
2
= P × area = (P × B× dx)
loower die. Soo on upper side force= d & similarly on low wer side = 1 ½ 1 ½ 2
®V x ( V x P) ¾ ® ( V x P) P ¾ ( P V x ) 2V02
P B dx )
(P ¯ 2 ¿ ¯2 ¿
x As metal is moving ou utwards soo friction force
f will act
a in oppoosite directtion, this ( V x P)2 ( V x P)2
or ( V x P)2 2V20
frriction force is shear force and d will causse shear sttress on th
he surface equal to 4 4
(WWx B dx ) in lo
ower and upper
u surface. 3
or ( V x P))2 2 V20
2
At the en
nd of forgin
ng the systeem must bee in equilibrrium; thereefore net reesultant forrce in any 4 2
or ( V x P)2 V0
direction
n is zero. 3
? 6 Fx 0; Gives 2
or ( V x P) V0
( Vx d Vx ) B h Vx . B h 2Wx . B dx 0 3
or d Vx B h 2Wx B dx 0 V0
or Vx P 2 K ….(2)) [where K = flow shear strress]
or d Vx . h 2Wx dx 0 3
dV x 2W x resca’s th
From Tr heory :
0 (1
1) V1 V3 V0
dx h
Here theere are thrree variablees Vx , Wx and x so we reduce
r it in
nto two va
ariables by applying or Vx P V0
condition
n. V0
or Vx P 2 K ….(2)) [where K = flow
w shear strress]
2
For a ducctile materrial there arre two the
eories of plasticity.
Differenttiating equation (2)
1. Von-M ory: (V1 V2 )2 ( V2 V3 )2 ( V3 V1 )2
Mises Theo 2 V02
2. Tresca’s Theory
y: V1 V3 V0
dV x d P 2P
0 (L x )
dx dxx
or P 2K . e h
.... (5) (Pressure
( d
distribution
n equation)
dVx d P
or ....(3) 2P
(L)
dx dxx At x = 0, Pmax K eh
2K
Condition-1: 2P
(0)
At x = L, Pmin K eh
2K 2K
dering sliding fric
Consid ction all over the
e surface ( Wx PP )
dx
PBd
W × Bdx
F = ǍN
N
or dF = ǍdN
Ǎ
Wx B dx P . PB dx
Wx PP
From equ
uation (1) and
a (3)
d V x 2W x
0
dx h
d P 2P P Elementa
al force, dF
F = P.B.dx
or 0 2P
(L x )
dx x h dF = 2K e h . B.dx
dP 2P
or ³ P h ³ dxx L 2P
. (L x ) § L L
·
Integratiing, F 2 u ³ (2 K . e h
. B . dx ) ¨¨' ³ gives half we use 2³ ¸¸
h portion F so for 2L w
2P 0 © 0 0 ¹
or ln P x C ......(4) L 2P
h (L x )
F 4 KB .³ e h . dx
0
Condition-2:
Consid
dering sticking frriction all over the surfac
ce ( Wx Wy K )
Shear faiilure will occur at each and everry point.
Boundary condition ns, at x = L, V x 0 (because

