Journal of Food Engineering 65 (2004) 89–94

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Improving the texture and delaying staling in rice flour

chapati with hydrocolloids and a-amylase
Hardeep Singh Gujral a, Monica Haros b, Cristina M. Rosell b,*

a
Department of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, India
b
Laboratorio de Cereales, Instituto de Agroquımica y Tecnologıa de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC), P.O. Box 73, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
Received 16 September 2003; accepted 15 December 2003

Abstract
Chapaties were prepared from rice flour so as to make this product available to patients suffering from gluten intolerance (celiac
disease). The textural properties of the fresh and 24 h stored rice flour chapati were determined using a tensile deformation test. The
extensibility and energy to rupture decreased whereas the peak force to rupture and tensile deformation modulus increased during
storage. Different hydrocolloids like guar gum, xanthan, locust bean gum and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose were added to the rice
flour at levels of 0.25% and 0.5% flour basis and it was observed that they improved the texture of chapati by keeping it more
extensible during storage. Fungal a-amylase was also incorporated into the rice flour alone and in combination with the hydro-
colloid and this resulted in further improvement in the texture. The retrogradation in the chapati after 24 h of storage was also
studied using differential scanning calorimetry. Chapaties containing hydrocolloid and/or a-amylase showed lower retrogradation
after storage. Rice flour chapaties can be made available to celiac disease patients and the undesirable textural changes, which take
place in chapati as a result of starch retrogradation, can be delayed by the incorporation of hydrocolloids and a-amylase.

2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rice flour; Chapati; Hydrocolloids; a-amylase; Texture; DSC; Staling

