310 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO.
2, FEBRUARY 2019
Analysis of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
Fault Diagnosis Based on Learning
I-Hsi Kao, Wei-Jen Wang, Yi-Horng Lai, and Jau-Woei Perng , Member, IEEE
Abstract— This paper presents an effective diagnosis algorithm
for permanent magnet synchronous motors running with an
array of faults of varying severity over a wide speed range.
The fault diagnosis is based on a current signature analysis.
The complete fault motor diagnosis system requires the extraction
of features based on the current method and a subsequent method
for adding classifications. In this paper, we propose two feature
extraction methods: the first involves a classification method
that utilizes a wavelet packet transform and the second is a
deep 1-D convolution neural network that includes a softmax
layer. The experimental results obtained using real-time motor
stator current data demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
methods for real-time monitoring of motor conditions. The results
also demonstrate that the proposed methods can effectively
diagnose five different motor states, including two different
demagnetization fault states and two bearing fault states.
Index Terms— Convolution neural network (CNN), deep
learning, fault diagnosis, motor current signature analysis,
permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), wavelet package
transform.
I. I NTRODUCTION
M ECHANICAL fault diagnosis is an important issue
in modern industries. The advent of industrial automa-
tion has enabled fast production of large quantities of products;
however, equipment maintenance still requires human inter-
vention. As technology advances, the need for human inter-
vention in the fault diagnosis process has gradually decreased.
In recent years, machine learning has become a popular
technique. Many studies have demonstrated that both unsu-
pervised and supervised machine learning can be effectively
used in fault diagnosis [1]. Many unsupervised learning
systems have been applied in industry, such as the K -means
algorithm [2], principal component analysis [3], [4], and self-
organizing maps [5]. Supervised learning systems, such as
artificial neural networks [6], support vector machines [7],
and partial least squares [8], also exhibit strong performances
in engineering applications. These applications demonstrate
that machine learning can effectively solve or improve a
variety of engineering problems.
Numerous mechanical fault diagnoses based on vibration
signal analysis are currently available. However, it is also
Manuscript received November 7, 2017; revised May 10, 2018; accepted
May 22, 2018. Date of publication June 29, 2018; date of current version
December 24, 2018. The Associate Editor coordinating the review process
was Dr. Massimo Lazzaroni. (Corresponding author: Jau-Woei Perng.)
The authors are with the Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical
Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan
(e-mail: jwperng@faculty.nsysu.edu.tw).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIM.2018.2847800
0018-9456 © 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
possible to diagnose ball-bearing faults based on the vibration
signal using an artificial neural network and support vector
machine [9]. Sugumaran and Ramachandran [10] used a deci-
sion tree as a fuzzy classifier in the fault diagnosis of a roller
bearing based on its vibration signal. There are several motor
fault diagnosis methods based on vibration signal analysis.
Li et al. [11] developed a neural-network-based rolling bearing
fault diagnosis. In [12], a diagnosis method based on wavelet
analysis was applied to the feature extraction for mechan-
ical vibration signals. Tamilselvan and Wang [13] presented
a novel multisensor health diagnosis method using a deep
belief network based on a restricted Boltzmann machine. This
method trained the layers one by one as a deep network struc-
ture. This paper showed that the deep belief network classifier
model yielded good results in complex systems. Vibration
signal analysis often encounters problems when noise cannot
be fully suppressed. If the noise is loud, the accuracy of the
diagnosis system reduces. Thus, to decrease noise and increase
the feature learning ability, the maximum correntropy was used
to design a new, stacked autoencoder (SAE) loss function [14].
Some studies have determined the fault signal and disturbance
depending on complex math and deep theory in model-based
fault diagnoses [15], [16].
In machine learning, a convolutional discriminative feature
learning method has been developed for the fault diagnosis
of induction motors [17]. This method is more effective and
robust than other state-of-the-art methods. Although vibra-
tion signal analysis yields good results in fault diagnosis,
the removal of background noise is often a complicated
process. In addition, vibration measurement suffers from the
uncertainty of installation location and effects of adjacent
machines. The need to install the sensor on the motor presents
an additional cost.
Utilizing current signal analysis to conduct motor fault
diagnosis reduces the problem of background noise and effects
of other mechanical interference. In addition, if a Hall sensor
is incorporated into the inverter to detect the stator current
of the motor, there is no need to install additional sensors.
One method, based on coupled circuits and winding function
theory for squirrel cage induction motors, has been proposed
to successfully simulate the steady state and transient response
of a normal induction motor. It also simulates the motor with
stator and rotor faults without changing the structure of the
model [18]. Using both the measurement data of the stator
current and the mechanical vibration spectra as the source
signal to train the neural network, we can diagnose problems
in induction motors, such as rotor stator and rolling bearing
faults [19].
KAO et al.: ANALYSIS OF PMSM FAULT DIAGNOSIS
Several studies have incorporated frequency domain
analyses to diagnose faulty motors. According to [20],
the Daubechies 3 wavelet can be used to analyze the mother
wavelet function by extracting the features through a wavelet
packet transform (WPT). The four nodes of the switching
current were used for the energy characteristic index, which
serves as the basis for evaluating the fault. An artificial neural
network was then developed to identify the occurrence of the
fault in the converter. This system can detect a common three-
phase winding open circuit between the two phases that belong
to an electrical-class fault detection. In [21], short- and open-
circuit electrical faults were successfully detected, as were
simulated mechanical failures. The method for simulating the
motor and load between the gearbox involved some degra-
dation of the gear. The feature extraction method involved
the application of the time–frequency analysis through the
stator current that incorporated a short-time Fourier transform,
undecimated WPT, Wigner distribution, and Choi–Williams
distribution of observing the magnetic field in the ac motor
guide current. A multidimensional discriminant analysis was
then used to reduce the dimension of the features. The process
was completed using a K -means algorithm. According to
the results of the classifier, the use of an undecimated
WPT to deal with the current produced better classification
results.
Several studies have used time-domain analysis to diagnose
faulty motors. In [22], a fast and accurate motor condi-
tion monitoring and early fault detection system was devel-
oped using 1-D convolutional neural networks (1D-CNNs).
The system has an inherent adaptive design that combines
the feature extraction and classification phases of motor fault
detection into a single learning body. The experimental results
obtained using real motor data demonstrate the effectiveness of
the proposed method for real-time motor condition monitoring.
A fault diagnosis method based on an adaptive neurofuzzy
inference system, in combination with decision trees, has
also been presented [23]. This employed a classification and
regression tree (one of the decision tree methods) as a feature
selection procedure to select pertinent features from the data
set. Both frequency- and time-domain analyses’ results indi-
cate that the model has potential applications in the fault
diagnosis of induction motors.
Focusing on the demagnetization of a permanent magnet
synchronous motor (PMSM) with bearing failure, and by
observing the current spectrum of the PMSM under demag-
netization failure, it is possible to develop a set of test
flows that can effectively monitor its operation [24]. Using
simulation software to establish a 2-D finite-element analysis,
the PMSM can be used to compare the difference between
simulation and experimental results. Furthermore, using analog
signals to promote the fault diagnosis process extends its
applicability to a wider range of operating conditions. Bearing
failure is usually accompanied by eccentricity problems, and
simple bearing problems have been comprehensively discussed
in the literature. By analyzing the stator current spectrum of
an induction motor, we can detect and monitor the bearing
failure status. Mechanical vibrations in the motor will be
reflected in the air gap and mechanical angular frequency.
311
The feature frequency and mechanical angular frequency can
be expressed in the mathematical form [25].
We focus on the bearing and demagnetization failures of
PMSMs to develop an effective diagnostic method. Bearings
within rotating machinery directly affect the efficiency of
mechanical operations, and demagnetization problems result
from the motor handling process or rotor magnet magnetiza-
tion operation error.
In this paper, we present two feature extraction methods.
The first is an unsupervised learning technique that incor-
porates a 1D-CNN and WPT. The second is a classification
method that combines supervised learning and a softmax layer
to classify PMSMs into five states. The experimental results
demonstrate that our methods can effectively diagnose five
different motor states running at speeds of 150–3000 r/min.
The results of the 1D-CNN method are better than those of the
other methods. Therefore, we recommend using the 1D-CNN
for feature extraction and the softmax layer for classification
because the 1D-CNN has higher accuracy and requires less
human intervention for feature extraction.
The contributions of this paper are as follows:
1) In [17], a 1D-CNN was used to diagnose motor faults by
extracting features from vibration signals. We used the
stator current as the analysis signal in our representation.
If the stator current is used as a feature extraction source
(instead of vibration signals), noise-related problems can
be disregarded.
2) In [22], an 1D-CNN was used to diagnose motor faults
by extracting features from the current signal. However,
Ince et al. [22] only classified motors into two failure
modes, whereas our representation can classify motors
into five different failure modes while maintaining a high
degree of accuracy.
3) In addition, Ince et al. [22] only considered one
speed setting. Our study examines speeds in the range
of 150–3000 r/min. The wider the coverage, the greater
will be the diversity of features, but the additional
feature dispersion does make classification more diffi-
cult. Although our conditions are more stringent, we can
still prove the effectiveness of our approach.
4) In summary, we propose a traditional feature extraction
method or WPT and the 1D-CNN method and analyze
the differences between them.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.
In Section II, we present the five motors used in the exper-
iments and describe the causes of the faults and reasons for
designing the faulty motors. The harmonic distribution at each
speed is observed by measuring the time-domain amplitude
signal and fast Fourier transform spectrum. In Section III,
we describe the diagnosis system structure and explain
the diagnosis steps. In Section IV, we describe the two
feature extraction methods; 1D-CNN and WPT. In Section V,
the experimental results obtained using real motor data are
presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
methods for real-time motor condition monitoring. The exper-
imental results show that our methods can effectively classify
312 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

