GMA 302

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURE

Part-A

Answer All Questions

1- What is Historical Research?

Historical research is the process of systematically examining past events to give an account of
what has happened in the past. It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a
description of past events. The history researcher must use various tactics for unearthing
evidence from a time and a world not his or her own.

2- What is Experimental research?

Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. The

researcher assesses this by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from
another and then determining how both groups scored on an outcome.

3- Write about using theory in Research Process?

Theories serve different purposes in the three approaches inquiry. In quantitative research,
they provide a proposed explanation for the relationship among variables being tested by the
investigator. In qualitative research, they may often serve as a lens for the inquiry or they may
be generated during the study. In mixed methods studies, researchers employ them in many
ways, including those associated with quantitative and qualitative approaches.

4- Name the few problems in data collection from secondary sources?

Validity and reliability

Personal bias
Availability of data
Format

5- Write few words about the ethics method of data collection?

One may face the following ethical issues in data collection

 Respect the site, and disrupt as little as possible.
• Make certain that all participants receive the same treatment.
• Avoid deceiving participants.
• Respect potential power imbalances and exploitation of participants (e.g.,
interviewing, observing).
• Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving site.
• Avoid collecting harmful information.

6- Write four differences in structured and unstructured interview?

Structured interviews, use of questionnaires and structured observations are the most common
methods of data collection in quantitative research, whereas in qualitative research
unstructured interviews (oral histories, in-depth interviews and narratives) and participant
observation are the main methods of data collection from primary sources. Structured
interview will have closed questions and unstructured interviews will have open questions.

7- What are all the sources from where data can be collected?
 8- What are the steps involved in preparing a report?

 Establish your topic.

 Look for sources of information.
 Read your sources and take notes.
 Organize your ideas.
 Write a first draft.
 Use footnotes or endnotes to document sources.
 Write a bibliography.
 Revise the first draft.
 Proofread the final draft.

9- What are the components of report writing?

The Abstract-is an overview
Introduction-provides the key question that the researcher is attempting to answer and a
review of any literature that is relevant.
Methodology-provides the key question that the researcher is attempting to answer and a
review of any literature that is relevant.
Result-the results section contains the data and perhaps a short introduction. 
 Discussion-the results of the study are interpreted and evaluated
Reference- a list of each author and paper cited in the research report.  

10- All the internet sources are not reliable – clarify

judging the reliability of sources found on the Internet is crucial because there is no regulating
body that monitors the reliability of what is on the Internet. Although there is so much
information on the Internet that it can seem like a university library, it is actually more like a
huge open-air market. In one corner there might be reliable sources from whom you can obtain
valuable information. But over in another corner there might be weirdos, whackos, and
eccentrics, from whom anything you obtain is, at best, questionable. The problem is that on the
Internet there is no way to tell the difference. 

11- Write about data collection through internet?

Through an Internet search you can identify published material in books, journals and other
sources with immense ease and speed. An Internet search is carried out through search
engines, of which there are many, though the most commonly used are Google and Yahoo. An
Internet search basically identifies all material in the database of a search engine that contains
the keywords you specify, Most search facilities use Boolean logic, which allows three types of
basic search “AND”, “OR” and “NOT”.’

12- How will you research on Historical Building?

1. Conceptualization of an idea, topic, or research question

2. Locate evidence and do background literature review
3. Evaluate evidence
4. Organize evidence
5. Synthesize evidence and develop general explanatory model
6. Develop a narrative exposition of the findings

13- Name the types of research.

1-Historical Research
2-Qualitative Research
3-Correlational Research
4-Experimental and Quasi experimental Research
5-Simulation Research
6-Logical Argumentation
7-Case studies and combined strategies
 Part-B
21 Write about Qualitative, quantitative, mixed type of research?

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific research consists
of an investigation that:
• seeks answers to a question
• systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question
• collects evidence
• produces findings that were not determined in advance
• produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study

Qualitative research shares these characteristics. Additionally, it seeks to understand a given

research problem or topic from the perspectives of the local population it involves. Qualitative
research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values,
opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular populations.

The types of qualitative methods are

1-Ethnography
2-Narative
3-Phenomenological
4-Grounded Theory
5-Case study

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is the numerical representation of mathematically based methods and

manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that
those observations reflect. It is used in a wide variety of natural and social sciences, including
physics, biology, psychology, sociology and geology

There are several types of quantitative research. For instance, it can be classified as
1) survey research,
2) correlational research,
3) experimental research and
4) causal-comparative research

Mixed type of Research

 Mixed research is a general type of research (it’s one of the three paradigms) in which
quantitative and qualitative methods, techniques, or other paradigm characteristics are mixed
in one overall study.

Two major types of mixed research are

1- Mixed method research

2- Mixed model research

22 What are the variables in quantitative research?

A variable refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be

measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being
studied. This variance means that scores in a given situation fall into at least two mutually
exclusive categories.

Variables often measured in studies include gender; age; socioeconomic status (SES); and
attitudes or behaviors such as racism, social control, political power, or leadership.
Variables are distinguished by two characteristics: (a) temporal order and (b) their
measurement (or observation).

Temporal order means that one variable precedes another in time. Because of this time
ordering, it is said that one variable affects or causes another variable; though a more accurate
statement would be that one variable probably causes another. Temporal order means that
quantitative researchers think about variables in an order from “left to right” (Punch, 2005) and
order the variables in purpose statements, research questions, and visual models into left-to-
right, cause-and effect type presentations. Thus, see the following:

 Independent variables
 Dependent variables
 Intervening or mediating variables
 Moderating variables
 control variables
 confounding variables.

In a quantitative research study, variables are related to answer a research question (e.g., “How
does self-esteem influence the formation of friendships among adolescents?”) or to make
predictions about what the researcher expects the results to show. These predictions are called
hypotheses.

23 Write about the steps in reviewing literature?

There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:

 1. Searching for the existing literature in your area of study.
2. Reviewing the selected literature.
3. Developing a theoretical framework.
4. Developing a conceptual framework.

1.Searching for the existing literature in your area of study

in order to set parameters for the search compile a bibliography for this broad area.
There are three sources for preparing a bibliograpgy
a)books;
b) journals;
c)the Internet.

2.Reviewing the selected literature

Read the existing literature critically to pull together themes and issues that are of relevance to
study. Form a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of
paper for each theme or issue you identify as you go through selected books and articles.
Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into
these themes. While going through the literature you should carefully and critically examine it
with respect to the following aspects:
 Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework has been confirmed
beyond doubt.
 Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and
the criticisms of them.
 Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations.
 Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give your
opinion about the validity of these differences.
 Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge.