1. Introduction Over 85% of the wheat consumption in India is in the

Celiac disease is a gluten-sensitive entheropathy with
genetic, immunologic and environmental basis. People
suffering gluten intolerance (celiac disease) are diag-
nosed everywhere in the world, with Asia being no
exception (Al-Hassany, 1975; Bitar, Salem, & Nasr,
1970). The prevalence of this food allergy is now
established between 1 in 250 and 1 in 300. The cause of
the disease is the ingestion of cereal proteins, namely
prolamins, especially from wheat leading to the inflam-
mation of the small intestine and to the mal-absorption
of important nutrients like calcium, iron, folic acid and
fat soluble vitamins (Feighery, 1999). The only effective
treatment is to keep the diet of the patient as gluten free
as possible. As a result foods containing wheat, rye,
barley, triticale and oats and all foods containing gluten
derivatives as thickeners, fillers and binders have to be
avoided.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-96-390-0022; fax: +34-96-363-
6301.
E-mail address: crosell@iata.csic.es (C.M. Rosell).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2003.12.007
form of chapati, which is unleavened flat bread made
from whole wheat flour (atta) (Shurpalekar & Prabha-
vathi, 1976). This product is made by mixing the flour
and water to develop the dough, after relaxing, balls are
sheeted to a thickness of around 2 mm and baked for a
short time. The baked product is generally consumed
fresh (Gujral & Pathak, 2002). It has served as the staple
food of the Indian subcontinent and parts of the Middle
East for centuries. The nutritional quality of chapati has
been improved by mixing wheat flour with soy flour
(Gandhi & Bourne, 1988; Lindell & Walker, 1984),
barley flour (Anjum, Ali, & Chaudhry, 1991; Leelavathi
& Haridas Rao, 1988; Sood, Dhaliwal, Kalia, & Shar-
ma, 1992), black gram flour, corn flour, millet (Gujral &
Pathak, 2002).
However, due to the prevalence of celiac disease in
this region, patients have to be provided with chapaties
made from an alternative gluten free cereal. Rice has
been found to be the most suitable cereal in this regard
as it possesses no gluten. Nevertheless, the utilization of
rice flour for making chapaties becomes very compli-
cated because rice flour does not form viscoelastic dough
90 H.S. Gujral et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 65 (2004) 89–94
when it is kneaded with water and thus cannot be
sheeted as in the case of wheat dough. Production of rice
flour bread is a bigger technological challenge since it is
a leavened product and the CO2 produced needs to be
retained in the dough in the absence of gluten, although
different approaches using hydrocolloids and enzymes
have partially solved the problem (Gujral, Guardiola,
Carbonell, & Rosell, 2003; Gujral & Rosell, 2004; Kang,
Choi, & Choi, 1997; Sanchez, Osella, & De La Torre,
2002). Chapaties are an unleavened product thus there is
no CO2 that needs to be retained, but flour dough re-
quires some viscoelasticity for sheeting with a rolling
pin. A tensile deformation test has been successfully
used to study the texture of chapati (Gujral & Gaur,
2002; Gujral & Pathak, 2002). Extensibility is the dis-
tance (mm) to which a strip of chapati can be pulled
apart during tensile deformation and this parameter is
an indicative of the freshness of the chapati.
The production of rice chapati, apart from being very
suitable for the celiac disease patients, might be eco-
nomically viable since rice flour is a by product from the
rice milling industry. Rice flour is obtained from the
brokens produced during the milling process, which
fetch a lower price in the market as compared to the
head rice. In fact, the use of rice flour to partially replace
the wheat flour in chapati has been reported (Gujral &
Pathak, 2002).
The objectives of the present investigation were to
explore the possibilities of making chapaties from rice
flour and study the textural changes during storage.
With this aim some hydrocolloids and a-amylase have
been tested in order to improve the extensibility of the
rice chapati.
2. Materials and methods
Commercial rice flour obtained from Huici Leidan
S.A (Navarra, Spain) was used in this study. The rice
flour had moisture, ash, and protein of 12.8%, 0.57%,
8.83% respectively, and the amylose content was 21.9%.
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) Methocel
K4M was obtained from Dow Chemical Company
(Michigan, USA). Xanthan, guar gum (GG) and locust
bean gum (LBG) were obtained from Ingavasa, Spain.
The fungal a-amylase (Fungamyl 1500 MG) was pro-
vided by Novo Nordisk (Madrid, Spain).
2.1. Procedure for making chapati
Rice flour (500 g) was mixed with optimum water
(360 mL) in the bowl of the laboratory mixer (Hobart
N-50, Ontario, Canada). The optimum water was sub-
jectively determined till it gave a smooth non-sticky
dough, easy to handle and suitable for sheeting without
cracking (Gujral & Gaur, 2002; Gujral & Pathak, 2002).
Hydrocolloids when added were incorporated at two
levels 0.25% and 0.5% (flour weight basis) to the flour
before the mixing, and in the case of a-amylase 0.01%
(flour weight basis) was used. Mixing was done with the
U arm for 5 min at speed 1 and then dough was allowed
to rest for 0.5 h. It was not possible to sheet the rice
dough ball with a rolling pin due to the lack of visco-
elasticity. This problem was overcome by pressing the
dough ball between two parallel metal plates instead of
sheeting with a rolling pin (Shurpalekar & Prabhavathi,
1976). Dough portions (50 g) were rounded and placed
on the bottom platform of the press that was fitted with
a 1.75 mm thick frame for ensuring uniform thickness of
the chapati. Chapati was then baked in a baking oven
(Eurofours, Gommegnies, France) at 340 C for 140 s.
The baking trials were carried out beforehand to select
the optimum time and temperature of baking. The
chapati was allowed to cool for 10 min at 25 C and then
sealed in coextruded polypropylene pouches and stored
at 25 C.
2.2. Determination of chapati texture
The texture of fresh chapati was measured after 1 h of
baking and for stored chapati the texture was measured
after 24 h of storage at 25 C. Rectangular strips of 20
mm · 50 mm were cut from the center of the chapati
using a metal template. The strip was clamped on the
extensibility cell and tested for extensibility on the
Texture Analyzer TA-XT2i (Stable Micro Systems,
Surrey, UK). The clamps were properly aligned and set
at 30 mm apart. The chapati strip was pulled apart at a
crosshead speed of 1 mm/s until it ruptured. The peak
force (N, peak load to rupture) and distance to rupture
(mm, extensibility) were recorded. The parameters like
modulus of deformation (MPa, tensile modulus) and
energy to rupture (J) were calculated as described by
Gujral and Pathak (2002). The mean of at least 10
replicates from each treatment has been used. The cha-
pati after 24 h of storage was similarly tested for texture.
Samples from fresh and stored chapati were freeze dried
for further differential scanning calorimetry studies.
2.3. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis
DSC studies were carried out on a DSC-7 (Perkin-
Elmer). Indium (enthalpy of fusion 28.41 J/g, melting
point 156.4 C) was periodically used to calibrate the
calorimeter. The experimental values of enthalpy of fu-
sion and melting point agreed within ±2.0% and ±1.3%,
respectively. About 12 mg of the freeze dried powdered
rice chapati were weighted directly into DSC stainless
steel pans (PE 0319-0218) and distilled water was added
by a micropipette to obtain a water:chapati ratio of 2:1.
After sealing, the pan was heated at a rate of 10 C/min
 H.S. Gujral et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 65 (2004) 89–94 91