( no
o force is applied soo no stresss on that
surface) and Vx P 2K gives P = 2 K
2P
or ln 2 K LC
h
2P From equ
uation (1) and
a (3)
or C ln 2 K .L
h dV x W
2 x 0
Putting the
t values of
o C in equ
uation (4) dx h
2P 2P dPP 2K
ln P l 2 K
x ln .L or 0
h h dxx h
§ P · 2P 2K
or ln ¨ ¸ L x)
(L or ³ d P h ³ dxx
© 2K ¹ h
2P 2K
§ P · or P x C .......(6)
or ln ¨ ¸ L x)
(L h
© 2K ¹ h
Boundary condition ns, at x = L, V x 0 (because
( no
o force is applied soo no stresss on that d P 2P P
or 0
surface) and Vx P 2K gives P = 2 K dx h
2K L dP 2P
So, 2K C or ³ P h ³ dx
h
2K 2P
or C 2K .L or ln P x C ......(4)
h h
Putting in
i equation
n (6) Boundary conditions, at x = L, V x 0 (because no force is applied so no stress on that
2K 2K surface) and Vx P 2 K gives P = 2 K
P .x 2
2K .L
h h 2P
or ln 2 K LC
2K
2 h
P 2K (L x ) …..... (7) {Presssure distriibution equ
uation} or C ln 2 K
2P
.L
h h
2K Putting the values of C in equation (4)
At x = 0, Pmax K
2K .L
h 2P 2P
ln P x ln 2 K .L
x = L, Pmin 2K h h
§ P · 2P
2k + 2k .L or ln ¨ ¸
© 2K ¹ h
(L x )
h
§ P · 2P
or ln ¨ ¸ (L x )
© 2K ¹ h
2P
(L x )
h
or P 2K . e .... (5)
2h 2k dV x W
For Sticking Region: 2 x 0
dx h
dP 2K
or 0
dx h
x=0 x=L
Elementa
al force, dF = P . B . dx 2 K
or ³ d P h ³ dx
2K ½
or dF = ®2K
K (L x ) ¾ B . dx 2K
¯ h ¿ or P x C ......(6)
L
h
2K ½
F 2 u ³ ®2K L x ) ¾ B . dx
(L x At x xs ; P Ps
0¯ h ¿
2K
Ps xs C
or h
Condition-3: 2K
C Ps . xs
Consid
dering sticking an
nd slidin
ng both model
m off friction or h
(' Temperatu
T re is same throughout body)
2K 2K
P x Ps xs
h h
2K
P Ps ( xs x ) ...............(8)
h
dVx 2Wx
For Slidiing Region: 0
dx h
Example 2: L = 50 mm, h = 10 mm & P 0.08
h § 1 · 10 § 1 ·
xs L ln ¨ ¸ 50 ln ¨ ¸ 64.53 mm absurd value ¬
2P © 2P ¹ 2 u 0.08 © 2 u 0.08 ¹
(' x cannot be –ve) i.e only sliding no sticking occur.
Example 3: L = 50 mm, h = 10 mm & P 0.65
h § 1 · 10 § 1 ·
xs L ln ¨ ¸ 50 ln ¨ ¸ 52.01 mm ¬
2P © 2P ¹ 2 u 0.65 © 2 u 0.65 ¹
Only sticking no sliding
NOTE: If P ! 0.5 then only sticking, In hot forging ( P ) is larger if P ! 0.5 only sticking
condition will occur.
IES – 2005 Conventional

A strip of lead with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 mm x 150 mm is forged between two flat
dies to a final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the coefficient of friction is 0.25,
FTotal FSticking FSliding determine the maximum forging force. The average yield stress of lead in tension is 7
Xs L N/mm2
2 ³P 0
Sticking . B . dx 2 ³P
Xs
Sliding . B dx
d Solution: h = 6 mm, 2L = 96 mm, P 0.25
xs
h § 1 · 6 § 1 ·
2K
L
2P
(L x ) ½ xs L ln ¨ ¸ 48 ln 39.68 mm