3.Developing a theoretical framework

The information obtained from different books and journals needs to be sorted under the main
themes and theories, highlighting agreements and disagreements among the authors and
identifying the unanswered questions or gaps. You will also realise that the literature deals with
a number of aspects that have a direct or indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these
aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Until you go through the
literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework, and until you have developed a
theoretical framework you cannot effectively review the literature. As you read more about the
area, you are likely to change the framework. However, without it, you will get bogged down in
a great deal of unnecessary reading and note-taking that may not be relevant to your study.
 Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:
1. universal;
2. more specific (i.e. local trends or a specific programme).
In writing about such information you should start with the general information,
graduallgradually narrowing it down to the specific.

4. Developing a conceptual framework.

The conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem. It stems from the theoretical
framework and usually focuses on the section(s) which become the basis of your study.
Whereas the theoretical framework consists of the theories or issues in which your study is
embedded, the conceptual framework describes the aspects you selected from the theoretical
framework to become the basis of your enquiry. The conceptual framework grows out of the
theoretical framework and relates to the specific research problem.

24 How will you find your research topic?

The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An instructor may assign you
or he askes you to select your own topic of interest. When deciding on a topic, there are a few
following steps that you will need to do:

Step 1: Brainstorm for ideas

Choose a topic that interests you. Use the questions to help generate topic ideas.Write down
any key words or concepts that may be of interest to you.  

Step 2: Read General Background Information

 Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering.
Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your idea
relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. Keywords may be very useful to your
research.
 Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal or newspaper articles on your
topic.
 Use Web search engines. 

Step 3: Focus on Your Topic

A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One way to narrow a broad
topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to limit a topic are:

 by geographical area
 by culture
 by time frame:
 by discipline
 by population group

Step 4: Make a List of Useful Keywords

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.

 Look for words that best describe your topic

 Look for them in when reading encyclopedia articles and background and general
information
 Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to widen your
search capabilities
 Make note of these words and use them later when searching databases and catalogs

Step 5: Be Flexible
It is common to modify your topic during the research process. You may find too much and
need to narrow your focus, or too little and need to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of
the research process. When researching, you may not wish to change your topic, but you may
decide that some other aspect of the topic is more interesting or manageable. 

Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question

You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something
relating to that word, then begin to have questions about the topic. 

For example:

Ideas = Frank Lloyd Wright or modern architecture

Research Question = How has Frank Lloyd Wright influenced modern architecture?
Focused Research Question = What design principles used by Frank Lloyd Wright are common
in contemporary homes?

Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic

Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and Internet
search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.
You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find
enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an
important and complex part of the research process.

Step 8: Formulate a Thesis Statement

Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question
and/or a way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be
one or two sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will
inform your audience about your topic.
 The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis
statement.

25 What are the ways internet can be used in research?

Through an Internet search you can identify published material in books, journals and other
sources with immense ease and speed. An Internet search is carried out through search
engines, of which there are many, though the most commonly used are Google and Yahoo. An
Internet search basically identifies all material in the database of a search engine that contains
the keywords you specify, Most search facilities use Boolean logic, which allows three types of
basic search “AND”, “OR” and “NOT”.’

Judging the reliability of sources found on the Internet is crucial because there is no regulating
body that monitors the reliability of what is on the Internet. Although there is so much
information on the Internet that it can seem like a university library, it is actually more like a
huge open-air market. In one corner there might be reliable sources from whom you can obtain
valuable information. But over in another corner there might be weirdos, whackos, and
eccentrics, from whom anything you obtain is, at best, questionable. The problem is that on the
Internet there is no way to tell the difference. 

On the other hand, there are some situations in which you can use the information you find on
Internet sources reliably:
 It is provided by a reliable journal or online publisher.
 It is in precisely the same form you would find in a library. Many government, civic, and
business reports are released simultaneously on the Internet and in print.
 It supplements print sources. Some journals use the Internet to archive data not included in
articles, to disseminate illustrations too expensive to print, or to host discussions between
authors and readers.
 It is too recent to be found in libraries.
 It is available only on the Internet. Many government and academic databases are now
available only online.
 It is your primary source. What is posted on the Internet is primary data about what people are
thinking, the views of specific groups, and so on.

26 Discuss about structured and unstructured interview?

Structured interviews
In a structured interview the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions, using the same
wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule. An interview schedule is
a written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for use by an interviewer in a
person-to-person interaction (this may be face to face, by telephone or by other electronic
media). Note that an interview schedule is a research tool/instrument for collecting data,
whereas interviewing is a method of data collection.
One of the main advantages of the structured interview is that it provides uniform information,
which assures the comparability of data. Structured interviewing requires fewer interviewing
skills than does unstructured interviewing.

Unstructured Interviews
The strength of unstructured interviews is the almost complete freedom they provide in terms
of content and structure. You are free to order these in whatever sequence you wish. You also
have complete freedom in terms of the wording you use and the way you explain questions to
your respondents. You may formulate questions and raise issues on the spur of the moment,
depending upon what occurs to you in the context of the discussion. Unstructured interviews
are prevalent in both quantitative and qualitative research. The difference is in how information
obtained through them in response to your questions is likely to be used. In
quantitative research you develop response categorisations from responses which are then
coded and quantified. In qualitative research the responses are used as descriptors, often in
verbatim form, and can be integrated with your arguments, flow of writing and sequence of
logic. As unstructured interviews are dominantly used in qualitative research.
27 Discuss about report writing?

The last step in the research process is writing the research report. Each step of the process is
important for a valid study, as negligence at any stage will affect the quality of not just that part
but the whole study. In a way, this last step is the most crucial as it is through the report that
the findings of the study and their implications are communicated to your supervisor and
readers. Most people will not be aware of the amount and quality of work that has gone into
your study. While much hard work and care may have been put into every stage of the
research, all readers see is the report. Therefore, the whole enterprise can be spoiled if the
report is not well written. As Burns writes, ‘extremely valuable and interesting practical work
may be spoiled at the last minute by a student who is not able to communicate the results
easily’ . In addition to your understanding of research methodology, the quality of the report
depends upon such things as your written communication skills and clarity of thought, your
ability to express thoughts in a logical and sequential manner, and your knowledge base of the
subject area. Another important determinant is your experience in research writing: the more
experience you acquire, the more effective you will become in writing a research report. The
use of statistical procedures will reinforce the validity of your conclusions and arguments as
they enable you to establish if an observed association is due to chance or otherwise (i.e.
whether a relationship is spurious or non-spurious) and indicate the strength of an association
so readers can place confidence in your findings. The use of graphs to present the findings,
though not essential, will make the information more easily understood by readers.