from 25 to 120 C. An empty pan was used as a refer-
ence. The parameters measured were the onset temper-
ature (To ), the peak temperature (Tp ) and the conclusion
temperature (Tc ). Straight lines were drawn between To
and Tc and enthalpy associated with starch retrograda-
tion (DH ) was calculated as the area enclosed by the
straight line and the endotherm curve. It was expressed
in J/g of dry sample. Four replicates were run for each
sample.
2.4. Statistical analysis
Multiple sample comparison was statistically analy-
sed with the Statgraphics Plus 5.0. Fishers least signifi-
cant differences (LSD) test was used to describe means
at the 5% significance level.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of hydrocolloids and a-amylase on fresh rice
chapati texture
Different trials were performed in order to set the
optimal time and temperature of baking the rice chapati.
The baking trials showed that a higher temperature (340
C) and short time (140 s) resulted in a properly baked
chapati with a better texture (results not showed). Lower
temperatures for longer time resulted in excessive drying
of the chapati and a hard texture.
A method to objectively describe the textural chan-
ges occurring in wheat and composite flour chapati has
been already described (Gujral & Pathak, 2002). The
same extensibility test can be used to study the texture
of rice flour chapati. The force needed to extend the
chapati strip increased during tensile deformation and
reached a peak before the strip ruptured. The control
chapati had an extensibility of 7.40 mm and also was
soft and extensible as indicated by the lower peak force
values required to deform, lower deformation modulus
and higher extensibility (Table 1). When different hy-
drocolloids were incorporated into the rice flour dough
at levels of 0.25% and 0.5%, they increased the exten-
sibility and that effect was more pronounced with
increasing hydrocolloid concentration. Xanthan at
0.5% brought about the highest increase in the exten-
sibility followed by LBG, HPMC and GG. An increase
in the extensibility of wheat flour dough chapati by
carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) has been reported ear-
lier (Gujral & Pathak, 2002). Fresh chapati containing
hydrocolloids had higher peak force to rupture (N)
than the control, being significant with the addition of
HPMC at the lowest concentration tested and xanthan
and guar gum at the highest concentration (0.5%). In
the case of energy to rupture (J), hydrocolloids signif-
icantly (P < 0:05) increased this parameter, with the
exception of GG and LBG at the lowest concentration.
Hydrocolloid addition lowered the deformation mod-
ulus of the chapati.
a-Amylase is usually added in bakery for improving
specific volume and retard the bread staling. In this
study the effect of amylase on texture of rice chapati was
tested. The level of a-amylase added was taken from a
recent work carried out by the authors on the antistaling
effect of this enzyme in rice bread (Gujral, Haros, &
Rosell, 2003). In case of chapati the a-amylase must
have acted on the starch during the short period of
mixing and resting (5 and 30 min respectively at 25 C)
and during the 140 s baking stage. As a consequence of
the action of the enzyme, a non-significant increased of
the extensibility was observed in the fresh chapati. The
combination of the enzyme along with the hydrocolloid
also resulted in chapati with better texture.