2 ³ ®Ps
½
( x s x ) ¾ B . dx 2 ³ ®2K e h
°
¾ B . dx 2P © 2P ¹ 2 u 0.25 ¨© 2 u 0.25 ¸¹
0 ¯ h ¿ xs ¯ °¿ xS L 2P
2K
Ftotal = 2 u ³ ®Ps ½ (L x )
( x s x ) ¾ B. dx 2 u ³ 2 K e h
B . dx
0 ¯ h ¿ xS
To find Ps and x s
V0
At x x s , Shear strresses are same
s for booth sticking
g and slidin
ng Applying Von-Mises theory K 4.04 N / mm2
3
Wx K (if consid
dering stick
king)
K
Wx P Ps dering sliding)
(if consid Ps 16.16 N / mm2
or P
Wx K P Ps 39.68 48 2u0.25
2 u 0.25
39.68 x ½¾ 150 . dx 2 u ³ (2 u 4.04) e
(48 x )
Ps
K
....(9) or F 2u ³
0
®16.16
¯ 6 ¿ 39.68
6
150 . dx
P
510 kN 29.10 kN 539 kN (Von Mises)
At x xs ; P Ps
Vo K 3.5
2P
(L x s ) Applying Tresca’s Theory, K 3.5 N / mm2 ; Ps 14 N / mm2
Ps 2K e h 2 P 0.25
2P 39.68 2u0.25 48
K h
(L xs ) 2 u 3.5 ½ (48 x )
P
2K e F 2u
®14
¯
³ 6
(39.68 x ) ¾ 150 dx 2 ³ (2 u 3.5) e 6
¿
150 dx
or 0 39.68
1 2P
(L xs ) 442 kN 25 kN 467kN (Tresca ' s)
eh
or 2P
§ 1 · 2P Practice Problem-1
ln ¨ ¸ (L x s )
or © 2P ¹ h A strip of metal with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 mm x 150 mm is forged between two
h § 1 · flat dies to a final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the coefficient of friction is 0.05,
. ln ¨ ¸ L xs
2P © 2P ¹
determine the maximum forging force. Take the average yield strength in tension is 7
h § 1 ·
xs L ln ¨ ¸ ....(10) (in any ques
stion first w
we find thiss xs )
2P © 2P ¹ N/mm2
Using this equation
n we can deecide the coondition of friction.
f
Given: 2L = 96 mm; L = 48 mm; h = 6 mm; B = 150 mm; P 0.05
Example 1: L = 50 mm, h = 10 mm & P 0.25
h § 1 ·
h § 1 · 10 § 1 · xs L ln K = 4.04 N/mm2
xs L ln
n¨ ¸ 50 ln
n¨ ¸ 36.13mm 2P ¨© 2P ¸¹
2P © 2P ¹ 2 u 0.25 © 2 u 0.25 ¹
xs 90.155 mm
0 to 36.13 mm stick
king and 36
6.13 mm to 50 mm slid
ding will ta
ake place.
Since xs came negative so there will be no sticking only sliding will take place.
L 2P
(L x )
F 4 KB ³ e h dx
0
48 °§ 2u0.05 · °½
®¨ ¸(48 x ) ¾
¯°© 6 ¹ ¿°
4 u 4.04 u 150 ³e
0
dx 177.98 kN
Axi – Symmetrical Forging (Open Die):

Using cylindrical co-ordinate system (r, T, z )
and Using Slab Method of analysis
d1
R
h1
At the start At end of forging

Net resultant force in radially
y outward direction
d is 0.
of forging
dT
( Vr d Vr ) (r dr ) dT . h ( Vr . r dT . h ) 2 Wr . r dT . dr 2 V T dr h . ssin 0
2
Volume before forging = Volume after forging
S 2
d1 u h1 S R 2 h VTdr.h cos dT
4 2
At an angle T, we take an dT element at a radius r we take dr element.
VV dVr
VTdr.h cos dT
2
dT
dr VT dr 2
dT
VT dVT
VT
r VT drh
Vr
T
dT
VTdr.h sin dT 2 VTdr.h sin dT
2 2
For axi-symmetrical forging dV T will be zero. § dT