the five different states of the motors. Finally, Section VI

concludes this paper and suggests topics for future research.

II. PMSM FAULTS

In the event of motor failure, there are several important
parameters to be considered, such as the current magnetic
flux in the electrical parameter category and torque and speed
in the mechanical parameter category. The above signals are
widely used in fault diagnosis. Errors in stator frequency are
synchronized with the current frequency, and the operating
condition of the motor will respond to the current shock of the
driver. Hence, the current signal is an effective and feasible
focus or target of observation.
A PMSM is embedded in the rotor using permanent magnets
to produce a permanent magnetic field. By driving the inverter
ac, so that the stator winding produces a magnetic field,
the magnetic pole on the rotor will rotate synchronously with
the rotating magnetic field. The ac power for the synchronous
motor supplied by the driver will have specific multiple
relationships with the rotation of the motor and can be
expressed as
Ns = 120 × f s /2 p (1)
where f s (Hz) is the ac frequency provided by the convertor,
Ns (r/min) is the rotation speed of the motor, and p is the
number of pole pairs in the rotor of the motor. The formula for
Fig. 1. Stator current signal of the normal motor. (a) Time-domain current
converting electrical angular frequency to mechanical angular signal. (b) Frequency-domain current signal.
frequency requires the conversion of motor speed from r/min
to r/s. We then obtain the electric angle frequency/mechanical
angle frequency conversion equation distribution is not perfect. Connecting all of the peaks reveals
that the peak connection is a sinusoidal waveform and not a
fr = f s / p (2)
horizontal line. However, this is within an acceptable tolerance
where f s and fr are the electrical angular and mechanical for the amount of magnetization present.
angular frequencies, respectively. Once the electrical angular In the frequency field signal of the normal motor shown
frequency is determined, the motor speed is immediately in Fig. 1(b), the fast Fourier transform spectrum reveals a
known. According to the above descriptions, the concept of considerable amplitude in the 40-Hz range. Other ranges have
harmonic phenomenon can be described. a weak harmonic response but do not experience any obvious
In this paper, we diagnose five different PMSMs: a normal abnormalities. According to (1) and (2), the electrical angular
motor, motors with two different degrees of demagnetization frequency generated by the converter is 40 Hz. Our measure-
faults, and motors with two different types of bearing faults. ment results and formulas (1) and (2) are consistent. Although
By measuring and analyzing the motor under a variety of there will be some transmission delay in the measurement
operating conditions, we can describe the integrity of each experiment, this does not greatly affect the results.
fault situation as the basis for the development of a fault
diagnosis system. B. Demagnetization Fault in PMSM
The permanent magnets embedded in the rotor of the PMSM
A. Normal PMSM are subject to the high current generated by the heat from
To explore the differences in signal composition between magnetic attenuation, which is known as demagnetization.
normal and faulty motors, it is necessary to use the normal The diagnosis of a demagnetization failure has important
motor as the control in the experiment. This allows us to applications in several scenarios such as when designing a low-
directly compare objects with various faults and observe the volume, high-power motor. In particular, the electric car and
difference in the position of fault features. aviation industries would benefit from this aspect of diagnosis
We measured 600 r/min steady-state speed under the current technology, where the possibility of detecting even partial
time-domain signal of the normal motor, as shown in Fig. 1(a). demagnetization could have a significant impact.
The signal is composed of sine wave combinations, and the In our experiments, we utilized two types of demagnetiza-
period of the sine waves is the period in which the driver tion faults, each with a different degree of demagnetization.
operates the motor. Furthermore, by observing the change The first demagnetization fault was created by replacing one
in the size of each peak, we can see that the magnetic of the permanent magnets in the rotor with aluminum pieces
KAO et al.: ANALYSIS OF PMSM FAULT DIAGNOSIS
Fig. 2. Stator current signal of the demagnetization fault in the motor.
(a) Time-domain current signal. (b) Frequency-domain current signal.
of equal weight. (Aluminum has no magnetic properties).
This method ensures that the balance of the motor dynamics
is not affected, preventing eccentricity failures. The second
demagnetization fault was created by reducing the magnetic
flux of one of the permanent magnets. We refer to this as the
semi-demagnetization fault herein.
By observing the magnetic field, we can compare the spatial
distribution of the magnetic flux densities of the normal
motor and motors with demagnetization faults. Decreasing the
magnetization of one of the permanent magnets caused the
magnetic flux density distribution of the entire motor to lose
uniformity, resulting in significant changes to the current.
When the motor with the demagnetization fault is at rest,
it is possible to consider the rotor being pulled in a certain
direction by manually rotating the rotor. The differences
between the two levels of demagnetization failure lie in the
difference in the strength of attraction. Therefore, the fault
diagnosis system designed in this paper can determine the
degree of failure [26].
By measuring the demagnetization fault, we observe that
the demagnetization phenomenon leads to a nonsinusoidal
component in the current signal. Therefore, nearby waveforms
are also affected. The current signal when the motor with
demagnetization fault is operating at 600 r/min is shown
in Fig. 2(a), which is significantly different from the current
signal generated by the normal motor.
Furthermore, by observing the frequency domain of the
stator current, we can see that the uneven distribution of
313
Fig. 3. Stator current signal of the semi-demagnetization faults in the motor.
(a) Time-domain current signal. (b) Frequency-domain current signal.
magnetic potential affects not only the main frequency but also
other harmonics. Using high- and low-frequency harmonics
that are close to the main frequency, the frequency of the fault
feature can be determined by [27]:
f dmg = f s (1 ± k/ p) , k = 1, 2, 3, . . . (3)
where f dmg is the fault feature frequency, f s is the electrical
angular frequency, and p is the number of pole pairs in the
rotor.
According to (3), the electrical and mechanical angular
frequencies are calculated as 40 and 10 Hz, respectively,
when the motor is operating at 600 r/min. By examining
the frequency domain of the stator current signal, the lowest
harmonic is the mechanical angular frequency 10 Hz; this
is called a baseband. The motor will have a different main
frequency and baseband while operating at different speeds.
During the experiments, the feature frequency of the demag-
netization fault occurs when k = 1, 9, 10, and 19, as shown
in Fig. 2(b).
By observing the motor with a semi-demagnetization fault,
we determined that the peaks of this motor are relatively small,
as shown in Fig. 3. In the frequency domain, the frequency
features of the semi-demagnetization and demagnetization
faults are the same, but their amplitudes are slightly smaller.
In summary, our algorithm is capable of classifying the stator
current of motors, although these are very similar.
314 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019
Fig. 4. Specification and size of the bearing.
C. Bearing Fault in PMSM
According to the literature, approximately 40% of motor
failures can be attributed to bearing faults. Even under
balanced loads and normal operating conditions, bearings may
become susceptible to fatigue damage from prolonged use.
The reason may be that pieces of the ball peel away because
of fatigue and fall into the raceway, resulting in increased rota-
tional friction. According to this description, the mechanical
failure of bearings can be caused by three types of defects:
outer ring, inner ring, and ball defects. These faults often
become serious when the motor has a complex fault problem.
During operation, the resistance of the entire system is
reflected as extra harmonics in the stator current signal because
the rotor is affected by the bearing state. The feature frequency
of the mechanical failure of the bearing is affected by vibra-
tions between the mechanism and element, but the stator
current detection method is not affected by these vibrations.
In other words, the stator current is not disturbed by external
factors. Instead, it is disturbed because the relative movement
between the stator and rotor is affected by air gap changes,
resulting in current wave disturbances.
By adopting the motor current signal analysis method,
we can detect bearing faults based on the harmonics generated
by the current. The frequency of the harmonic is obviously
affected by the electrical angular frequency. Because bearing
damage can introduce eccentricity to the rotor, the bearing
behavioral damage and eccentricity problems are described by
the same formula. According to [28] and [29], the relationship
between bearing eccentricity and electrical angular frequency
is defined by
 
f bng =  fs ± m f i,o  (4)
where f i,o is related to the specification of the bearing as
 