Table 1
Textural properties of fresh chapati as affected by hydrocolloids and enzyme
Sample Extensibility Peak force Deformation modulus Energy to rupture
(mm) (N) (MPa) (J)
Control 7.40a 4.035a;b 0.411c 0.015a
HPMC (0.25%) 10.60c;d;e 5.783c;d 0.408c 0.030c;d
HPMC (0.5%) 12.80f;g 5.038b;c 0.296a;b 0.032c;d
Xanthan (0.25%) 11.70e;f 4.973b;c 0.312a;b 0.030c;d
Xanthan (0.5%) 14.10g 6.518d;e 0.349b;c 0.045e
GG (0.25%) 9.90b;c;d 3.720a;b 0.282a;b 0.018a;b
GG (0.5%) 11.00d;e 5.915c;d 0.406c 0.032c;d
LBG (0.25%) 8.50a;b 3.180a 0.284a;b 0.013a
LBG (0.5%) 13.40f;g 4.300a;b 0.242a 0.028b;c
AM 8.96a;b;c 3.355a 0.281a;b 0.015a
AM + xanthan (0.25%) 11.74e;f 6.250c;d;e 0.400c 0.037c;d;e
AM + GG (0.25%) 10.92d;e 7.302e 0.503d 0.039d;e
GG, guar gum; LBG, locust bean gum; AM, a-amylase.
Different letters within a column mean significant differences (P 6 0:05).
92 H.S. Gujral et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 65 (2004) 89–94

Table 2
Textural properties of stored (24 h) chapati as affected by hydrocolloids and enzyme
Samples Extensibility Peak force Deformation modulus Energy to rupture
(mm) (N) (MPa) (J)
Control 2.50a 9.698a 2.951d;e;f 0.012a
HPMC (0.25%) 3.20a;b 10.408b;c 2.463b;c;d;e 0.016a;b
HPMC (0.5%) 3.80b 14.340a;b;c 2.872d;e;f 0.027b;c;d
Xanthan (0.25%) 5.90d 13.443a;b;c 1.766a;b 0.039d
Xanthan (0.5%) 8.70e 12.653a;b;c 1.114a 0.055e
GG (0.25%) 5.00c;d 14.540a;b;c 2.200b;c;d 0.036c;d
GG (0.5%) 4.20b;c 13.328a;b;c 2.531b;c;d;e 0.028b;c;d
LBG (0.25%) 3.50a;b 16.360c 3.611f 0.028b;c;d
LBG (0.5%) 3.70b 12.700a;b;c 2.526b;c;d;e 0.024a;b;c
AM 3.69b 15.440c 3.109e;f 0.029b;c;d
AM + xanthan (0.25%) 5.78d 14.445a;b;c 1.954a;b;c 0.041d;e
AM + GG (0.25%) 4.04b;c 15.075b;c 2.774c;d;e;f 0.031b;c;d
GG, guar gum; LBG, locust bean gum; AM, a-amylase.
Different letters within a column mean significant differences (P 6 0:05).