The main difference between research and other writing is in the degree of control,
rigorousness and caution required. Research writing is controlled in the sense that you need to
be extremely careful about what you write, the words you choose, the way ideas are expressed,
and the validity and verifiability of the bases for the conclusions you draw. What most
distinguishes research writing from other writing is the high degree of intellectual rigour
required. Research writing must be absolutely accurate, clear, free of ambiguity, logical and
concise. Your writing should not be based upon assumptions about knowledge
of your readers about the study. Bear in mind that you must be able to defend whatever you
write should anyone challenge it. Do not use ornamental and superficial language. Even the
best researchers make a number of drafts before writing up their final one, so be prepared to
undertake this task. The way findings are communicated differs in quantitative and qualitative
research. As mentioned earlier, in qualitative research the findings are mostly communicated in
descriptive or narrative format written around the major themes, events or discourses that
emerge from your findings. The main purpose is to describe the variation in a phenomenon,
situation, event or episode without making an attempt to quantify the variation.
28 Write about the characteristics of good presentation of assignments?

The most successful assignments have these features:

1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a product to be evaluated.

The best assignments ask students to write for those who actually need to know or understand
something better. Those readers might be a transient community of researchers that a problem
creates, as when students do their research for a client outside of class. A senior design class,
for example, might address a problem of a local company or civic organization; a music class
might write program notes; a history class might investigate the origins of their university or
local community.
2. Good assignments help students learn about their audience.
Most students have trouble imagining readers whom they have never met and whose situation
they have never experienced. But even when readers are real, students have to imagine their
concerns. The students themselves can turn the class into its own audience by letting students
decide what problems need solving, what questions need answering. If students can define the
problems they’re interested in, they will make the best possible readers for one another’s
research.
3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in contextual information.
When students write to resolve the problems of readers known and accessible to them, the
assignment creates a scenario with a wealth of reality. Students can investigate, interrogate,
and analyze the situation for as long as time and ingenuity allow.
Only when students are working in a social context do they have meaningful choices to make
and good reasons to make them. Only then do those choices become rhetorically significant.
And only when writers can make rhetorically significant choices will they understand that at the
heart of every real writing project is the accurate anticipation of their readers’ responses. When
students have no choices, either because the project has turned into a mechanical drill or has
no rhetorical “scene,” doing research and writing it up become merely makework— for you as
much as for them.
4. Good assignments provide interim readers.
Encourage students to solicit early responses from colleagues, friends, family, even from you.
Getting responses is easier if you build opportunities into the assignment itself. Other students
can play this role reasonably well, but not if they think that their task is just “editing”—which
for them often means rearranging a sentence here and fixing a misspelling there. You can even
create teams of responders, each with responsibility for specific features of the text. Those who
provide interim responses must participate in the scenario as imagined readers.
5. As with any real project, good assignments give students time and a schedule of interim
deadlines.
Research is messy, so it does no good to march students through it lockstep: (1) Select topic,
(2) state thesis, (3) write outline, (4) collect bibliography, (5) read and take notes, (6) write
report. That caricatures real research. But students need some framework, a schedule of tasks
that helps them monitor their progress. They need time for false starts and blind alleys, for
 revision and reconsideration. They need interim deadlines and stages for sharing and criticizing
their progress.
29 Write about the purpose of case study?

The case study, though dominantly a qualitative study design, is also prevalent in quantitative
research. A case could be an individual, a group, a community, an instance, an episode, an
event, a subgroup of a population, a town or a city. To be called a case study it is important to
treat the total study population as one entity.

In a case study design the ‘case’ you select becomes the basis of a thorough, holistic and in-
depth exploration of the aspect(s) that you want to find out about. It is an approach ‘in which a
particular instance or a few carefully selected cases are studied intensively’ (Gilbert 2008: 36).
According to Burns (1997: 364), ‘to qualify as a case study, it must be a bounded system, an
entity in itself. A case study should focus on a bounded subject/unit that is either very
representative or extremely atypical.’ A case study according to Grinnell (1981: 302), ‘is
characterized by a very flexible and open-ended technique of data collection and analysis’.

The case study design is based upon the assumption that the case being studied is atypical of
cases of a certain type and therefore a single case can provide insight into the events and
situations prevalent in a group from where the case has been drawn. According to Burns (1997:
365), ‘In a case study the focus of attention is the case in its idiosyncratic complexity, not on the
whole population of cases.’ In selecting a case therefore you usually use purposive,
judgemental or information-oriented sampling techniques.

It is a very useful design when exploring an area where little is known or where you want to
have a holistic understanding of the situation, phenomenon, episode, site, group or community.
This design is of immense relevance when the focus of a study is on extensively exploring and
understanding rather than confirming and quantifying. It provides an overview and in-depth
understanding of a case(s), process and interactional dynamics within a unit of study but cannot
claim to make any generalizations to a population beyond cases similar to the one studied.

In this design your attempt is not to select a random sample but a case that can provide you
with as much information as possible to understand the case in its totality. When studying an
episode or an instance, you attempt to gather information from all available sources so as to
understand it in its entirety. If the focus of your study is a group or community you should
spend sufficient time building a trustworthy rapport with its members before collecting any
information about them.

Though you can use a single method, the use of multiple methods to collect data is an
important aspect of a case study, namely in-depth interviewing, obtaining information from
secondary records, gathering data through observations, collecting information through focus
groups and group interviews, etc. However, it is important that at the time of analysis you
continue to consider the case as a single entity.
30 Write about the ethics to be followed in research?

All professions are guided by a code of ethics that has evolved over the years to accommodate
the changing ethos, values, needs and expectations of those who hold a stake in the
professions. Some professions are more advanced than others in terms of the level of
development of their code of ethics. Some have very strict guidelines, monitor conduct
effectively and take appropriate steps against those who do not abide by the guidelines.
Most professions have an overall code of conduct that also governs the way they carry out
research. In addition, many research bodies have evolved a code of ethics separately for
research. Medicine, epidemiology, business, law, education, psychology and other social
sciences have well-established codes of ethics for research.

Stakeholders in research
The various stakeholders in a research activity are:
1. the research participants or subjects;
2. the researcher;
3. the funding body.

Each category of stakeholders in a research activity may have different interests, perspectives,
purposes, aims and motivations that could affect the way in which the research activity is
carried out and the way results are communicated and used. Because of this, it is important to
ensure that research is not affected by the self-interest of any party and is not carried out in a
way that harms any party. It is therefore important to examine ethical conduct in research
concerning different stakeholders under separate categories.