n db
f i,o = fr 1 ± cos β . (5)
2 pd
Here, m is a positive integer, n is the number of balls in the
bearing, f i,o is the feature vibration frequency, fr is the
mechanical angular frequency, db is the diameter of the ball,
and pd is the diameter of the raceway. The relevant mechanical
parameters of the bearing are shown in Fig. 4.
In the experiments, motors with two types of bearing faults
were examined. The faults were located in different parts
of the bearing. One of the bearing faults was designed to
simulate a bearing inner ring that had been damaged by
Fig. 5. Stator current signal of the motor with damaged inner ring.
(a) Time-domain current signal. (b) Frequency-domain current signal.
metal fatigue in the form of raceway cracks. A drill on
the inner ring was used in the processing method to create
four small holes. The holes were symmetrical to maintain
rotational balance. The second bearing fault was designed to
simulate a bearing raceway produced in a factory environment,
where it was subjected to a large amount of fine iron powder.
The processing method involved the removal of the bearing
and adding soft aluminum powder to the raceway. The motor
was subjected to higher friction during rotation, but no sound
or vibration could be observed directly.
Observations of the motor with the first type of bearing fault
(damaged by drilling the inner ring), with the ball striking
the borehole, showed that the disturbance current caused the
waveform to turn slightly at the crest. However, it was not
easy to observe the difference between these failure mode
motors [Fig. 5(a)] and the normal motor. The observations
of the stator current signal of this failure mode motor in the
frequency domain are shown in [Fig. 5(b)]; there were some
harmonics in addition to the main frequency.
The observations of the other type of bearing fault (bearing
raceway filled with aluminum powder) showed that the
increase in rotor friction caused the amplitude of the stator
current to rise slightly [Fig. 6(a)]. Because there is less noise
when this failure mode motor is running, it is difficult to
diagnose faults using a microphone. In the stator current of
this failure mode motor, the harmonic distribution differed
from that of the demagnetization fault. However, the amplitude
of the motor with a bearing fault was not as obvious as the
KAO et al.: ANALYSIS OF PMSM FAULT DIAGNOSIS
Fig. 6. Stator current signal of the motor with added aluminum powder.
(a) Time-domain current signal. (b) Frequency-domain current signal.
amplitude of the motor with demagnetization fault. Therefore,
we can infer that the two bearing faults had not yet strongly
affected the smooth operation of the motors. However, their
operation clearly varied from the normal motor, as shown
in Fig. 6(b).
D. Differences Between the Five Signals
We plotted the signals using the Yule-Walker method and
folded them together, as shown in Fig. 7. In Fig. 7, the
line series represent the stator currents of the motors in the
frequency domain for the normal motor (red line), motor with
a demagnetization fault (yellow line), motor with a semi-
demagnetization fault (green line), motor with a damaged inner
ring (blue line), and motor with added aluminum powder
(purple). In Fig. 7, the frequency of the demagnetization
fault is easy to observe because it can directly affect the
disturbance of the stator current. However, the bearing fault
signal is similar to that of a normal motor. This is also one
of the advantages of our algorithm. Through the test method
proposed in this paper, we were able to completely diagnose
the failure mode, undetectable to the human eye.
III. FAULT D IAGNOSIS S YSTEM S TRUCTURE
In this paper, we examine two types of feature extrac-
tion methods, 1D-CNN and WPT. The 1D-CNN extracts the
features from the stator current based on the time-domain
signal, whereas WPT extracts features from the stator current
based on both the frequency and time domains. The diagnosis
315
methods can be roughly divided into data collection and data
training, as shown in Fig. 8. For both 1D-CNN and WPT,
the data collection method is the same. However, the data
training methods yield significantly different results.
A. Data Collection
The sample rate must be increased to 400 Hz to comply with
the Nyquist sampling theorem because the maximum speed
of the motor is 3000 r/min and the maximum electric angular
frequency is 200 Hz. In fact, the sample rate must be 10–20
times that of the Nyquist standard. Because of the operating
principle of the oscilloscope and staggered real-time sampling
architecture, the sample times are not the same. Furthermore,
the fault signal contained in the harmonics may produce high-
frequency components. Therefore, it is important to set aside
sufficient information.
To handle the wide range of electrical angular frequencies
(10–200 Hz), it is estimated that the sample rate should be
5 times the Nyquist standard, which is 2 kHz. From the fast
Fourier transform spectrum, we can determine whether there is
an aliasing effect within the 1-kHz spectrum. While observing
the high-frequency components, the >1-kHz spectrum may
contain some information. To avoid generating a large amount
of redundant data, we selected a sampling rate of 2 kHz for the
system specifications. However, this sampling rate also covers
the electrical angular frequency of the lowest 10 Hz of the
time information. Thus, we selected 2000 samples per second
for the fault diagnosis system specifications.
For every failure mode of the motor, we collected 400
measurements for a total of 2000 samples. After every collec-
tion, the samples were labeled according to the failure mode
of stator current signal extracted from the motor. The label
will be used in the supervised learning step. A large amount
of data was effectively used for data training.
B. Data Training
After data collection, the most critical algorithm in this
paper was employed for data training. There are two different
data training methods proposed in this paper.
First, the samples were divided into two parts: one part that
includes the training data and the other the test data. Second,
the features were extracted from the data. There are two feature
extraction methods proposed in our representation within the
1D-CNN and WPT methods. The details of the feature extrac-
tion will be described in Section IV. Third, we substituted
the features and labels into the classification framework for
training. We only trained the artificial neural network with
training data, and then verified the artificial neural network
using the test data to check whether the network suffered from
overfitting. Finally, once the number of training cycles reached
the preset number of epochs, we stopped the training and
tested the network with the test data to calculate the accuracy.
IV. F EATURE E XTRACTION
Two feature extraction methods are proposed in this
paper. WPT represents a traditional feature extraction method,
316 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

Fig. 7. Stator current signal of the five failure modes in the frequency domain.

on the frequency domain and is very similar to the Fourier

transform method. The two methods are based on a generating
function to transfer signals. WPT is based on a limited-length
function, while the Fourier transform is based on a sinusoidal
function.
A wavelet is defined as a small area of waves. These are
waves that have a special length, and the average of the wave
values is 0. The mathematical representation of WPT is