ncelled ? the
·
¨ coss gets can ey are oppossite ¸
© 2 ¹
For Axi--Symmetr
ry forging
r T
i.e. Vr V T
From aboove equatioon,
dT
( Vr d Vr ) ( r dr ) dT . h ( Vr . r dT . h ) 2 Wr . r dT . dr 2 Vr dr h . 0
2
§ d T dT ·
¨ U sin g : V T Vr ; sin | ¸
© 2 2 ¹
Vr d Vr ) (r dr ) . h ( Vr . rh) 2Wr . r dr Vr . dr
(V d .h 0
or
( Vr . r . h dVr . rh dVr . drh Vr drr . h) Vr . rh
h 2Wr . r drr Vr dr. h 0 2 PR
or C ln V0
d Vr . r h 2Wr . r dr or h
or
d V r 2 Wr 2Pr 2 PR
0 ...(1) uation (4)
From equ ln P ln V0
or d
dr h h h
For ductiile materia
al there are two theoriies of plastiicity P 2P
ln (R r )
1. Tresca’s Theory y: V0 h
or
2P
(R r )
P V0 . e h ………
……….. (5) Pressure distribution
n
or
2P
.R
At r = 0; Pmax V0 e h
At r = R; Pmin V0
Here r = 0 means a point
V1 V3 V0
Vr P V0 ...(2)
or
2. Von Miscs
M Theo
ory:
V1 V2 )2 ( V2 V3 )2 ( V3 V1 )2
(V 2 V20
2 2 2
( Vr Vr ) ( Vr P) ( P Vr ) 2 V20 ding force
For find
or
2 ( Vr P)2 2 V20 Elementaal force (dF
F)
or
V P
r 0V ...(2)
or dr
On differrentiating; r R
d Vr d P
0
dr dr
d Vr dP
...(3)
dr dr Sr dr
dA = 2S
dF = d F P . 2Sr . drr
Condittion 1: 2P
(R r )
Consid
dering sliding
s f
friction all over
r the sur
rface ³dF ³V 0 .eh . 2Sr . dr
R 2P
Wr PP . (R r )
orr F 2SV0 ³ r.e h
dr
d P 2Wr
From (1) and (3); 0 0
dr h ª
R
2P
(R r ) § 2P
(R r ) ·º
dP PP «r . e h eh »
2. 0 orr F 2SV0 « ³ ¨¨1 . d ¸¸ »
dr
or dr h § 2P · § 2P ·
« ¨ ¸ ¨ ¨ ¸ ¸»
dP 2 P P ¬ © h ¹ © © h ¹ ¹¼ 0
R
or dr h ª 2P
(R r )
2P
(R r ) º
r.eh eh
dP 2P orr F 2SV0 « »
or « § 2P · P· »
2
³P ³
h
. dr
« ¨ ¸ §
¨
2
¸ »
«¬ © h ¹ © h ¹ ¼» 0
2P
ln P .r C ...(4) ª 2P
R º
h R 1 eh
At r = R; Vr 0 (becausse on this su
urface therre will be noo force) and
d Vr P V 0 ; P V0 orr F 2S V 0 « 0 »
« § 2P · 2 P
2
2 P
2 »
«¨ § · § · »
¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2P . R «¬ © h ¹ © h ¹ © h ¹ ¼»
ln V0 C
or h
2K
C V0 R
h
IES–2007Conventional or
2K 2K
From (6) P . r V0 R
A cylinder of height 60 mm and diameter 100 mm is forged at room temperature between h h
two flat dies. Find the die load at the end of compression to a height 30 mm, using slab 2
2K
P V0 . (R r ) ...(7) Pressure Distribution
n linear
method of analysis. The yield strength of the work material is given as 120 N/mm2 and the h
or
coefficient of friction is 0.05. Assume that volume is constant after deformation. There is no
2K
sticking. Also find mean die pressure. [20-Marks] At r = 0; Pmax V0 .R
h
Solution: Given, h1 = 60 mm, d1 = 100 mm, h = 30 mm r = R; Pmin V0
V0 120 N/ mm 2 and P 0.05
S d12
h1 S R2 h
or 4
2
100
u 60 R2 u 30
or 4
or R = 70.7 mm
2P
ª .Rº
R 1 eh
F 2S V 0 « 0 » 2.04 MN
« § 2P · 2 2 »
«¨ § 2P · § 2P · »
¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¬« © h ¹ © h ¹ © h ¹ »¼
Total force 2.04 u 106
Mean Die pressure = | 130 MPa
Total Area S u 70.72
For find
ding force:
GATE–2014(PI)
In an open die forging, a circular disc is gradually compressed between two r
flat platens. The exponential decay of normal stress on the flat face of the
disc, from the center of the disc towards its periphery, indicates that R
(a) there is no sticking friction anywhere on the flat face of the disc
(b) sticking friction and sliding friction co-exist on the flat face of the disc 2Srdr
(c) the flat face of the disc is frictionless