Ethical issues to consider concerning research participants

Collecting information
Seeking consent
Providing incentives
Seeking sensitive information
The possibility of causing harm to participants
Maintaining confidentiality

Ethical issues to consider relating to the researcher

Avoiding bias
Provision or deprivation of a treatment
Using inappropriate research methodology
Incorrect reporting
Inappropriate use of the information

Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organization

Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organization
The misuse of information

Part C

31 Write about the casestudy of seatle public library.

OMA’s “Bigness”: A Design‐Polemical Theory

OMA’s theory of “Bigness”a exemplifies design‐polemical theory. Rem Koolhaas posits that we
live in such a diverse, multicultural, and cybernetically powerful global reality that architecture
simply limited to localized physical sites is no longer adequate as an expression for the times.
Instead, design must somehow respond to the Bigness of a global culture enabled by the
instant and limitless connectivity of the Internet. This is why Koolhaas’s buildings tend not to
relate very obviously to their immediate physical surroundings. Consider the Seattle Public
Library, or the CCTV Tower in Beijing (Figure 4.7). These edifices are “world buildings” in the
sense that they can “fit” or not “fit” into any localized site. They are responding to larger—
BIGGER—cultural realities than the limitations of acity block. (Refer to Box 12.2 for challenges
that arose in community involvement vis‐a‐vis this project.) It is instructive to place this OMA
theory,which accommodates the technology of the computer (cyber technology), with theories
at the dawn of the 20th century, which sought to accommodate the machine. Coming to mind
is Wright’s “Art and Craft of

Figure 4.7 Rem Koolhaas OMA: Seattle Public Library (a); CCTV Tower, Beijing
(b). OMA’s theory of “Bigness” conceives of a global cyber‐contextual siting of
buildings rather than simply responding to localized physical sites. This results in
 buildings that are essentially interchangeable with regard to locale: the form in
(a) can be in Beijing, and vice versa. Photographs courtesy of David Wang.

the Machine.”b In this well‐known talk given at Hull House in Chicago in

1901, Wright sought to incorporate the aesthetics of the machine into his
organic ideas of architectural design. In this speech, Wright sought to justify
his theory by appealing to larger democratic ideals: to wit, that the
machine enables architectural design to benefit all people rather than just
an elite. A century later, architects like Rem Koolhaas, MVRDV, and Greg
Lynn, to name a few, seek to incorporate cybertechnologies into their designs
 by means of polemics.

32 Explain Multiple casestudy design.

A Multiple‐Case Study: The Public Realm in College Towns

The goal of multiple case study research was to explore the nature of the public realm in
everyday urban experience, specifically in terms of how public places are physically manifested,
how they are understood, and how they are actually used. It is to go beyond the formulations
of contemporary theories and practices of urban design that conceive of publicness as “an
undifferentiated and universally accessible place.” Yet college towns face many of the same
challenges in sustaining a viable public realm in the face of economic downturns,privatization,
and competition from exurban developments. Since there are no hard and fast rules about the
number of cases to select, each researcher must assess the degree of depth
versus comparative breadth that best suits the research question(s) he or she has
posed. Example select two smaller university towns with campuses developed initially in the
19th century, and two state capital cities with campuses developed

College Town Types

qualities of meaning, and range of activities. For each of the three questions, he
devised a distinctly appropriate tactic for data collection and analysis. This overall

In sum, this is an exceedingly robust study yielding many complementary and interrelated
conclusions about the comparative experience of the public realm across the four cities. As it
turns out, the initial categorization of the two literal and replication pairs was only partially
confirmed. Although Ann Arbor and Athens are experienced in relatively similar ways (as are
Tallahassee and Lansing), the four cities form more of a continuum of urban experience. This
result was confirmed through multiple measures and analyses.

33. Write a note about note taking.

The proliferation of electronic resources has made access to sources easier.But digesting what
the sources say requires the same hard work—or hand work—as in the days of the card catalog.
We are referring to note taking, and having a system of organization and retrieval (see
Figure5.3). Annotated bibliographies and literature reviews are made much easier when the
researcher has a systematic way of noting point made in references. Jacques Barzun and Henry
Graff make the point that a researcher’s notes are (or ought to be) his/her thoughts about the
literature being read. In this way, Barzun and Graff elevate note taking from simply copying
down references from texts; whether too much or too little makes little difference. “Am I simply
doing clerk’s work or am I assimilating new knowledge and putting down my own thoughts? To
put down your own thoughts, you must use your own words, not the author’s.”a From these
thoughts come the purpose of the study, or, in Maxwell’s terms, from these thoughts emerge
research questions.b Additionally, thoughts often occur when the books are not around; they
need to be jotted down quickly, or many of them are forgotten. There are many different ways
to take notes and file them.
Figure 5.3 Shown here is a page of notes from Wang’s dissertation research in
1997. For that work, daily notes jotted down were placed into an accordion
folder with many divisions, each marked with the projected chapters of the
dissertation.
The notes were placed in the appropriate sections.

Cherie Peacock’s 2005 master of science in architecture thesis is titled

Dwelling Well: An Application of Christopher Alexander’s Theory of Wholeness to
Investigate
 Occupant Affective Responses to Homes Incorporating Renewable Natural
Resources.2 The first thing to note is the specificity of the title. Thesis and dissertation
titles are usually long because they are the result of an iterative process in which
research questions were sharpened to answer just this issue, and not other ones.
( John Creswell suggests a 12‐word limit for research titles.3 But 12 words are a rule
of thumb; the key is precision.) The iterations in refining the research title go
hand‐in‐hand with refining the research question; all of this comes from engagement
with the literature. Beginning researchers often mistake a general area of interest
for a specific research topic. When Wang first met with Peacock, the answer to
the question “what do you want to research?” was, “I want to research sustainability.”
This broad topical area resulted, several years later, in the above titled work.
Peacock’s background was in environmental engineering, and she came into
the program with an interest in green efficiencies in residential design, and an entrylevel
awareness of relevant literature. During her coursework period, she was exposed
to Alexander’s writings; specifically, she found that a theme in Alexander’s
interest in developing his Pattern Language was a desire to achieve “wholeness.”4
Another literature source was Clare Cooper Marcus’s tactic of having occupants
sketch their feelings about their homes rather than report them in words.5 (See Box
7.1.) Both were important in Peacock’s assessment questions about the sustainability
literature. Can Alexander’s theory of wholeness be applied to occupants of offgrid
homes? Can Cooper Marcus’s tactic of drawing feelings be used to graphically
capture feelings of “wholeness”? (Many of Cooper Marcus’s own examples seem to
capture negative affective conditions.) These assessments drove iterations of the
research questions in the course of Peacock’s work.