3.2. Influence of hydrocolloids and a-amylase on rice prevent firming and retrogradation of starch in bread is
chapati texture after storage well known (Martinez, Andreu, & Collar, 1999; Rojas,
Rosell, & Benedito de Barber, 1999), and it is due to
Chapaties are generally consumed fresh (within an their ability to bind water and physically hinder the
hour) but an industrially produced product would need amylopectin retrogradation. The moisture absorption in
a longer time to reach the consumer. Chapaties should the chapati dough with and without the hydrocolloids
have a pleasing color and should retain their soft and was kept constant. It was observed that the chapaties
pliable structure during storage. The textural changes containing HPMC, guar gum and locus bean gum at
that occur in chapati during storage (loss of extensibility 0.5% showed significant lower bake loss (Table 3) after
and increased deformation modulus) need to be mini- baking and as a result had higher moisture. An inverse
mized. relationship of water and rate of firming has been re-
The extensibility of the rice chapati decreased to 2.50 ported (Rogers, Zeleznak, Lai, & Hoseney, 1988) and
mm after 24 h of storage (Table 2). Decrease in the this could have lead to the better texture of chapaties
extensibility of wheat flour chapati has been reported containing hydrocolloid.
earlier (Gujral & Gaur, 2002; Gujral & Pathak, 2002) The purpose of addition of a-amylase to the rice flour
and was attributed to the staling of chapati. After 24 h dough was to bring about some depolymerization of the
of storage the chapati became hard and brittle as indi- rice starch so as to delay the retrogradation and staling
cated by the higher peak force values, higher deforma- process. The action of the enzyme was also evident on
tion modulus and lower extensibility. The energy the extensibility of stored chapati that was more exten-
required to break the chapati decreased during storage, sible than the control. The combination of the enzyme
this was because the peak force of staled chapati in-
creases and its extensibility decreases. The area under
Table 3
the force displacement curve decreased lowering the
Bake loss during chapati baking measured as a weight difference
energy required to rupture the chapati strip that indi-
cates an increase in the brittleness of the chapati. Sample Bake loss (%)
The chapaties containing the hydrocolloids remained Control 28.20c
more extensible after 24 h storage. The hydrocolloid HPMC (0.25%) 26.70a;b;c
HPMC (0.5%) 25.95a
concentration (0.25% and 0.5%) more significantly af-
Xanthan (0.25%) 27.05a;b;c
fected the extensibility in fresh chapati as compared to Xanthan (0.5%) 26.75a;b;c
the extensibility of 24 h stored chapati. Chapati stored GG (0.25%) 26.75a;b;c
for 24 h and containing HPMC and guar gum at the GG (0.5%) 26.15a;b
lowest concentration tested (0.25%) had significant LBG (0.25%) 26.50a;b;c
LBG (0.5%) 25.80a
(P < 0:05) higher peak force to rupture. Xanthan gum
AM 27.85b;c
was the unique hydrocolloid that significantly decreased AM + xanthan (0.25%) 26.55a;b;c
the deformation modulus. The extensibility tests showed AM + GG (0.25%) 26.20a;b
that the chapati containing hydrocolloids were more GG, guar gum; LBG, locust bean gum; AM, a-amylase.
extensible (pliable and less brittle) and remained more Different letters within a column mean significant differences
extensible during storage. The ability of hydrocolloids to (P 6 0:05).
 H.S. Gujral et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 65 (2004) 89–94 93

Table 4
Thermal properties of 24 h stored chapati as affected by hydrocolloids and enzyme
Sample To (C) Tp (C) Tc (C) DH (J/g)
Control 41.70a 49.90a 59.20a 1.42e
HPMC (0.25%) 43.60a;b;c 51.50b;c 60.70a;b 1.23d;e
HPMC (0.5%) 44.90a;b;c 51.90b;c 60.80a;b 1.08c;d;e
Xanthan (0.25%) 43.40a;b 50.90a;b 61.20a;b 0.52a
Xanthan (0.5%) 43.10a;b 50.90a;b 59.60a;b 1.05c;d
GG (0.25%) 46.10b;c 51.90b;c 61.30a;b 0.56b
GG (0.5%) 44.60a;b;c 51.30b 60.40a;b 0.80a;b;c
LBG (0.25%) 43.80a;b;c 51.50b 60.50a;b 1.07c;d;e
LBG (0.5%) 44.60a;b;c 51.80b;c 60.10a;b 1.26d;e
AM 45.60b;c 53.10c;d 61.70a;b 0.77a;b;c
AM + xanthan (0.25%) 45.90b;c 53.90d;e 62.80a;b 0.99b;c;d
AM + GG (0.25%) 47.20c 54.70e 63.70b 0.64a;b
To : onset temperature, Tp : peak temperature, Tc : conclusion temperature, DH : retrogradation enthalpy.
Different letters within a column mean significant differences (P 6 0:05).