W Tψ {x}(a, τ )
 ∞  
1 t −τ
= x, ψa,τ  = √ x(t)ψ dt, a > 0 (6)
a −∞ a

where x, ψa,τ  is the wavelet packet coefficient, a is the scale

Fig. 8. Motor fault diagnosis algorithm
whereas 1D-CNN is a more modern approach. Although the
accuracies of the two methods are significantly different,
we selected 1D-CNN; the reasons for this are discussed
in Section VI.
A. Wavelet Packet Transform
In this paper, we proposed a frequency analysis method to
diagnose faulty motors. WPT is a signal analysis method based
factor, and τ is the translation factor. When |a| < 1, the length
of the mother wavelet is compressed, providing a good degree
of support in the high-frequency range. Conversely, when
|a| > 1, the length of the mother wavelet is enlarged, offering
good support in the low-frequency range. This phenomenon
can be likened to scaling a lens to zoomed-in and zoomed-
out [30]. The translation factor τ is used to determine the
location of the mother wavelet. This phenomenon can be
thought of as the tracking of a lens to determine the focal point.
Accordingly, WPT is known as a mathematical microscope.
WPT uses a window function that is fixed but can change
shape, and the time and frequency window functions utilize a
local analysis method.
Thus, WPT has good time resolution at high frequencies and
good frequency resolution at low frequencies. Comparing this
to the short-time Fourier transform, in which the resolution
cannot change with the frequency and is set by the size of the
window function, WPT is a powerful signal analysis tool that
KAO et al.: ANALYSIS OF PMSM FAULT DIAGNOSIS
Fig. 9. Process of the DWT.
can adjust the appropriate window function in the frequency
domain, before obtaining the appropriate signal resolution.
Computationally, the discrete wavelet transform (DWT)
uses the original signal after the discrete sampling method.
In the experiments, we used Daubechies 24 as the mother
wavelet function. While Daubechies 24 can amplify high-
frequency signals, fault harmonics often exist at high frequen-
cies. DWT is a discrete input and discrete output system.
At present, there is no sample or clear formula that can directly
describe the relationship between the input and output; hence,
this is generally represented as a hierarchical architecture.
To make some necessary assumptions, we must clearly
define the signal and filters. Given an input signal S of
length N, the structure will produce at most log2 N layers
of the discrete Fourier transform. After inputting S, we obtain
two sets of coefficients, namely the approximation and detail
coefficients, c A1 and cD1 , respectively. The two sets of
coefficients are produced by the convolution of the input signal
and a low-pass filter, and the convolution of the input signal
and a high-pass filter; a down-sampling filter then gives c A1
and cD1 , as shown in Fig. 9 [31]. The next step is to divide
c A1 into c A1+1 and cD1+1 by the same method described
above. By repeating this decomposition and if the original
signal S needs to be decomposed into j layers, we can obtain
the coefficient vectors [c A j , cD j , . . . , cD 1 ].
According to [32], cD j is the high-frequency signal of the
j th layer. The signal contains the original signal coverage in a
specific frequency band section and is described in (7). c An
is the low-frequency signal of the nth layer, where n is the
maximum value of j . The signal contains the original signal
coverage in a specific frequency band section and is described
in (8)
 
 1 1 The stator currents of the motor with a damaged inner ring and
freq cD j ∈ , Hz (7)
2 j +1 T 2i T
 
1
freq (c An ) ∈ 0, n+1 Hz (8)
2 T
T is the reciprocal of the sample rate and is 1/2000 s in the
case considered here. Using (7) and (8), we calculated the
frequency bands of the DWT which are listed in Table I.
To compare different failure mode motors and calculate the
absolute strength of the fault features, we used the state of
energy distribution as a fault motor signal feature. Therefore,
the size of the time-domain signal must be subtracted before
the DWT. After the DWT, c A j and cD j must be normalized.
The percentage of energy in the calculated coefficients can be
317
TABLE I
F REQUENCY BANDS OF D ISCRETE WAVELET T RANSFORM
expressed as
N Ci2j
E i = 100 · a+1  N (9)
2
j =1 i=1 j =1 Ci j
where j is the variable of sample point N. In our experiments,
N = 2000, i is the hierarchical parameter of multilevel
decomposition, and a is the maximum number of layers.
Therefore, i = 1, . . . , 7, (7 + 1) and Ci j is the wavelet
transform coefficient of the layer.
The following steps describe the designed procedure of the
WPT
1) Step I: Choose the practicable mother wavelet function.
The Daubechies mother wavelet (db24) was chosen
in this paper. Check the central frequency, as well as
the lower and upper frequency bounds associated with
each scale according to the requirement of the motor
speed.
2) Step II: Evaluate and calculate the percentage of energy
associated with each coefficient of each scale using (9).
The energy-related WPT features are then extracted.
Frequently, the demagnetized fault of motor stator current
will face the same or similar position in the frequency domain,
but the overall signal strength will be different. The same
failure mode of a situation but different magnitudes causes
some confusion. To correct this deficiency, we added two
features to the parameters of the total energy intensity. The first
parameter is the amplitude of the frequency domain signal.
While the same motors operate at different speeds, they
may produce different amplitudes in the frequency domain.
The second parameter is the amplitude of the time domain.
the motor with aluminum powder exhibit different amplitudes
in the time domain. The stator current of the motor with
aluminum powder is greater than that of the damaged inner
ring motor.
After DWT, and the extraction of the time- and frequency-
domain amplitudes, we completed the feature extraction of
the motor, as shown in Fig. 10. There are 10 features that can
be used to describe the stator current of the motor. Finally,
the softmax layer classifies the signal features into five failure
modes. Assuming we have an array V , where Vi represents
the i th element in V , the softmax value of this element is
given in (10). A diagram and description of softmax is shown
in Fig. 11.
318 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

Here, x i:i+N−1 represents a window of length N for a sequen-

tial signal, starting from the point indexed as i to the point
indexed as i + N − 1, and operator ⊕ concatenates each data
sample into a longer embedding. In addition, a bias term b is
added to the convolution operation, making the final operation

Fig. 10. WPT feature extraction and softmax layer.
Fig. 11. Softmax diagram.
The main application of the softmax layer is multiclas-
sification. The sigmoid function can only be divided into
two categories, whereas softmax can be divided into multiple
categories. The softmax function is essentially an expansion
of the sigmoid function
as
Si = e Vi / e Vi . (10)
j p j = p 1j , p2j , . . . , plj
The Adam method [33] with a cross-entropy error func-
tion was used to train the parameters of the softmax layer.
The results are discussed in Section V.
B. 1-D Convolutional Neural Networks
CNNs are deformed networks derived from artificial neural
networks and are widely used in image processing and video
recognition systems [34]. The most popular CNN model is the
Alex model for large-scale data sets, such as ImageNet [35].
However, regular CNN architectures are not suitable in our
case for the following reasons. CNNs usually have a very
deep structure, which result in overfitting for most data sets.
Furthermore, most CNN structures are suitable for 2-D training
images, but our data sets are in the 1-D time domain. For these
reasons, we must alter the structures into a deep 1D-CNN.
The input of the convolutional layer is a sequential signal
of length D. The filter, of window size N, is applied to
the entire input signal. Specifically, the convolution operation
in the convolutional layer can be defined as a multiplication
operation between a filter vector ω ∈ R N and convolution
vector representation x i:i+N−1 , which is given by
x i:i+N−1 = x i ⊕ x i+1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ x i+N−1 .
z i = φ ω T x i:i+N−1 + b (12)
where φ is a nonlinear activation function, such as the sigmoid,
tangent, or rectified linear unit (ReLu). In this paper, ReLu
is chosen as the nonlinear activation function. Each specific
vector ω can be regarded as a filter. The signal value z i can be
regarded as the learning feature for the window of sequences
in the corresponding filter. In addition, the filter width N
can be varied. Because each raw sequence of length D has
multiple windows of sequences {x 1:N , x 2:N , . . . , x D−N+1:D },
a feature map is obtained. The raw sequence D and j th filter
are given by
 