33 Explain about research questions.

In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for
the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). These
research questions assume two forms: (a) a central question and (b) associated subquestions.
• Ask one or two central research questions. The central question is a broad question that asks
for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this
question, consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue
so as to not limit the views of participants. To arrive at this question, ask, “What is the broadest
question that I can ask in the study?” Beginning researchers trained in quantitative research
might struggle with this approach because they are accustomed to reverse thinking. They
narrow the quantitative study to specific, narrow questions or hypotheses based on a few
variables. In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the general, complex set of factors
surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad, varied perspectives or meanings
that participants hold. The following are guidelines for writing qualitative research questions:
• Ask no more than five to seven subquestions in addition to your central questions. Several
subquestions follow each general central question; they narrow the focus of the study but leave
open the questioning. This approach is well within the limits set by Miles and Huberman (1994),
who recommended that researchers write no more than a dozen qualitative research questions
in all (central and subquestions). The subquestions, in turn, become specific questions used
during interviews (or in observing or when looking at documents). In developing an interview
protocol or guide, the researcher might ask an icebreaker question at the beginning, for
example, followed by five or so subquestions in the study (see Chapter 9). The interview would
then end with an additional wrap-up or summary question or ask, as I did in one of my
qualitative case studies, “Who should I turn to, to learn more about this topic?” (Asmussen &
Creswell, 1995).
• Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. For example, the
specificity of the questions in ethnography at this stage of the design differs from that in other
qualitative strategies. In ethnographic research, Spradley (1980) advanced a taxonomy of
ethnographic questions that included a mini-tour of the culture-sharing group, their
experiences, use of native language, contrasts with other cultural groups, and questions to
verify the accuracy of the data.
In critical ethnography, the research questions may build on a body of existing literature. These
questions become working guidelines rather than proven truths (Thomas, 1993, p. 35).
Alternatively,in phenomenology, the questions might be broadly stated without specific
reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions. Moustakas (1994) talked about
asking what the participants experienced and what contexts or situations in which they
experienced it. A phenomenological example is “What is it like for a mother to live with a
teenage child who is dying of cancer?”(Nieswiadomy, 1993, p. 151). In grounded theory, the
questions may be directed toward generating a theory of some process, such as the exploration
of a process as to how caregivers and patients
interact in a hospital setting. In a qualitative case study, the questions may address a
description of the case and the themes that emerge from studying it.
• Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and emerging
design. The word why often implies that the researcher is trying to explain why something
occurs, and this suggests to me probable cause-and-effect thinking that I associate with
quantitative research and that limits the explanations rather than opening them up for
participant views.
• Focus on a single phenomenon or concept. As a study develops over time, factors will emerge
 that may influence this single phenomenon, but begin a study with a single focus to explore in
great detail. I often ask, “What is the one, single concept that you want to explore?”
• Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These verbs tell the
reader that the study will do the following: Report (or reflect) the stories (e.g., narrative
research) Describe the essence of the experience (e.g., phenomenology)
Discover (e.g., grounded theory)
Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
Explore a process (e.g., case study)
• Use these more exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than directional words that suggest
quantitative research, such as affect, influence, impact, determine, cause, and relate.
• Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent
with the assumptions of an emerging design. Often in qualitative studies, the questions are
under continual review and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study). This approach may
be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative designs in which the research
questions remain fixed and never change throughout the study.
• Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise
indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.
• Specify the participants and the research site for the study if the information has not yet been
given.
Here is a typical script for a qualitative central question:
_________ (How or what?) is the _________ (“story for” for narrative research; “meaning of”
the phenomenon for phenomenology; “theory that explains the process of” for grounded
theory; “culture-sharing pattern” for ethnography; “issue” in the “case” for case study) of
_________
(central phenomenon) for _________ (participants) at _________ (research site).
The following are examples of qualitative research questions drawn from several types of
strategies.
34 Example 7.1 A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography
Finders (1996) used ethnographic procedures to document the reading of teen magazines by
middleclass European American seventh-grade girls. By examining the reading of teen zines
(magazines),
the researcher explored how the girls perceive and construct their social roles and relationships
as they enter junior high school. She asked one guiding central question in her study:
How do early adolescent females read literature that falls outside the realm of fiction? (p. 72)
Finders’s (1996) central question began with how; it used an open-ended verb, read; it focused
on a single concept—the literature or teen magazines; and it mentioned the participants,
adolescent females, as the culture-sharing group. Notice how the author crafted a concise,
single question that needed to be answered in the study. It was a broad question to permit
participants to share diverse perspectives about reading the literature.
35 Example 7.2 Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study
Padula and Miller (1999) conducted a multiple case study that described the experiences of
women who went back to school, after a time away, in a psychology doctoral program at a
major midwestern research university. The intent was to document the women’s experiences,
providing a gendered and feminist perspective for women in the literature. The authors asked
three central questions that guided the inquiry:
(a) How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their decision to return to
school? (b) How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their re-entry
experiences? And (c) How does returning to graduate school change these women’s lives? (p.
328) These three central questions all began with the word how; they included open-ended
verbs, such a s describe, and they focused on three aspects of the doctoral experience—
returning to school, reentering, and changing. They also mentioned the participants as women
in a doctoral program at a midwestern research university.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and
sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Quantitative
research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks
to know. They are frequently used in social science research and especially in survey studies.
Quantitative hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher makes about the
expected outcomes of relationships among variables. They are numeric estimates of population
values based on data collected from samples. Testing of hypotheses employs statistical
procedures in which the investigator draws inferences about the population from a study
sample (see also Chapter 8). Hypotheses are used often in experiments in which investigators
compare groups. Advisers sometimes recommend their use in a formal research project, such
as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the direction a study will take. Objectives, on
the other hand, indicate the goals or objectives for a study. They often appear in proposals for
funding, but tend to be used with less frequency in social and health science research. Because
of this, the focus here will be on research questions and hypotheses.
Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question describing outcomes of score
for a variable:
What is the frequency and variation of scores on _________ (name the variable) for _________
(participants) in the study?
Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question focused on examining the
relationship among variables:
Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent
variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________
(control variable)?
Alternatively, a script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows:
There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental groups on
the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable).
Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the
following.
• The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic
approaches. The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its impact
on a dependent variable (this would be an experiment or group comparisons). Alternatively, the
investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more dependent variables
(this would be a survey that correlates variables). Third, the researcher may describe responses
to the independent, mediating, or dependent variables (this would be a descriptive study).
Most quantitative research falls into one or more of these three categories.
• The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory (see Chapter
3) and the specification of research questions or hypotheses that logically follow from the
relationship among variables in the theory.
• The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately and not measured
on the same concept. This procedure reinforces the cause-and-effect logic of quantitative
research.
• To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses—not both—unless the
hypotheses build on the research questions. Choose the form based on tradition,
recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates a
prediction about outcomes.
• If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: (a) null and (b) alternative. A null hypothesis
represents the traditional approach: It makes a prediction that in the general population, no
relationship or no significant difference exists between groups on a variable. The wording is,
“There is no difference (or relationship)” between the groups. The following example illustrates
a null hypothesis.
E
36 Give one example of tactics in Historical research.