dF P . 2 Sr dr
d
(d) there is only sticking friction on the flat face of the disc
Answer: (a) or F ³ P . 2 Sr dr
d
R
ª 2K
K º
F ³ «¬V 0 . (R r ) » 2S r dr
Condition -2: Considering sticking friction all over the or 0 h ¼
surface
Wr K
From (1) equation (3)
d V r 2 Wr
0
dr h
d P 2K
0
or dr h
2K
or ³dP ³
h
. dr
2K
or P .r C ...(6)
h
At r = R; Vr 0 (because on this surface there will be no force) and Vr P V0 ; P V0
2K
V0 .RC
h
Condition 3: Rs R
h § K ·
ln ¨
When there is sticking and sliding both frictions occur © 2P P V0 ¸¹
or
According to Tresca’s theory
V0 K 1
K or
2 V0 2
g
di n
Sl i Sliding Rs R
h § 1 ·
ln ¨ ¸ ...(10)
2P © 2P ¹
ng
ki
ic Ps According to Von-Miscs Theory
St
Sticking V0 K 1
r = Rs K or
3 V0 3
h § 1 ·
Rs R ln ¨ ¸ ...(11)
2P © 3 P¹
IES–2006–Conventional
A certain disc of lead of radius 150 mm and thickness 50 mm is reduced to a thickness of 25
mm by open die forging. If the co-efficient of friction between the job and die is 0.25,
For sliding region pressure distribution is same as we derived in previous condition same
determine the maximum forging force. The average shear yield stress of lead can be taken
boundary condition same differential equation.
2P
(R r )
as 4 N/mm2 [10 – Marks]
P V0 . e h
Solution: R1 = 150 mm, h1 50 mm, R = ?, h = 25 mm, Ǎ= 0.25
For sticking region: Using equation (6). SR12h1 S R2 h

2K R = 212.1 mm
P .r C
h W y 4 N/ mm2 (Shear yield stress) = K
Boundary condition at r = R; P Ps By Tresca Theory;
2K 25 § 1 ·
or Ps . Rs C Rs 212.1 ln ¨ ¸ = 177.4 mm
h 2 u 0.25 © 2 u 0.25 ¹
2K ª0 mm to 177.4 mm o sticking º
C Ps . Rs
or h «177.4 mm to 212.1mm o sliding »
Putting in equation (6)
¬ ¼
K 4
2K 2K Ps 16 N / mm2
P (r ) Ps Rs P 0.25
h h
2K V0 2K 2u4 8 N / mm2
P Ps . (R s r ) ...(8) °§ 2u0.25 · ½°
h 177.4
§2u4· ½ 212.1
®¨ ¸(212.1 r ) ¾
or °© 25 ¹ ¿°
FTotal Fsticking Fsliding

Ftotal ³ (8) u e ¯
³0 ®¯16 ¨© 25 ¸¹ (177.4 r )¾¿ . 2 Sr dr 177.4 . 2 Sr dr
Rs R 3.93 MN (Tresca’s Theory)

Ftotal ³P
0
sticking 2 Sr dr ³P
Rs
sliding 2 Sr dr Von Miscs Theory;
25 § 1 ·
Rs 212.1 ln ¨ ¸ = 170.25 mm
Rs R 2P
ª 2K º (R r )
2 u 0.25
Ftotal ³ «¬P s (R s r )» 2 Sr dr ³V 0 .e h
. 2 Sr dr © 3 u 0.25 ¹
0
h ¼ Rs
ª0 mm to 170.25 mm o sticking º
To find Ps and Rs «170.25 mm to 212.1mm o sliding »
Wr P Ps K ¬ ¼
K 4
K Ps 16 N / mm2
Ps ......(9) P 0.25
or P
V0 K 3 4 3 N / mm2
At r Rs ; P Ps
2P
(R Rs )
RS
Ps V0 e h
2K ½
R 2P
(R r )
K 2P
(R R s )
Ftotal ³ ®¯P
0
s
h
(R s r ) ¾ 2 Sr dr
¿ RS
³V 0 eh 2 Sr dr
V0 e h
or P 170.25 2u0.25 212.1