z j = z 1j , z 2j , . . . , z D−N+1
j . (13)
A pooling layer is applied to the feature maps generated by
the convolutional layer. Each feature map contains multiple
activations of local patches. After pooling, one value is
extracted from each feature map. The purpose of pooling is
twofold. First, the pooling operation will extract the most
important and invariant information by considering that a
single feature is irrelevant to the active positions in each
feature map. Second, the pooling operation reduces the feature
dimensionality and enables input signals with varying lengths
to be handled. In this paper, the max-pooling function was
applied. Max pooling with a pooling length of l is conducted
in the feature maps obtained by the convolutional layer.
The single feature corresponding to the filter is then obtained
 
(14)
 (t −1)l+i
ptj = max z j (15)
where p j is an s-dimensional vector output by the pooling
layer applied to the j th feature map. s = (D − N + 1)/l,
where D, N, and l are the length of input, filter size, and
pooling size, respectively. Multiple filters are generally applied
with different weights and different window sizes to derive a
feature vector. Assuming there are K filters, the output of the
pooling layer is the concatenation of all the filter outputs
R = [ p1, p2 , . . . , p K ]. (16)
It is clear that R can be the final representation of the
input sequence because the outputs of different filters capture
all meaningful structure patterns of the sequence. After the
concatenation of filter outputs, the dimension of the output of
the pooling layer, as the learned representation, is Rs .
When designing a CNN, the following concepts must be
satisfied: the filter size goes from big to small and the filter
quantity from more to less. A pooling layer must be connected
after the convolutional layer, and batch normalization must be
connected after the pooling layer. Therefore, we propose to
adjust the parameters based on the above principles, relying
(11) on experience and past experiments to tune the parameters
KAO et al.: ANALYSIS OF PMSM FAULT DIAGNOSIS
Fig. 12. Flowchart of the CNN design process.
Fig. 13. CNN architecture of the proposed method.
of the neural network. A simple design flowchart is shown
in Fig. 12.
After tuning the experimental results, our CNN architecture
generally had eight convolution layers, eight max-pooling
layers, one fully connected layer, and nine batch normalization
layers, as shown in Fig. 13. Convolution layers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, and 8 had 64 filters with a size of 256, 128 filters with a
size of 128, 192 filters with a size of 64, 256 filters with
a size of 32, 320 filters with a size of 16, 384 filters with a
size of 8, 448 filters with a size of 4, and 512 filters with
a size of 2, respectively. These layers were configured to
act as a hierarchical feature extractor. After each convolution
layer, there was a batch normalization process [36], and then
a max-pooling layer with two kernels. This improved the
generalization of the network, enhancing resistance to small
distortions and reducing the dimensionality.
The CNN model turns a lower level map into a higher
level feature. For each convolution and pooling layer, ReLu
is adapted to further generate high-level nonlinear feature
responses. Next, one fully connected layer with a softmax
classifier is used to generate the diagnosis result for a specific
current signal. The CNN parameters are presented in Table II.
319
TABLE II
PARAMETERS FOR O UR CNN
Fig. 14. Motor fault diagnosis system hardware architecture.
The Adam method [29] with the cross-entropy error func-
tion was used to train the parameters of the CNN model.
Based on extensive experiments investigating the recall and
accuracy, a fixed learning rate of 10−5 was assigned for our
application. To generalize the ability of the CNN and avoid
the overfitting issue, the dropout regularization [37], [38] and
batch normalization techniques were combined to obtain an
effective training model with a better performance.
Finally, the softmax layer classified the signal features into
five failure modes. Through the proposed layers, the archi-
tecture of our CNN was completely characterized. The CNN
provided excellent results in the diagnosis of faulty motors.
The experimental results and experimental analysis are
presented and discussed in Section V.
V. E XPERIMENTS
In this paper, we used the motor stator current signal
analysis method for the fault diagnosis experiment. The exper-
imental hardware architecture included an inverter, a motor,
a current sensor, an oscilloscope, a power supply, and a
PC, as shown in Fig. 14. Through the appropriate control
theory, we let the motor reach a steady speed and reused the
current sensor in series with the phase measurement output
current, before using the oscilloscope for digital sampling.
The power supply provided an accurate voltage to drive the
current sensors, ACS711EX. Finally, the stored oscilloscope
stator current signal was sent to the computer for diag-
nostic analysis. ACS711EX can tolerate bidirectional currents
320 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019
from −31 to 31 A with a 100-kHz bandwidth. When the
supply voltage Vcc was 3.3 V, the measured current was
converted into voltage output using the following formula:
Vcc Vcc
Vout = +i × . (17)
2 73.3
Therefore, the linear slope of the input current to output
voltage was 45 mV/A. Using the following formula,
the measured output voltage can be converted to the original
current:
Vout
i = 73.3 × . (18)
Vcc
After extracting the stator current, the PC provided the
diagnosis result based on our algorithms. The experimental
data set contained 2000 data points covering five failure modes
and operating at 20 different speed settings. Each failure mode
and speed of stator current was collected 20 times to obtain
the 2000 data points. To demonstrate that the signal processing
method could be used in feature extraction, the experiments
required numerous data sets to show the reliability of the
method. We divided the 2000 data sets into 1000 training
and 1000 testing data sets. Prior to the division, all data were
normalized to values in the range [−1, 1].
A. Results
For this application, we evaluated the 1D-CNN architec-
ture through extensive experimentation. To train the 1D-CNN
architecture, 1000 training and 1000 validation set samples
with an equal number of the five sample failure modes were
selected. The same data set was used in the proposed method
and WPT. To show the merits of each method, we used the