along with the hydrocolloid also resulted in chapati with
better texture, which remained more extensible after 24
h storage.
3.3. Retrogradation of rice starch in chapati
The chapati starch was completely gelatinized during
baking, which was evident from the lack of traditional
endothermic transition at 65–75 C of rice flour in fresh
chapati (data not shown). On the other hand, after the
first hour of storage at 25 C no staling endotherm ap-
pears on the DSC termogram, whereas after 24 h of
storage it appeared the peak as the result of melting of
crystallized amylopectin. The hydrocolloids and their
combination with a-amylase exhibited different results
in their effect on starch retrogradation (Table 4). The
onset temperature (To ) and enthalpy for endothermic
melting of starch chapati varied according to the
hydrocolloid type and concentration, in ranges 41.7–
47.2 C and 0.52–1.42 J/g (Table 4). In control sample
the retrogradation peak temperature appeared at 49.9
C, whereas the addition of hydrocolloids brought
about slight delay of this temperature (1.4–2.0 C), with
the exception of the sample added with xanthan. The
chapati with a-amylase (with or without hydrocolloids)
showed higher displacement in the peak temperature
(3.2–4.8 C). Addition of xanthan and guar gum at
0.25% and/or a-amylase significantly lowered the
amylopectin retrogradation enthalpy (Table 4). The
stabilizing effects of the hydrocolloids on starch retro-
gradation result from the interactions of them cooper-
atively with water as well as with starch chains in the
mixture (Lee, Baek, Cha, Park, & Lim, 2002), therefore
the water content and its mobility have strong partici-
pation in this process (Czuchajowska & Pomeranz,
1989; Zeleznak & Hoseney, 1987). The hydrocolloids
seemed to better retard the retrogradation at lower
concentration (0.25%) as compared to the effect at
higher concentration (0.5%). However, the addition of
HPMC and LBG at 0.25% or 0.5% had not produced
significant difference on the retrogradation enthalpy.
The incorporation of a-amylase significantly lowered
the retrogradation (Table 4). The enzyme can partially
degrade the starch to produce smaller polysaccharides;
therefore decrease the amount of available starch for
retrogradation (Duran, Leon, Barber, & Benedito de
Barber, 2001). Some of branched-chain products (mal-
tooligosaccharides) also inhibit the starch interaction by
their great hygroscopicity (Min et al., 1999).
The combination of the enzyme and the hydro-
colloids also lowered the enthalpy of retrogradation but
did not give significant reduction compared with the
sample added with a-amylase alone, thus no summative
effects were produced by the amylase and hydrocolloids.
4. Conclusion
Hydrocolloids can be used for improving the texture
of rice flour chapati. They contribute to keep the chapati
extensibility during storage. Hydrocolloid addition re-
tards the recrystallization of starch. Xanthan, GG and/
or a-amylase are especially effective in retarding starch
recrystallization in rice chapati.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by Comisi on In-
terministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologıa Project (MCYT,
AGL2002-04093-C03-02 ALI) and Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Cientıficas (CSIC), Spain. H.S. Gujral
would also like to thank Ministerio de Educaci on,
Cultura y Deporte, Secretarıa de Estado de Educaci
on y
Universidades (Spain) for his grant.
94 H.S. Gujral et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 65 (2004) 89–94
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