2u4 ½ (212.1 r )
§ K · 2P
Ftotal
¯
³
®16
25
(170.25 r ) ¾ 2 Sr dr ³ 4 3. e 25
¿
2 Sr dr
ln ¨ ¸ (R R s ) 0 170.25
© P V0 ¹ h = 3.6 MN (Von Misces)
Practice Problem -1 d1 150 mm; h1 100 mm; h 50 mm; P 0.2;
A strip of metal with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 mm x 150 mm is forged between two flat dies to a ' Volume before forging = Volume after forging
final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the coefficient of friction is 0.05, determine the maximum
forging force. Take the average yield strength in tension is 7 N/mm2 S S
d12 h1 S R 2 h or u 1502 u100 S R 2 u 50 R 106.66 mm
4 4
Answer:
h 50
True strain H ln ln 0.693
Given: 2L = 96 mm; L = 48 mm; h = 6 mm; B = 150 mm; P 0.05
h1 100
Flow stress V o V f 1030H 0.17
1030 u 0.6930.17 967.74 MPa
h § 1 ·
xs L ln K = 4.04 N/mm2 By Tresca Theory;
2P ¨© 2P ¸¹
50 § 1 ·
xs 90.155 mm Rs 106.66 ln ¨ ¸ =-7.87mm
2 u 0.2 © 2 u 0.2 ¹
Since xs came negative so there will be no sticking only sliding will take place. VonMiscsTheory;
L 2P
(L x )
F 4 KB ³ e h dx
0 Practice Problem -4
48 °§ 2u0.05 ·
®¨
°½
¸ (48 x ) ¾
A circular disc of 200 mm in diameter and 70 mm in height is forged to 40 mm in height.
¯°© 6 ¹ ¿°
4 u 4.04 u 150 ³e dx 177.98 kN Coefficient of friction is 0.05. The flow curve equation of the material is given by
0
Vf 200(0.01 H )0.41 MPa . Determine maximum forging load, mean die pressure and maximum
Practice Problem -2 pressure.
A circular disc of 200 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height is compressed between two flat dies to a
height of 50 mm. Coefficient of friction is 0.1 and average yield strength in compression is 230 MPa. Answer:
Determine the maximum die pressure.
d1 200 mm; h1 70 mm; h 40 mm; P 0.05; V f 200(0.01 H )0.41
Answer: ' Volume before forging = Volume after forging
d1 200 mm; h1 100 mm; h 50 mm; P 0.1; V Y 230 MPa V O S S
' Volume before forging = Volume after forging d12 h1 S R 2 h or u 2002 u 70 S R 2 u 40 R 132.28 mm
4 4
S S h 40
d 2 h S R 2 h or u 2002 u100 S R 2 u 50 R 141.421 mm True strain H ln ln 0.5596
4 1 1 4 h1 70
According to Von-Mises Vf 200(0.01 H )0.41
h § 1 · 50 § 1 · Vf 200(0.01 0.5596)0.41 158.78 V o
Rs R ln 141.21 ln 297.1 mm
2 P ¨© 3P ¸¹ 2 u 0.1 ¨© 3 u 0.1 ¸¹ NowuseTresca’stheory
According to Tresca
VonͲMisesTheory
h § 1 · 50 § 1 ·
Rs R
ln 141.21 ln 261.1 mm
2P ¨© 2P ¸¹ 2 u 0.1 ¨© 3 u 0.1 ¸¹ Practice Problem -5 {GATE-2010 (PI)}
During open die forging process using two flat and parallel dies,
' Rs came out to be negative so only sliding friction takes place.
a solid circular steel disc of initial radius (R IN ) 200 mm and initial
The formula for pressure we get after the slab method of analysis of forging;
2P height (H IN ) 50 mm attains a height (H FN ) of 30 mm and radius of R FN .
Rr
P V oe h Along the die-disc interfaces.
at r 0; P Pmax R
§ IN ·
2u0.1
(141.21) i. the coefficient of friction (P ) is: P = 0.35 ¨ 1 e RFN ¸
Pmax 230 u e 50 404.94 MPa ¨ ¸
© ¹
ii. in the region R ss d r d RFN ,sliding friction prevails, and
Practice Problem -3 2P
A cylindrical specimen 150 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height is upsetted by open RFN r
die forging to a height of 50 mm. Coefficient of friction is 0.2 and flow curve equation is p 3Ke H FN and W P p,
V f 1030H 0.17 MPa . Calculate the maximum forging force. where p and W are the normal and shear stresses, respectively;
K is the shear yield strength of steel and r is the radial distance
Answer: of any point
iii.In the region 0 d r d R SS ,sticking condition prevails
The value of R SS (in mm), where sticking condition changes to sliding
friction, is
(a) 241.76 (b) 254.55 (c) 265.45 (d) 278.20
Answer:
S RIN2 H IN 2
S RFN H FN
2 2
or 200 u 50 RFN u 30 RFN 258.2 mm
200
§ ·
and P 0.35 ¨1 e 258.2 ¸ 0.51
© ¹
Now at Rss
Shear stress in sticking K = shear stress in sliding P Pss
2P
RFN Rss
or K = P 3Ke H FN
§ 1 · 2P
or ln ¨ ¸ RFN Rss
© 3P ¹ H FN
H § 1 ·
or FN ln ¨ ¸ RFN Rss
2 P © 3P ¹
H § 1 · 30 § 1 ·
or Rss RFN FN ln ¨ ¸ 258.2 ln 254.55 mm
2P © 3P ¹ 2 u 0.51 ¨© 3 u 0.51 ¸¹
IFS-2012
Discuss Tresca and Von Mises yield criterion for metal forming operations. Also derive tensile and
shear yield stress relationships for their approaches. Which of this criterion is more realistic? Why?
[10 Marks]
Answer: Refer forging analysis

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2021 Metal Cutting, Metrology, Forming, Automation, Rootics by S K Mondal PDF

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Metal Cutting, Metrology, Metal Forming,

Section‐III: Metal Forming Questions Answers Chapter-14: Automation Page-171 Page-270

Chapter-7: Cold Working, Recrystalization Section‐VI: Robotics Questions Answers

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 1 of 276 Rev.0

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 2 of 276 Rev.0

y It improves surface finish (d) To provide better thermal efficiency.

GATE‐1995; 2008 IES‐2006 Rake angle and Clearance Angle

y Must be positive (30 – 150)

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 3 of 276 Rev.0

Discussion on Rake angle

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 4 of 276 Rev.0

IES – 2005 IES‐2015 IES – 2002

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 5 of 276 Rev.0

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique cutting Orthogonal Cutting Oblique cutting

IES ‐ 2014 IES ‐ 2012

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 6 of 276 Rev.0

the number of majorj cutting

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 7 of 276 Rev.0

IES‐2003 IES‐2015 End‐relief angle ( γ e )

Side‐relief angle ( γ s ) End cutting edge angle, ECEA (Ce) Side cutting edge angle, SCEA (CS)

((a)) 5 Hz ((b)) 12 Hz ((c)) 100 Hz ((d)) 5500 Hz

IES ‐ 2012 IES‐2009 IES‐1995

IES‐2018 Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

tanαb = cos λ tanα + sin λ tan i

GATE 2011 GATE‐2018 GATE‐2017

(c) Quadrupled (d) Unchanged

IAS 2015 Main

IES ‐ 2004 IES ‐ 2009 GATE (PI)‐1990

(c) 30 (d) None of these

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 13 of 276 Rev.0

109 110 111

IES‐2003 IAS‐2002 IAS‐2000

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 14 of 276 Rev.0

118 119 120

Shear Strain Rate GATE 2012

Cause of chip formation Mechanism of chip formation in Mechanism of chip formation in

127 128 129

y Rake angle – positive and high 4. A ductile material

130 131 132

IES‐2015 Built – up – Edge (BUE) formation Built –

136 137 138

139 140 141

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 17 of 276 Rev.0

GATE 2017 (PI)

φ= + − angle means smaller shear plane which means

4 2 2 y Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature,

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 19 of 276 Rev.0

(i) shear angle and Shear p

GATE 2008 (PI) Li k d S 2

Modified Merchant Theory IES 2010 IES‐2005

IES‐2003 IES ‐ 2014 IES‐2000

IES‐2018 GATE – 2007 (PI) Common Data‐1

GATE‐2006 Common Data Questions(1)

IES‐1995 IES‐2001 IES‐1997

Orthogonal Turning (λ = 90o) GATE‐2007

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 24 of 276 Rev.0

GATE ‐2019 (PI) GATE‐2008 Common Data Question (1) GATE‐2008 Common Data Question (2)

GATE ‐2019 Metal Removal Rate (MRR) IES ‐ 2004

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 25 of 276 Rev.0

Power Consumed During Cutting GATE‐2018 (PI) Specific Energy Consumption

c 390 N, respectively. Assume a shear angle of 35°.

GATE(PI)‐1991 GATE‐2007 GATE‐2016 (PI)

For 2021 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 26 of 276 Rev.0