following formula to calculate the diagnostic accuracy rate:
thn +tdf +tsdf +tdir +tfip
acc =
thn +tdf +tsdf +tdir +tfip + f hn + f df + f sdf + f dir + f fip
(19)
where thn , tdf , tsdf , tdir , and tfip represent true classifica-
tions of the normal, demagnetizing fault, semi-demagnetizing
fault, damaged inner ring, and aluminum powder motors,
respectively; and f hn , f df , f sdf , f dir , and f fip represent the
corresponding false classifications. In addition, we calculated
the accuracy of the individual diagnoses using the following
equation:
ttype
acci = (20)
ttype + f type
where ttype and f type are the true and false classifications,
respectively. Thus, we are not only concerned with the total
accuracy rate, but also the individual accuracy rate for each
state.
The accuracies of different methods can be calculated
using (19) and (20), and are listed in Table III. Health
normal motor, demagnetized fault motor, semi-demagnetized
fault motor, damaged inner ring motor, and filled in powder
motor represent the true classifications of the normal, demag-
netizing fault, semi-demagnetizing fault, damaged inner ring,
and aluminum powder motors, respectively. For the 1D-CNN,
TABLE III
D IAGNOSIS A CCURACY OF THE M ETHODS
988 stator current data sets were successfully diagnosed,
giving a diagnostic accuracy of 98.8%. The individual accu-
racy rates show that the 1D-CNN can efficiently extract
features from the stator current of the motor, and the softmax
layer can efficiently classify the extracted features. For the
WPT using 10 features (WPT-10), 981 stator current data
sets were successfully diagnosed with an overall accuracy
of 98.1%. For the WPT using eight features (WPT-8), only
887 stator current data sets were successfully diagnosed with
an accuracy of 88.7%. We also compared the feature extraction
performance of a SAE incorporating a softmax layer. Recently,
the autoencoder concept has been widely used for learning
generative models of data [39]–[42]. For the SAE, 964 stator
current data sets were successfully diagnosed giving an overall
accuracy of 96.4%. Although the results were not as good
as those of the 1D-CNN, the SAE still achieved an accuracy
above 95%. This represents a good performance for a motor
diagnosis. Based on the above analysis, it is obvious that the
1D-CNN is more effective than the other two methods.
B. Analysis of Results
The learning curves of the algorithms are shown in Fig. 15.
The final accuracy of the CNN is superior to that of the
other methods, but this method also needed more epochs
to converge. The main reason is that in training 1D-CNN
networks, feature extraction and classification are combined
into a single architecture. In contrast, WPT extracts features
prior to classification. Thus, WPT only needs to train the
classification softmax layer. Although the SAE needs to train
the feature extraction and classification networks, the two
architectures are trained one by one, unlike the 1D-CNN.
Accordingly, in Fig. 15, we only provided the learning curve
for the classification phase of the SAE.
The 1D-CNN not only achieves a high level of general-
ization but also avoids the need for manual parameter tuning
in hand-crafted feature extraction. Its weight-shared network
structure makes this CNN similar to a biosphere network.
The CNN reduces the complexity of the network model and
a number of weights. The proposed network structure creates
the signal directly as a network input to avoid the traditional
identification algorithm during the complex feature extraction
and data reconstruction process. The CNN has a high degree
of invariance in translation, scaling, and tilting. The weight-
sharing strategy reduces the need to train the parameters.
The same weights can create a filter from the signal position
to detect the signal features and generalize the training of the
model. The pooling operation reduces the spatial resolution of
the network, thereby eliminating the small offset and distortion
of the signal. The pooling operation produces a high degree
KAO et al.: ANALYSIS OF PMSM FAULT DIAGNOSIS
Fig. 15. Learning curves.
of translation invariance in the input data. However, when
training a deep model, it is prone to gradient dissipation, but
this negative phenomenon has little effect on the experimental
results. Our proposed 1D-CNN inherits all the advantages of
CNNs and can efficiently diagnose fault states in all five failure
modes.
The SAE is very similar to the CNN. Both are unsupervised
learning methods that do not require manual parameter tuning
for hand-crafted feature extraction. The SAE can use sufficient
tag-free data for model pretraining and has a strong ability
to characterize data. However, the diagnosis results are not
as accurate as those obtained by the 1D-CNN because the
networks are all fully connected. Such networks have certain
parameters that must be trained, which can cause overfitting.
As mentioned above, gradient dissipation can occur while
training a deep model. Another limitation of the SAE is that
the input data must be translation invariant. For these reasons,
the diagnosis results of the 1D-CNN are superior to the results
of the SAE, which was expected.
The biggest advantage of the WPT over Fourier transform
is that it is more suitable for dealing with transient signals.
The WPT has better feature extraction and recognition ability
than does the traditional Fourier transform. Although the
WPT can efficiently extract features in the frequency domain,
the features extracted from a given failure mode are similar
but have different magnitudes. For this reason, using the
WPT alone to extract features can very easily yield poor
321
classification results. Therefore, we added two other features
that were not extracted by WPT: the amplitudes of the time
and frequency domains. After adding these two features,
the classification results showed a good accuracy rate that was
only slightly lower than that of the 1D-CNN.
Consolidating the experimental results and discussion,
we recommend using the 1D-CNN for the fault diagnosis
of PMSMs. In addition to providing accurate diagnosis
results, this technique is superior for the following reasons.
The 1D-CNN only needs to analyze the stator current in the
time domain. The WPT cannot achieve good feature extraction
with only eight features, so it must add two features extracted
by the amplitudes of the frequency and time domains. In addi-
tion, we must determine the frequency band of the WPT to
complete feature extraction. This mechanism, requiring human
intervention to carry out feature extraction, appears to be
slightly weaker than that of the 1D-CNN. Needless to say,
WPT requires other hand-crafted features to achieve good
classification. Thus, the 1D-CNN appears to be more powerful
than the WPT. Because the accuracy of the 1D-CNN is much
higher than that of the SAE, there is no doubt that it is a
superior classification technique.
C. Contribution
In this paper, we proposed two fault diagnosis methods for
PMSM: 1D-CNN and WPT. The two methods contained both
322 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019
TABLE IV
D IFFERENCE B ETWEEN P REVIOUS M ETHODS AND T HIS PAPER
unsupervised learning and supervised learning algorithms.
The unsupervised learning served as the feature extraction
method and supervised learning served as the classification
method. The proposed system has the ability to learn how
to extract optimal features with proper training and can,
therefore, be applied to any stator current of PMSMs.
The proposed system was tested using real motor current
data, and the experimental results demonstrate its potential
and effectiveness as a real-time PMSM condition monitoring
system. This system can be easily modified to include the
detection and classification of both mechanical and electrical
faults with signatures in mechanical or electrical quantities,
respectively.
Ince et al. [22] proposed a diagnosis detection system to
detect motor faults using current signals based on a 1D-CNN.
However, the system could only classify the motors into two
groups; normal and faulty. Furthermore, the system could
only diagnose motors that were operating at a specific speed.
In contrast, our proposed methods can efficiently diagnose five
failure modes of PMSMs: a normal motor; and motors with
a demagnetization fault, semi-demagnetization fault, damaged
inner ring and filled with aluminum powder. In addition, our
proposed system can diagnose motors operating at a wide
speed range.
In [17], the proposed method also used CNN as a feature
extraction method. The difference between our representation
and [17] is that the source signal of our representation is the
stator current signal, whereas [17] used the vibration signal.
When using the vibration signal as the source, noise distur-
bances must be considered. Conversely, when using the stator
current signal as the source, there is little need to consider
the noise. In addition, the results from our proposed system
indicate a high accuracy rate. The differences between [17]
and [22] and our representation are presented in Table IV.
D. Computer System
The experiments were conducted on a desktop PC with
Intel i7, 32-GB RAM, and Nvidia Tesla K80. Training the
1D-CNN required 2 s per epoch. Training the autoencoder
required 0.2 s per epoch, with another training session of 0.2 s
per epoch to train the softmax layer. There was no need for
any additional training when using WPT to extract features,
but the softmax layer required training for the classification,
taking 0.2 s per epoch. After the training of the artificial neural
networks was finished, the diagnosis results were generated
once the stator current data were input. While conducting the
training, a high-specification PC may be required for training
neural networks with a large number of neurons. However,
a high-specification PC was not required during testing—any
desktop PC would be capable of running the testing diagnosis
analysis algorithm in real time. Our analysis project could even
be ported to an embedded system because the testing does not
require the same computing power as the training.
VI. C ONCLUSION
A. Discussion of Results
The stator current signals of the motors with demag-
netization and semi-demagnetization faults, whether in the
time or frequency domains, were very similar. In addition,
the waveforms from the motors with a damaged inner ring and
aluminum powder were very similar, regardless of domain.
Although it is very difficult for the human eye to classify
the five failure modes of motors, our proposed systems can
efficiently classify them with an accuracy of 98.8% (1D-CNN)
and 98.1% (WPT). These accuracy rates of motor diagnosis
are extremely high.
Although our experiments used relatively small training data
sets, this had little effect on the experimental results. In most
cases, when the training sample is too small, overfitting may
occur. However, in our experimental results, this phenomenon
was not significant. Our diagnostic methods can determine the
status of the motor at any speed.
Although the training of the systems requires a high-
specification PC, the testing does not need such computational
power. While the motor driver detects the stator current of
PMSMs, we can diagnose PMSMs at any time while they are
spinning.
B. Future Work
In the future work, we intend to add the vibration signal
to the feature extraction to increase the accuracy of the diag-
nosis results. Using the stator current and vibration signals,
a 2D-CNN can be applied in place of the 1D-CNN. Using
more data for the CNN training will greatly improve accuracy.
In addition, we can collect more training samples to reduce the
overfitting of the networks. However, the degree of overfitting
in our proposed 1D-CNN is already low.
We expect the fault diagnosis system will be used in produc-
tion line status monitoring. By collecting the stator current data
of any fault and establishing a prediction model through the
diagnosis system, it will be possible to continuously monitor
the operational state of the motor in real time. In the future,
as long as motor drivers are equipped with Hall components,
the inverter can be upgraded to a motor diagnosis machine.
Because the monitoring of motor states can improve the yield
and extend the warranty of motors, while providing remote
diagnosis and analysis of the direction and quantity of prepa-
ration, it represents the next generation of motor design, likely
leading to policy improvements. Therefore, the proposed fault
diagnosis system should play a pivotal role in Industry 4.0.
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I-Hsi Kao was born in Taipei, Taiwan, in 1994.
He received the B.S. degree in electrical engi-
neering from National United University, Miaoli,
Taiwan, in 2016. He is currently pursuing the
M.S. degree from the Department of Mechanical
and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun
Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
His current research interests include machine fault
diagnosis, neural networks, deep learning, systems
engineering, and advanced driver assistance systems.
324 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2019

Wei-Jen Wang was born in Miaoli, Taiwan, in 1993. Jau-Woei Perng (S’02–M’04) was born in Hsinchu,
He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from the Taiwan, in 1973. He received the B.S. and
Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical M.S. degrees in electrical engineering from Yuan
Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaoh- Ze University, Chungli, Taiwan, in 1995 and 1997,
siung, Taiwan, in 2016. respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical
He has been with the Automotive Research and and control engineering from National Chiao Tung
Testing Center, Changhua, Taiwan, since 2016. University (NCTU), Hsinchu, in 2003.
His current research interests include machine fault From 2004 to 2008, he was a Research Assistant
diagnosis, machine learning, systems engineering, Professor with the Department of Electrical and
and advanced driver assistance systems. Control Engineering, NCTU. He is currently an
Associate Professor with the Department of Mechan-
ical and Electromechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University,
Kaohsiung, Taiwan. His current research interests include robust control,
nonlinear control, fuzzy logic control, neural networks, systems engineering,
and intelligent vehicle control.
Yi-Horng Lai received the B.S. degree from
Naval Academy, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, in 1992,
the M.S. degree in weapon system engineering from
the Chung Cheng Institute of Technology, Taoyuan,
Taiwan, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in mechanical
and electro-mechanical engineering from National
Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung.
He has been with XWIN Prognostic Technology,
Kaohsiung, since 2018. His current research inter-
ests include nonlinear control, robust control, and
biosignal processing.