Protzen researched Incan construction technique, from quarrying stones to their

installation. We used this case in the first edition of this book; it still remains a good
compendium of tactics to access the past. The reader is asked to become familiar
with Protzen’s article, which appears in the May 1985 issue of the Journal of the Society
of Architectural Historians (references to this article in this chapter section will
only be by page number).
Tactic 1: On‐site familiarity. Protzen acquired knowledge of his topic by firsthand
visits. From these came sketch maps, measurements and drawings, recordings
of “innumerable blocks,” field notes, and slides (footnote, p. 161). Figure 6.11
shows some drawings sketched on site. On‐site familiarity was essential for framing
conjectures that, in the completed narrative, achieved the weight of informed opinion.
For instance, from the capital Cuzco, the physical distance of the two quarries
Protzen researched led him to surmise that “the choice of rock type must have been
of utmost importance to the Incas, or they would not have quarried sites so difficult
of access and so far away” (p. 162).
Figure 6.11 Protzen’s sectional drawings, based upon site observations, of one
of the Inca quarries. Courtesy of Jean‐Pierre Protzen.
204 Part II: Seven Research Strategies
(Katachiqhata and Rumiqolqa) yielded different qualities of stone. The coarsegrained
rocks from Katachiqhata were used in the buildings of the “religious sector,”
while the flow‐banded andesite from Rumiqolqa, which is easier to be
extracted in slabs, was used for sidewalks (p. 165). Also, at Rumiqolqa, Protzen
saw traces of how the rocks were quarried by means of a channel cut into the top
of a cantilevered portion, and then holes worked into the channel of considerable
depth. This also corroborates a report of the same technique surmised by Squires
a century before (p. 169).
Tactic 4: Material evidence. Protzen looks to the artifacts themselves for
evidence to support his hypothesis that the chief method of Inca stone dressing
was by pounding. He noted that whitish coloration of the pitmarks on the stones
was consistent with the heat produced in pounding. Furthermore, he noted that
the pitmarks were finer as they got closer to a joint edge (see Figure 6.12). He
theorized that they were made by “smaller hammers to work the edges.” He found
evidence to support this in the smaller slivers that lay in the surrounding area
(“limiting myself to chips that I could pick up with my fingers, I found 43
slivers”
[p. 175]). Also, the artifacts allowed Protzen to hypothesize how the eyeholes
so common in Inca masonry were made. “They exhibit a conical shape of
either side of the perforated stone. This suggests that the pounding had been
started from both sides until there remained only a thin membrane to be punched
out.” Based on this, Protzen suggests his alternative to a theory of Bingham’s, who
suggested that the holes were bored with bamboo “rapidly revolved between the
palms of the hands” (p. 176).
Tactic 5: Comparison with conditions elsewhere. Protzen looks to similar
conditions in cultures elsewhere to speculate on technique, this based on assumptions
that there are a limited number of ways pre‐industrial cultures can dress large
masses of stone by hand. Of the evidence at Kachiqhata: “The cutting marks on
these and other blocks are intriguing. They are very similar to those found on the
unfinished obelisk at Aswan, and the technique involved must not have been very
different from the one used by the Egyptians, who used balls of dolerite to pound
away at the workpiece until it had the desired shape” (p. 165).
Tactic 6: Local informants and lore. Protzen depended on local lore to identify
the west quarry of Kachiqhata as “the real quarry of Ollantaytambo” (p. 166).
However, Protzen often cites local information just to question it or disagree with
it. For instance, regarding certain needle‐like blocks found at a quarry termed the
Llama Pit, the author rejected the local opinion that they were for bridge construction
(p. 167). He based his own view upon, again, educated conjectures from visual
observation. The point is that local informants and lore constitute a supply of data
that the researcher can use in ways that help his/her narrative.

Figure 6.12 This image from Protzen shows the pitmarks he observed diminishing
in size as they get nearer the joint. Courtesy of Jean‐Pierre Protzen.
Tactic 7: Reenactment/testimonial. Probably the most persuasive of
Protzen’s
tactics are his reenactments of the work the Inca stonemasons performed
(see Figure 6.13). Based on his visual observations, Protzen reenacted both the
dressing of the stones and the erection of a large masonry wall. In the first instance,
he tested his theory that systematic pounding was the method of dressing by using
a hammer of metamorphosed sandstone on a raw block of andesite. He learned the
efficacy of different angles of pounding, as well as the utility of gravity as an aid in
maneuvering a 4‐kg hammer. In the second instance, Protzen tested his idea of how
large stones were fitted together in a wall of irregular jointure. He found that the
Figure 6.12 This image from Protzen shows the pitmarks he observed diminishing
in size as they get nearer the joint. Courtesy of Jean‐Pierre Protzen.

Figure 6.13 A Protzen drawing showing wall construction. Protzen enacted construction
procedures to demonstrate his hypothesis that each new course can be
cut to fit the profile of the course below it. Courtesy of Jean‐Pierre Protzen.

dust produced from the pounding of a bedding joint got compressed when an
upper stone was placed on the bed, indicating where further pounding was required.
“Through repeated fitting and pounding, one can achieve as close a fit as
one wishes” (p. 179).
The outcome of these reenactments is reported with the strength of a testimonial.
With respect to the dressing of the andesite block, “the work from rough block
to the stage with one face dressed took me only 20 minutes” (p. 173). This persuades
the reader that pounding alone by a crew of trained persons can produce,
without sophisticated tools, large amounts of dressed stone in a reasonable amount
of time.
Tactic 8: Identification of remaining questions. Clearly stating what one
does not know in the face of present evidence can actually make a narrative more
robust; this applies in general to any kind of research report. Here, after summarizing
 the local lore on an area designated as “quarrymen’s quarters,” as well as critiquing
the view of another analyst (Harth‐terre) on this subject, Protzen simply says
that “the significance . . . of these structures remains to be established” (p. 164). And
against his theory that the Inca did not use many tools in their stonemasonry,
Figure 6.13 A Protzen drawing showing wall construction. Protzen enacted construction
procedures to demonstrate his hypothesis that each new course can be
cut to fit the profile of the course below it. Courtesy of Jean‐Pierre Protzen.
Historical Research 207
Protzen
acknowledges examples “throughout the territory that I explored” where
there appear to be clear cases of saw cutting and/or stone polishing. “What tools
they used for this I do not yet know” (p. 178). Far from negating the validity of his
ideas, Protzen’s admission of ignorance on these matters underscores his credibility.
Future theories explaining the presence of sawed stone at certain locations may fit in
as a corollary to his larger theory of pounding, as opposed to anything that would
negate his ideas.

Conclusion
History research accesses evidence from the past, and this chapter provided an
overview of what is entailed. At the strategic level, schools of thought affect
how past conditions are interpreted. Tactically, history research entails fact
finding, fact evaluation, fact organization, and fact analysis. It requires an interpretive
imagination that nevertheless does not spill over into fiction, but is
rather guided by a mind that Barzun and Graff describe as having a love for
order. It entails being aware of different kinds of judgments that can be made
once enough evidence has been garnered. It entails the imaginative identification
and use of specific tactics to access the object under study, as illustrated by
Protzen’s efforts. Above all, again at the strategic level, history research requires
the framing of a narrative that is at once holistic, in the sense that a story is
holistic.
We conclude with one more example (see Box 6.5) to illustrate how advancing
computer technology helps history research.

37 Explain about data collection.

Based upon the broad approaches to information gathering, data can be categorized as:
1. primary data;
2. secondary data.
Information gathered using the first approach is said to be collected from primary sources,
whereas the sources used in the second approach are called secondary sources.
Collecting data using primary sources

Observation
Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
Types of observation
There are two types of observation:
1. participant observation;
2. non-participant observation.
Participant observation is when you, as a researcher, participate in the activities of the group
being observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they
are being observed.
Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is when you, as a researcher, do not get
involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer, watching and listening to
its activities and drawing conclusions from this.
Situations in which observations can be made
Observations can be made under two conditions:
1. natural;
2. controlled.
Observing a group in its natural operation rather than intervening in its activities is classified as
observation under natural conditions. Introducing a stimulus to the group for it to react to and
observing the reaction is called controlled observation.
Recording observations
There are many ways of recording observations. The selection of a method of recording
depends upon the purpose of the observation. The way an observation is recorded also
determines whether it is a quantitative or qualitative study.
Narrative recording – In this form of recording the researcher records a description of the
interaction in his/her own words. Such a type of recording clearly falls in the domain of
qualitative research. Usually, a researcher makes brief notes while observing the interaction
and then soon after completing the observation makes detailed notes in narrative form.
Recording on electronic devices – Observation can also be recorded on videotape or other
electronic devices and then analysed. The advantage of recording an interaction in this way is
that the observer can see it a number of times before interpreting an interaction or drawing
any conclusions from it and can also invite other professionals to view the interaction in order
to arrive at more objective conclusions.
The interview
Interviewing is a commonly used method of collecting information from people. In many walks
of life we collect information through different forms of interaction with others. There are
many definitions of interviews. According to Monette et al. (1986: 156), ‘an interview involves
an interviewer reading questions to respondents and recording their answers’

FIGURE 9.3 Types of interview

Unstructured Interviews
The strength of unstructured interviews is the almost complete freedom they provide in terms
of content and structure. You are free to order these in whatever sequence you wish. You also
have complete freedom in terms of the wording you use and the way you explain questions to
your respondents. You may formulate questions and raise issues on the spur of the moment,
depending upon what occurs to you in the context of the discussion.

Structured interviews
In a structured interview the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions, using the same
wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule. An interview schedule is
a written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for use by an interviewer in a
person-to-person interaction (this may be face to face, by telephone or by other electronic
media). One of the main advantages of the structured interview is that it provides uniform
information, which assures the comparability of data. Structured interviewing requires fewer
interviewing skills than does unstructured interviewing.

The questionnaire
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by
respondents. In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected
and then write down the answers. The only difference between an interview schedule and a
questionnaire is that in the former it is the interviewer who asks the questions (and if
necessary, explains them) and records the respondent’s replies on an interview schedule, and
in the latter replies are recorded by the respondents themselves.

Formulating effective questions

The wording and tone of your questions are important because the information and its quality
largely depend upon these factors. It is therefore important to be careful about the way you
formulate questions.
The following are some considerations to keep in mind when formulating questions:
Always use simple and everyday language. Your respondents may not be highly educated, and
even if they are they still may not know some of the ‘simple’ technical jargon that you are used
to. Particularly in a questionnaire, take extra care to use words that your respondents will
understand as you will have no opportunity to explain questions to them. A pre-test should
show you what is and what is not understood by your respondents. For example:
Is anyone in your family a dipsomaniac? (Bailey 1978: 100)
In this question many respondents, even some who are well educated, will not understand
‘dipsomaniac’ and, hence, they either do not answer or answer the question without
understanding.
Do not use ambiguous questions. An ambiguous question
Do not ask double-barrelled questions. A double-barrelled question
Do not ask leading questions
Do not ask questions that are based on presumptions

Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research

The construction of a research instrument or tool is an extremely important aspect of a
research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based upon the
type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the
questions that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about computers – ‘garbage in,
garbage out’ – is also applicable to data collection.
Asking personal and sensitive questions
In the social sciences, sometimes one needs to ask questions that are of a personal nature.
Some respondents may find this offensive. It is important to be aware of this as it may affect
the quality of information or even result in an interview being terminated or questionnaires not
being returned.
by using random devices.

To describe these methods in detail is beyond the scope of this book.

The order of questions
The order of questions in a questionnaire or in an interview schedule is important as it affects
the quality of information, and the interest and even willingness of a respondent to participate
in a study. Again, there are two categories of opinion as to the best way to order questions.
Pre-testing a research instrument
Having constructed your research instrument, whether an interview schedule or a
questionnaire, it is important that you test it out before using it for actual data collection. Pre-
testing a research instrument entails a critical examination of the understanding of each
question and its meaning as understood by a respondent.
Prerequisites for data collection
motivation to share the required information – It is essential for respondents to be willing to
clear understanding of the questions
possession of the required information
Methods of data collection in qualitative research
To draw a clear distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection is
both difficult and inappropriate because of the overlap between them. The difference between
them mainly lies in the manner in which a method is applied in an actual data collection
situation.
There are three main methods of data collection in qualitative research:
1. unstructured interviews;
2. participant observation;
3. secondary sources.
Participant observation has been adequately covered earlier in this chapter and secondary
sources will be covered in a later section, so at this point we will focus on unstructured
interviews, which are by far the most commonly used method of data collection in qualitative
research. Flexibility, freedom and spontaneity in contents and structure underpin an interaction
in all types of unstructured interview. This interaction can be at a one-to-one (researcher and a
respondent) or a group (researcher and a group of respondents) level. There are several types
of unstructured interview that are prevalent in qualitative research, for example in-depth
interviewing, focus group interviewing,narratives and oral histories. Below is a brief description
of each of them. For a detailed understanding readers should consult the relevant references
listed in the Bibliography.
In-depth interviews
 The theoretical roots of in-depth interviewing are in what is known as the interpretive
tradition. According to Taylor and Bogdan, in-depth interviewing is ‘repeated face-to-face
encounters between the researcher and informants directed towards understanding
informants’ perspectives on their lives, experiences, or situations as expressed in their own
words’ (1998: 77). This definition underlines two essential characteristics of in-depth
interviewing: (1) it involves face-to-face, repeated interaction between the researcher and
his/her informant(s); and (2) it seeks to understand the latter’s perspectives.
Because this method involves repeated contacts and hence an extended length of time spent
with an informant, it is assumed that the rapport between researcher and informant will be
enhanced, and that the corresponding understanding and confidence between the two will lead
to in-depth and accurate information.
Focus group interviews
The only difference between a focus group interview and an in-depth interview is that the
former is undertaken with a group and the latter with an individual. In a focus group interview,
you explore the perceptions, experiences and understandings of a group of people who have
some experience in common with regard to a situation or event.

38 Write about research process.

PHASE I DECIDING WHAT TO RESEARCH

Step I Formulating a research problem
PHASE II PLANNING A RESEARCH STUDY
Step II Conceptualizing a research design
Step III Constructing an instrument for data collection
Step IV Selecting a sample
Step V Writing a research proposal
PHASE III CONDUCTING A RESEARCH STUDY
Step VI Collecting data
Step VII Processing and displaying data
Step VIII Writing a research report

Phase I: deciding what to research

Step I: formulating a research problem

A research problem identifies its destination: it should tell the researcher, research supervisor
and the readers what the researcher intend to research. The researcher to be more specific and
clearer is better, as everything that follows in the research process – study design,
measurement procedures, sampling strategy, frame of analysis and the style of writing the
dissertation or report – is greatly influenced by the way in which the researcher formulate the
research problem. Hence, it should be examined thoroughly, carefully and critically. The main
function of formulating a research problem is to decide what the researcher want to find out
about. It is extremely important to evaluate the research problem in the light of the financial
resources at the researchers disposal, the time available, and the researchers own and
research supervisor’s expertise and knowledge in the field of study. It is equally important to
identify any gaps in ones knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as statistics required for
analysis. Also, one should have sufficient knowledge about computers and software if he plans
to use them.

Phase II: planning a research study

Step II: conceptualising a research design

The main function of a research design is to explain how one will find answers to his or her
research questions. The research design sets out the specific details of the enquiry. A research
design should include the following: the study design per se and the logistical arrangements
that one’s propose to undertake, the measurement procedures, the sampling strategy, the
frame of analysis and the timeframe
For any investigation, the selection of an appropriate research design is crucial in enabling one
to arrive at valid findings, comparisons and conclusions. A faulty design results in misleading
findings and is therefore tantamount to wasting human and financial resources. In scientific
circles, the strength of an empirical investigation is primarily evaluated in the light of the
research design adopted. When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that it is
valid, workable and manageable.
There is an enormous variety of study designs and one need to be acquainted with some of the
most common ones. One should have strong reasons for selecting a particular design and must
be able to justify his or her selection; and should be aware of its strengths, weaknesses and
limitations. In addition, need to explain the logistical details needed to implement the
suggested design.

Step III: constructing an instrument for data collection

Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a ‘research
tool’ or a ‘research instrument’, for example observation forms, interview schedules,
questionnaires and interview guides.
The construction of a research instrument is the first ‘practical’ step in carrying out a study. You
will need to decide how you are going to collect data for the proposed study and then construct
a research instrument for data collection. If you are planning to collect data specifically for your
study (primary data), you need either to construct a research instrument or to select one that
has already been constructed. If you are using secondary data (information already collected
for other purposes), you will need to identify what information is needed and then develop a
form to extract the required data. In order to determine what information is required, you need
to go through the same process as for primary data, described above.
Field testing (or pre-testing) a research tool is an integral part of instrument construction. As a
rule, the pre-test of a research instrument should not be carried out on the sample of your
study population but on a similar population which you are not proposing to study. This is
covered in greater detail in Chapter 9.
If you are planning to use a computer for data analysis, you may wish to provide space for
coding the data on the research instrument. This is explained in Chapter 15.
Step IV: selecting a sample
The accuracy of your findings largely depends upon the way you select your sample. The basic
objective of any sampling design is to minimise, within the limitation of cost, the gap between
the values obtained from your sample and those prevalent in the study population.
The underlying premise in sampling is that a relatively small number of units, if selected in a
manner that they genuinely represent the study population, can provide – with a sufficiently
high degree of probability – a fairly true reflection of the sampling population that is being
studied.
When selecting a sample you should attempt to achieve two key aims of sampling the
avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample; and the attainment of maximum precision for a
given outlay of resources.
There are three categories of sampling design (Chapter 12): random/probability sampling
designs,non-random/non-probability sampling designs and ‘mixed’ sampling design.
There are several sampling strategies within the first two categories. You need to be acquainted
with these sampling designs – the strengths and weaknesses of each and the situations in which
they can or cannot be applied – in order to select the one most appropriate for your study. The
type of sampling strategy you use will influence your ability to make generalisations from the
sample findings about the study population, and the type of statistical tests you can apply to
the data.

Step V: writing a research proposal

Having done all the preparatory work, the next step is to put everything together in a way that
provides adequate information about your research study, for your research supervisor and
others. This overall plan, called a research proposal, tells a reader about your research problem
and how you are planning to investigate. Broadly, a research proposal’s main function is to
detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to your research questions. In doing so it
ensures – and reassures the readers of – the validity of the methodology to obtain answers
accurately and objectively. Universities and other institutions may have differing requirements
regarding the style and content of a research proposal, but the majority of institutions would
require most of what is set out here.
Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to discipline or from
supervisor to supervisor. However, the guidelines set out in Chapter 13 provide a framework
which will be acceptable to most.

Phase III: conducting a research study

Step VI: collecting data

Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research
instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw
inferences and conclusions for your study.
Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a part of the research
design, you decided upon the procedure you wanted to adopt to collect your data. In this phase
you actually collect the data.
Step VII: processing and displaying data
The way you analyse the information you collected largely depends upon two things: the type
of information (descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal); and the way you want to
communicate your findings to your readers.In addition to the qualitative–quantitative
distinction, it is important for data analysis that you consider whether the data is to be analysed
manually or by a computer.
Step VIII: writing a research report
There are two broad categories of reports: quantitative and qualitative. As mentioned earlier,
the distinction is more academic than real as in most studies you need to combine quantitative
and qualitative skills. Nevertheless, there are some solely qualitative and some solely
quantitative studies.Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step of the
research process. This report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered
and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings