GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY

PANIPAT MANUAL

EXPERIMENT NO: GEC-

EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study the amplitude modulation and
LM-ECE-01
demodulation

ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016

REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
ANALOG SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY:
COMM :

AIM: To study the amplitude modulation and demodulation

APPRATUS: - Balanced Modulator & Demodulator kit, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope & patch cords.

THEORY:

In a double –sideband transmission, the two sidebands contain identical information, thus either could
be transmitted by itself without loss of meaning to the receiver.
Single-sideband transmission has obvious advantages, some implied by the name alone. For instance,
such a transmission can occupy one half the frequency space required for two sidebands permitting
better management of the frequency spectrum. Moreover, suppose an A3 double- sideband
transmitter are each capable of 150W maximum output we know that there are 50W of message
power in double – sideband transmission .while the 150W of singe-sideband single is all message
power. This simple introduction indicates the advantages and disadvantages that go with single-
sideband radio signals
Balanced Modulator:-
The require output from a balanced modulator is an amplitude –modulated signal with two sidebands
but no voltage at the carrier frequency .a differential amplifier is ideally suited to this function we see
that the carrier signal is applied to pins 8 &10 in common mode to a set of cross coupled differential
amplifiers, whereas the bias voltage applied to pin 5 determines the amount of current through the
amplifiers. The resistor connected to pins 2&3 sets the modulator gain with a smaller resistor
resulting in higher gain. The DC voltage difference between pins 1 &4 will balance the differential
amplifiers for complete carrier rejection by equalizing the current in each differential amplifier.
When the message signal is applied to pins 1 & 4 transistors will alternately increase (or decrease) the

1
current , trough their associated amplifier to output the sum and difference frequencies in sideband
pairs. The output is taken from pin 6 for the modulator the balanced modulator will work equally well
as a balanced demodulator in the modulation process. We input the carrier and the message signals to
produce the modulated wave in the demodulator we input the modulated wave and the carrier to
produce the message signal. The demodulated output is taken from pin 12. the advantages of this
circuit are that the carrier and message frequencies can be close together or widely separated also a
high degree of carrier suppression is readily obtainable (-60db ) ,and the circuit can used as DSSC
modulator or demodulator
and difference frequencies in sideband pairs. The output is taken from pin 6 for the modulator the
balanced modulator will work equally well as a balanced demodulator in the modulation process. We
input the carrier and the message signals to produce the modulated wave in the demodulator we input
the modulated wave and the carrier to produce the message signal. The demodulated output is taken
from pin 12. the advantages of this circuit are that the carrier and message frequencies can be close
together or widely separated also a high degree of carrier suppression is readily obtainable (-
60db ) ,and the circuit can used as DSSC modulator or demodulator

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

2
OUTPUT:

PROCEDURE :

For Balanced Modulator:-

1. Connect the carrier signal output to the carrier signal input of circuit patch chords.
2. Connect the output of sine wave (modulating signal) to the sine wave input of circuit through
patch cords
3. Connect the CRO probes across the modulated output of the circuit.
4. Switch on both the CRO & instrument set amplitude of sine wave oscillator to maximum
position and observe the corresponding wave shapes on CRO now vary the amplitude of sine
wave signal (modulating signal) and observe the corresponding effect on output wave shapes
5. We can also null the carrier from output signal by rotating carrier null potentiometer.
Different wave shapes are shown in fig.
6. To calculate the modulation index refer figure. Formula used to calculate modulation index

7. Formula used to calculate the side band frequencies

Upper side band frequency = carrier signal frequency + modulating signal frequency.

3
 Lower side band frequency = carrier signal frequency –modulating signal frequency
For Demodulation:-

1. Switch off the instrument using on/off toggle switch provided on front panel
2. Connect the output of modulator across the input of demodulator by connecting the dotted
lines through patch chords
3. Connect the CRO/Frequency counter across output of demodulator.
4. Now switch on the instrument using on/off toggle switch provided on front panel and observe
the demodulation output signal on CRO it will be a sine wave of equal frequency as the
modulating signal have set the wave shapes of demodulated signal with the help of
potentiometer VR provided to null the carrier. The demodulated signal will distorted when
modulation index approaches to 1 or over modulation occur at the output of modulator

Precautions: -
1. The frequency of modulating signal should not be greater than 10 KHz
2. Amplitude of modulating signal should be such that the proper modulating wave shape must
be observed.

RESULT :-
1. The waveform of demodulated wave is obtained.
2. The waveform of modulation signal is obtained.
3. The value of modulating Index is…

4
  
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY
PANIPAT MANUAL

EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study frequency Modulation and

EXPERIMENT NO: GEC-
Demodulation LM-ECE-02

ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
ANALOG SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY:
COMM :

AIM: To study frequency Modulation and Demodulation

APPRATUS : FM modulation and Demodulation kit, C.R.O. & Patch cords.

THEORY :
Modulation is concerned with changing some characteristics of a high frequency carrier waveform in
accordance with the amplitude of a modulating signal to be transmitted. Frequency modulation (FM)
is a system in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of
modulating signal. Unlike AM, in FM system, the amplitude of carrier remains constant .That the
frequency of carrier varies according to the amplitude variations of the base band signal, whereas the
amplitude of carrier remains unaltered. In FM, the information is being carried by the carrier in its
frequency variations & not in the amplitude. This is a great advantage in FM because the noise
generally affects the amplitude of a waveform. Due to this FM is much more immune to the effects of
noise as compared to AM, where the information is carried in amplitude variations.
An un-modulated carrier may be written as:
ec = A Sin (ωct +).
Where ωc is the frequency of the carrier.

The instantaneous frequency of the FM carrier is given by:

F = fc(1+K EmCosωmt) eqn. (1)
Where K = Proportionality constant and EmCosωmt is the instantaneous amplitude of modulating
signal and ‘ωm’ is the modulating frequency: fmax = fc(1+kEm)

5
Maximum deviation in frequency will be given by:
δ= K Em fc eqn. (2)

The FM signal may the treated as a vector rotation at a frequency given by equation (1). In that case
its instantaneous amplitude may be represented as:
e = A sin
Where  = ωc (1 + KEm cosωmt) dt

= ωc(t + Em sin ωmt/ωm)

= ωct + K Em fc Sin ω mt/fm
=ωct + δ/fm sinωmt
Thus e = A sin (ωct +δ/fm sinωmt) eqn. (3)

Modulation Index mf for FM is defined as:

mf = maximum frequency deviation / modulating frequency = δ/ fm eqn. (4)
e = A sin (ωct + mf sin ωmt) eqn. (5)
Eqn (5) is an equation of FM signal in terms of carrier amplitude & modulating signal in parameters
this equation gives as information about the band-width of FM signal & the various frequency
components contained in it.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

6
.

OUTPUT:

7
PROCEDURE :

1. Study the diagram printed on front panel of the trainer carefully.

2. Switch on the instrument using on/off toggle switch provided on front panel.
3. To observe the output of modulating signal on CRO. Connect the CRO probes across
modulating signal sockets. We will observe that it is a sine wave of low frequency.
4. To observe the output of carrier signal on CRO. Connect the CRO probes across modulated
output sockets. We will observe that it is a sine wave of high frequency.
5. To observe the frequency modulated output on CRO. Connect the modulating signal to the
input of modulator & connect the CRO probes across the modulated output sockets. Observe
the frequency modulated output & change the frequency deviation by increasing the
amplitude of modulating signal.
6. To observe the frequency DE-modulated output on CRO. Connect the modulated signal to the
input of demodulator & connect the CRO probes across Demodulated output sockets. We will
observe that it is a sine wave just like to modulating signal but small in amplitude & with a
little phase difference.

RESULT : We have studied the frequency Modulation & Demodulation & the modulation index is
calculated.

8
  
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY
PANIPAT MANUAL

EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study Pulse Amplitude Modulation

EXPERIMENT NO: -
GEC-LM-ECE-03

ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
ANALOG SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY:
COMM :

AIM: To study Pulse Amplitude Modulation

APPRATUS : PAM kit, CRO (20 MHz) and connecting wires

THEORY :
Modulation:-
The process by which information of lower frequency is made a distinguishable part of a higher
frequency is known as modulation.
Demodulation: -
The reverse process by which information is separate of out from a modulated wave is known as
demodulation.
Pulse-Modulation: -
Where the carrier wave is in the form of pulse with constant pulse repetition frequency as PAM,
PCM, PPM and PDM
Pulse Amplitude Modulation:-
In PAM, the amplitude of pulses is varied according to the modulating signal this corresponds to
amplitude modulation of continued wave. This circuit uses a 4016 integrated circuit (IC) CMOS
switch .basically; it is an FET logic switch. When the sample pulse s goes positive, the switch closes
and the modulating input appears across R and the output is zero. Signal polarity PAM is achieved by
adding R2 &R3 .these resistors form a voltage driver that adds a DC level to the input signal. The
result is that the input AC wave now varies around a positive DC reference rather than a zero volt
reference.

9
Demodulation of PAM:-
Many low cost transistor receivers use a germanium diode as the detector. However, due to the
limited RF gain usually preceding the detector, a transistor is sometimes used as the demodulator to
provide additional gain. A transistor can perform as a detector, if it is biased for class ‘B’ operation.
In this way, the PAM signal is both rectified and amplified at the same time. Fig shows the typical
transistor detector. Resistors R5&R6 form a biasing network, which sets the
Circuit for exactly class ’B’ operation. R7 is collector load resistor, while C4 filters out the RF
components. This leaves the audio signal to be coupled to the output by C5 the transistor detector
offers a method of achieving additional receiver gain. However, in low cost receivers, the diode
detector is chosen for its simplicity and excellent performance

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

10
OUTPUT:

PROCEDURE :

For Pulse Amplitude Modulation:-

1. Study the circuit configuration given on front panel of the trainer kit carefully
2. Connect the CRO probes across carrier output of clock generator as shown in fig.
3. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
4. Observe the clock output on CRO as shown in fig.
5. Connect the carrier output of clock generator to carrier input of IC 4016 by connecting the
dotted line through Patch cord. Connect the modulating sine wave output across sine wave
input of IC 4016 by connecting the dotted lines through patch cords as shown in fig. set the
frequency of modulating signal to 100 HZ of 3V peak to peak amplitude.
6. Connect the CRO across modulated output of IC 4016.
7. Observe the pulse amplitude modulated wave form on CRO as shown in fig.

11
8. Vary the amplitude of modulating signal and observe the change in modulation on CRO.

FOR PULSE AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION:-

1. Switch off the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
2. Connect the modulated output across input of demodulator by connecting dotted lines through
patch cords.
3. Connect CRO across the output of demodulator.
4. Switch ON the instrument again using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the panel.
5. Observe the demodulated signal on CRO.
6. The frequency of the demodulated signal is same as the frequency of modulating signal with
little phase difference.

RESULT :- Pulse amplitude modulated and demodulated waves observed

12
  
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY
PANIPAT MANUAL

EXPERIMENT TITLE: - To study Pulse width Modulation (PWM) EXPERIMENT NO: GEC-
LM-ECE-04

ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY: Analog comm
:

AIM: To study Pulse width Modulation (PWM)

APPRATUS / SOFTWARE USED: PWM kit, CRO, Connecting Wires

THEORY :

PWM in amplitude modulation, some characteristics of the carrier amplitudes. Frequency or phase is
continuously varied in accordance with the modulating signal. However in pulse modulation, a small
sample is made of the modulating signal and then a pulse is transmitted in case, some characteristics
of the pulse is varied in accordance with the sample of the modulating signal. The sample is actually
of the measure of the modulating signal at a specific time.
There are several types of pulse modulating system. Three of the more common types are pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) in each of these system , a characteristics of the pulse such as
amplitude, duration, or position is continuously varied in accordance with the modulating signal. This
type of pulse modulation, where a pulse characteristics is continuously varied. Is called analog pulse
modulation.
In pulse time modulation (PTM), the modulating signal is sampled. Just as it is in PAM. However in
PTM the amplitudes of the sample is indicate by a timing variation of the modulated pulsar rather
than amplitude variation. The variable timing characteristics may be the duration. Position. Or
frequency of the pulses. Therefore there are three basic types of PTM pulse duration modulation
.pulse position modulation and pulse frequency modulation.
The type of PTM is also called pulse width or pulse length modulator however pulse duration.
Modulation (PDM) is the preferred term there are three different classification of PDM: symmetrical
PDM, leading edge PDM and trailing edge PDM. Here the modulating signal is sampled and both the

13
leading and trailing edges of the pulse are varied in accordance with the sample amplitude.
A typical PWM wave form can be generated using a 555 timer. When timer is connected in mono
stable mode and triggered with a continuous pulse train. The output pulse width can be modulated by
a signal applied to pin 5.

Demodulation :-
The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation or
detection .At the broadcasting station. Modulation is done to transmit the audio signal over larger
distance to a receiver. When the modulated wave is picked up by the radio receiver. It is necessary to
recover the audio signal from it. This process is accomplished in the radio receiver and is called
demodulation

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

OUTPUT:

14
PROCEDURE:
For Modulation

1. Study the configuration given on the front panel.

2. connect the output of built in sine wave oscillator across pin no. 5 & ground of IC 555
through patch cords.
3. Connect the trigger output across pin no. 2 and ground of IC 555 through patch cords
4. Connect CRO probes across PWM output & ground.
5. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on front panel.
6. Observe the pulse width modulated output wave form on CRO.
7. Vary the amplitude of modulating signal and notice the corresponding change in the pulse
width modulated output wave form.

For Demodulation

1. Connect the PWM output across the input PWM demodulator through patch cords.
2. Connect the CRO probes across the demodulated output.
3. Observe the demodulated output on CRO.
4. We will observe that the demodulated output is in phase with the original modulating signal
i.e. frequency of both the demodulated signal and modulating signal are same.

RESULT : we have studied the wave form of PWM

 
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY
PANIPAT MANUAL

15
EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study Pulse Position Modulation &
EXPERIMENT NO: GEC-
Demodulation LM-ECE-05

ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY: Analog comm
:

AIM: To study Pulse Position Modulation & Demodulation

APPRATUS: PWM kit, CRO, Connecting Wires.

THEORY:

PPM in amplitude and angle modulation, some characteristics of the carrier amplitudes, frequency or
phase is continuously varied accordance with the modulating information. However, in pulse
modulation, a small is made of the modulating signal and then a pulse is transmitted. In this case,
some characteristics of the pulse is varied in accordance with the sample of modulating signal. The
sample is actually of measure of the modulating signal at a specific time.
There are several types of pulse modulating systems. Three of the more common types are pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM).pulse duration modulation (PDM), and pulse position modulation
(PPM).in each of these systems, a characteristics of the pulse-such as amplitude, duration, or position
is continuously varied, is called analog pulse modulation.
In pulse time modulation (PTM), the modulating signal is sampled just as it is in PAM. However, in
PTM, the amplitudes of the sample is indicate by a timing variation of the modulated pulse rather
than an amplitude variation. The variable timing characteristics may be the duration, Position or
frequency of the pulses. Therefore, there are three basic types of PTM pulse duration modulation,
pulse position modulation & pulse frequency modulation. The type of PTM is also called pulse width
modulation or pulse length modulation, however, pulse duration; modulation (PDM) is the preferred
term. There are three different classification of PDM: symmetrical PDM, leading edge PDM and
trailing edge PDM. Here the modulating signal is sampled and both the leading and trailing edges of
the pulse are varied in accordance with the sample amplitude. When the sample is high negative
reference duration, the spacing between the centers of the pulse remains constant.

16
A typical PWM waveform can be generated using 555 timers. When the timer is connected in the
mono stable mode and triggered with a continuous pulse train, the output pulse width can be
modulated by signal applied to pin 5.

Generation:-
All PWM signal is obtained by sampling the modulating signal with a pulse train the PWM thus
obtained is then differentiated. The resulting signal has +ve & -ve going pulses corresponding to
leading & trailing edges of the PWM signal.
From the above differentiated waveform the positive going pulses are removed. The resulting
waveform is PPM.
Demodulation:-
The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation or
detection.
At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the audio signal over larger distance to a
receiver. When the modulated wave is picked up by the radio receiver, it is necessary to recover the
audio signal from it. This is accomplished in the radio receiver and is called demodulation.

OUTPUT:

PROCEDURE:

For Modulation

17
1. Study the circuit configuration given on the front panel.

2. Connect the output of built in sine wave oscillator across pin no. 5 & ground of IC 555
through patch cords.

3. Connect CRO probes across modulated output & ground.

4. Switch on the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on front panel.

5. Observe the pulse position modulated output wave on CRO.

6. Vary the amplitude of the base band signal & you notice that the corresponding change in
the pulse position modulated output wave form.

.
For Demodulation

1. Connect the PPM output across the input of PPM demodulator through patch cords.

2. Connect the CRO probes across the demodulated output

3. Observe the demodulated output wave shape on CRO.

4. We will observe that the frequency of both the demodulated signal & modulating signal are
same.

RESULT : we have studied the wave form of PPM

 
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY
PANIPAT MANUAL

18
EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study Sampling Theorem EXPERIMENT NO: GEC-
LM-ECE-06

ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
ANALOG SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY:
COMM :

AIM: To study Sampling Theorem

APPRATUS: Exp. Board, CRO, Multi meter, AF Gen.

THEORY:
If the signal is panel limited and its prime internal is divided into equal parts for being sub-internal
of‘t’ sec. which is less than or equal to ½ fm, where ‘fm’ is the frequency of signal which is to be
sampled.

OR

A band limited signal of finite energy which has freq. component higher than ‘Fm’ Hz is completely
described by specifying the values of signal at instant of time separated by ½ fn sec. There is a limit
on the rate of switching (Sampling) ‘Fc or the mod. Signal of freq. ‘Fm’. As the sampling rate ‘Fc’ is
decreased, there is an obvious limit: -

Fc – Fm  Fm. The limit of ‘Fc’ is thus-

Fc 2Fm – (i)

Equation (i) gives a relation b/w the rate at which a signal varies & the no. of pulses needed to
reproduce it exactly. The rate at which a signal varies is related to its maximum freq. component
‘Fm’ at least ‘2Fm’ uniform spaced samples are needed every sec. In order to reproduce the signal
without distortion. This statement is the ‘SAMPLING THEORM’

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

19
.
PROCEDURE :

20
1. First study board layout, an internal clock of freq. 601 Hz to 3 KHz is provided.

2. Changing the clock frequency knob, freq. is changed. When fully anticlockwise knob clock
frequency is lowest and vice versa..

3. Amplitude knob controls the magnitude of sine wave signal and the offset knob controls the
amount of DC off set.

RESULT / CONCLUSION : Sampling Theorem is verified.

GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY

PANIPAT MANUAL

EXPERIMENT NO: GEC-

EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study the sensitivity of super LM-ECE-07
21
heterodyne radio receiver

ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
ANAOG SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY:
COMM :

AIM: To study the sensitivity of super heterodyne radio receiver

APPRATUS: Super heterodyne radio receiver kit, CRO & connecting wires.

THEORY:
The demonstration set consists of the following section:-
1. Antenna input section
2. RF tuner
3. IF tuner
4. Detector stage.
5. AF amplifier
6. Sound section
7. Automatic gain control
8. Power supply section

1. Antenna input section:-

The radio waves from various broadcasting stations are picked up by the antenna.
The station selector selects the desired section, rejecting radio waves from other stations
2. RF tuner: - the RF tuner consists of the following parts.
1. RF amplifier
2. Mixer
3. Local oscillator
The selected radio wave signal becomes very weak during transmitter to the receiving end. So the
strength of the signal is amplified with the help of RF amplifier.
The amplified signal is fed to the mixer stage one more local oscillator (locally generated) whose
frequency is always above the desired station frequency (455 KHZ) is also fed to the mixer. The

22
mixer stage mixes these frequencies and generates a difference frequency signal at fixed frequency of
455 KHZ which is called intermediate frequency.

3. IF amplifier:-the output of which is fixed frequency signal of 455KHZ is amplified with IF

amplifiers. The demonstration set consists of two IF amplifiers stage. The level of the signal
is raised so that it can be easily detected with diode detector.

4. Detector stage:- the recovery of original audio signal which is mixed with carrier wave at
transmitter is detected with the help of diode detector.

5. AF amplifier:- the signal obtained after detection is weak and requires amplification. The
output of detector is amplified with the help of audio amplifier stage to the sufficient level so
that it can drive the speaker.

6. Sound section:- a speaker is device which converts electrical signal into sound waves. The
output of AF amplifier is fed to the speaker for sound reproduction.

7 Automatic gain control:-automatic gain control facility is also provided in demonstration

set so that irrespective of the signal strength received at receiver there should be no variation
of sound level at the output of receiver. However the volume of received station can be varied
with help of volume control according to one’s choice.

8. Power supply section:-the power supply is DC regulated & is operative on 220-50 HZ A.C.
mains. Output is 5 VDC/100MA using voltage regulators 7805.

Super heterodyne receiver:-

In this section, we discuss the heterodyne principle show you how it is applied to what are known as
“super heterodyne receivers.” Practically all present’ day factory-built radios are of this type. The
heterodyne principle is used also in television receivers and other electronic equipment. Therefore, in
addition to giving you a more complete understanding of radio receiver circuit, this lesson also
prepares you for the specialized study of TV receivers.

23
In the study of super heterodyne, you are going to be introduces to several new principles, but
everything which you have already learned relative to radio receivers in general applies to this type
of circuit as well.

Frequency mixer:-
You will observe that the first section of the super heterodyne receiver, to which the antenna is
connected, is called the “mixer” or “first detector”. The station signal is fed in to the oscillator is a
small generator of radio-frequency energy. It consists of a transistor in an oscillating circuit, and a
tuning control. Whereby the operator of the receiver can adjust in oscillator to generate radio-
frequency oscillations of any desired frequency within its tuning range. The output of the oscillator
feeds into the mixer. The output of the mixer is connected to the intermediate frequency amplifier
(IFT). The later is generally known as the IF amplifier.

Frequency mixing:-
During the operation of this receiver, the signal energy radiated by the broadcast station will enter in
the mixer. At the same time, the oscillator, located within the receiver, will also feed radio-frequency
energy into the mixer-but the frequency of the latter will be different from that of the incoming
broadcast signal.
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY:-
These two differing frequencies, being impressed simultaneously upon the mixer are literally
“mixed”. This action causes a new frequency to be produced, which we call the intermediate
frequency, and this new or resulting frequency is fed into the intermediate frequency amplifier where
it is amplified.

The intermediate-frequency is still of a radio-frequency character and is therefore inaudible;

however, by passing it into the second detector, customary detection takes place and the audio
components is at this point separated from the intermediate frequency. Audio amplification then
occurs in the conventional manner.

SENSITIVITY:-
The sensitivity of a radio receiver may be defined as its ability to amplify weak signals. It is

24
generally, defined in terms of the voltage which must be applied at receiver input terminals to
provide a standard output power measured at the output terminals. for AM broadcast receivers,
several relevant quantities have been standardized. A signal modulated by a 400 HZ sine wave and
modulation index of 30% is applied through standard coupling network known as a dummy antenna

However, for professional receivers, the sensitivity is generally quoted in terms of signal power
required to produce a minimum acceptable output signal with a minimum acceptable output noise
level. Few factors determining the sensitivity of a super heterodyne receiver are as under:
(a) The gain of the IF amplifiers.
(b) The gain of the RF amplifiers.
(c) The noise figure of the receiver.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

.
PROCEDURE :

1. Study the circuit diagram on the front panel of the training board carefully.
2. You will notice that radio receiver circuit contains six sections namely antenna, mixer local
oscillator, IF amplifier, diode detector, AF amplifier &power amplifier.
3. Connect speaker points to speakers through patch cords.
4. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on front panel .power LED
will glow indicating that instrument is ready to use.

25
5. Adjust volume control switch for optimum volume.
6. Adjust the gang condenser for selecting stations of your choice.

RESULT: We have studied the sensitivity of super heterodyne radio receiver.

 
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY
PANIPAT MANUAL

EXPERIMENT NO: GEC-

EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study the selectivity of super heterodyne LM-ECE-08
radio receiver

26
ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2016
ANALOG SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY:
COMM :

AIM: To study the selectivity of super heterodyne radio receiver

APPRATUS: Super heterodyne radio receiver kit, CRO & connecting wires.

THEORY:

The demonstration set consists of the following section:-

1. Antenna input section

2. RF tuner
3. IF tuner
4. Detector stage.
5. AF amplifier
6. Sound section
7. Automatic gain control
8. Power supply section

1 Antenna input section :-

The radio waves from various broadcasting stations are picked up by the antenna.
The station selector selects the desired section, rejecting radio waves from other stations

2 RF tuner: - the RF tuner consists of the following parts.

1. RF amplifier
2. Mixer
3. Local oscillator

The selected radio wave signal becomes very weak during transmitter to the receiving end. So the

27
strength of the signal is amplified with the help of RF amplifier.
The amplified signal is fed to the mixer stage one more local oscillator (locally generated) whose
frequency is always above the desired station frequency (455 KHZ)
Is also fed to the mixer. The mixer stage mixes these frequencies and generates a difference
frequency signal at fixed frequency of 455 KHZ which is called intermediate frequency.

3 IF amplifier:-the output of which is fixed frequency signal of 455KHZ is amplified with IF

amplifiers. The demonstration set consists of two IF amplifiers stage. The level of the signal
is raised so that it can be easily detected with diode detector.
4 Detector stage:- the recovery of original audio signal which is mixed with carrier wave at
transmitter is detected with the help of diode detector.
5 AF amplifier:- the signal obtained after detection is weak and requires amplification. The
output of detector is amplified with the help of audio amplifier stage to the sufficient level so
that it can drive the speaker.
6 Sound section:- a speaker is device which converts electrical signal into sound waves. The
output of AF amplifier is fed to the speaker for sound reproduction.
7 Automatic gain control:-automatic gain control facility is also provided in demonstration set
so that irrespective of the signal strength received at receiver there should be no variation of
sound level at the output of receiver. However the volume of received station can be varied
with help of volume control according to one’s choice.
8 Power supply section:-the power supply is DC regulated & is operative on 220-50 HZ A.C.
mains. Output is 5 VDC/100MA using voltage regulator 7805.

Super heterodyne receiver:- in this section, we discuss the heterodyne principle show you how it is
applied to what are known as “super heterodyne receivers.” Practically all present’ day factory-built
radios are of this type.
The heterodyne principle is used also in television receivers and other electronic equipment.
Therefore, in addition to giving you a more complete understanding of radio receiver circuit, this
lesson also prepares you for the specialized study of TV receivers

In the study of super heterodyne, you are going to be introduces to several new principles, but

28
everything which you have already learned relative to radio receivers in general applies to this type
of circuit as well.

Frequency mixer:-you will observe that the first section of the super heterodyne receiver, to which
the antenna is connected, is called the “mixer” or “first detector”. The station signal is fed in to the
oscillator is a small generator of radio-frequency energy. It consists of a transistor in an oscillating
circuit, and a tuning control. Whereby the operator of the receiver can adjust in oscillator to generate
radio-frequency oscillations of any desired frequency within its tuning range. The output of the
oscillator feeds into the mixer. The output of the mixer is connected to(IFT). The later is generally
known as the IF amplifier.

Frequency mixing:-during the operation of this receiver, the signal energy radiated by the broadcast
station will enter in the mixer. At the same time, the oscillator, located within the receiver, will also
feed radio-frequency energy into the mixer-but the frequency of the latter will be different from that
of the incoming broadcast signal.

INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY:-these two differing frequencies, being impressed

simultaneously upon the mixer are literally “mixed”. This action causes a new frequency to be
produced, which we call the intermediate frequency, and this new or resulting frequency is fed into
the intermediate frequency amplifier where it is amplified.
The intermediate-frequency is still of a radio-frequency character and is therefore inaudible;
however, by passing it into the second detector, customary detection takes place and the audio
components is at this point separated from the intermediate frequency. Audio amplification then
occurs in the conventional manner.
The intermediate frequency amplifier

SELECTIVITY:-The selectivity of a radio receiver may be defined as its ability to reject unwanted
signals. It also expresses the attenuation that the receiver offers to signal at frequencies adjacent to
the one to which it’s tuned. Generally, expressed as a curve as shown in figure. In selectivity
measurement, the frequency of the generator is varied to either side of the frequency to which the
receiver is tuned. Naturally, the output of the receiver fall since the input frequency is not incorrect.

29
 Thus, the input voltage must be increased until the output is the same as it was originally. The ratio
of the voltage required of the resonance to the voltage required. When the generator is tuned to
receiver’s frequency it is calculated at a Number of points and then plotted in decibels to give a
curve as shown in fig. it may be noted that selectivity depends on the following factors. .
(a) The selectivity varies with the receiving frequency and become somewhat worse when the
receiving frequency is raised.
(b) In general, it is mainly determined by the response of the IF section, with the mixer and IF
amplifier. Input circuits playing a small but significant part.
(c) Selectivity is the main factor which determines the adjacent channel rejection of a receiver.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

.
PROCEDURE:

1. Study the circuit diagram on the front panel of the training board carefully.
2. You will notice that radio receiver circuit contains six sections namely antenna, mixer local
oscillator, IF amplifier, diode detector, AF amplifier &power amplifier.
3. Connect speaker points to speakers through patch cords.
4. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on front panel .power LED
will glow indicating that instrument is ready to use.
5. Adjust volume control switch for optimum volume.
6. Adjust the gang condenser for selecting stations of your choice.

30
RESULT : We have studied the selectivity of super heterodyne radio receiver.

 
GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NAULTHA, LABORATORY
PANIPAT MANUAL

EXPERIMENT NO: -
EXPERIMENT TITLE: To study the fidelity of super heterodyne GEC-LM-ECE-09
radio receiver

31
ISSUE NO : 001 ISSUE DATE 25-07-2016 REV NO: 002 REV DATE 28-07-2017
ANALOG SEMESTER 3rd
DEPARTMENT: ECE LABORATORY:
COMM :

AIM: To study the fidelity of super heterodyne radio receiver

APPRATUS: Super heterodyne radio receiver kit, CRO & connecting wires.

THEORY :

The demonstration set consists of the following section:-

1. Antenna input section
2. RF tuner
3. IF tuner
4. Detector stage.
5. AF amplifier
6. Sound section
7. Automatic gain control
8. Power supply section

1. Antenna input section :

The radio waves from various broadcasting stations are picked up by the antenna.
The station selector selects the desired section, rejecting radio waves from other stations
2. RF tuner: -
The RF tuner consists of the following parts.
1. RF amplifier
2. Mixer
3. Local oscillator
The selected radio wave signal becomes very weak during transmitter to the receiving end. So the
strength of the signal is amplified with the help of RF amplifier.
The amplified signal is fed to the mixer stage one more local oscillator (locally generated) whose
frequency is always above the desired station frequency (455 KHZ) .Is also fed to the mixer. The

32
mixer stage mixes these frequencies and generate a difference frequency signal at fixed frequency of
455 KHZ which is called intermediate frequency.

3. IF amplifier:-the output of which is fixed frequency signal of 455KHZ is amplified with IF

amplifiers. The demonstration set consists of two IF amplifiers stage. The level of the signal
is raised so that it can be easily detected with diode detector.

4. Detector stage: - the recovery of original audio signal which is mixed with carrier wave at
transmitter is detected with the help of diode detector.

5. AF amplifier: - the signal obtained after detection is weak and requires amplification. The
output of detector is amplified with the help of audio amplifier stage to the sufficient level so
that it can drive the speaker.

6. Sound section: - a speaker is device which converts electrical signal into sound waves. The
output of AF amplifier is fed to the speaker for sound reproduction.

7. Automatic gain control:-automatic gain control facility is also provided in demonstration

set so that irrespective of the signal strength received at receiver there should be no variation
of sound level at the output of receiver. However the volume of received station can be varied
with help of volume control according to one’s choice.

8. Power supply section:-the power supply is DC regulated & is operative on 220-50 HZ A.C.
mains. Output is 5 VDC/100MA using voltage regulator 7805.

Super heterodyne receiver:-

In this section, we discuss the heterodyne principle show you how it is applied to what are known as
“super heterodyne receivers.” Practically all present’ day factory-built radios are of this type.
The heterodyne principle is used also in television receivers and other electronic equipment.
Therefore, in addition to giving you a more complete understanding of radio receiver circuit, this
lesson also prepares you for the specialized study of TV receivers

33
In the study of super heterodyne, you are going to be introduces to several new principles, but
everything which you have already learned relative to radio receivers in general applies to this type
of circuit as well.
Frequency mixer:-
you will observe that the first section of the super heterodyne receiver, to which the antenna is
connected, is called the “mixer” or “first detector”. The station signal is fed in to the oscillator is a
small generator of radio-frequency energy. It consists of a transistor in an oscillating circuit, and a
tuning control. Whereby the operator of the receiver can adjust in oscillator to generate radio-
frequency oscillations of any desired frequency within its tuning range. The output of the oscillator
feeds into the mixer. The output of the mixer is connected to the intermediate frequency amplifier
(IFT). The later is generally known as the IF amplifier.

Frequency mixing:-
During the operation of this receiver, the signal energy radiated by the broadcast station will enter in
the mixer. At the same time, the oscillator, located within the receiver, will also feed radio-frequency
energy into the mixer-but the frequency of the latter will be different from that of the incoming
broadcast signal.
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY:-
These two differing frequencies, being impressed simultaneously upon the mixer are literally
“mixed”. This action causes a new frequency to be produced, which we call the intermediate
frequency, and this new or resulting frequency is fed into the intermediate frequency amplifier where
it is amplified.
The intermediate-frequency is still of a radio-frequency character and is therefore inaudible;
however, by passing it into the second detector, customary detection takes place and the audio
components is at this point separated from the intermediate frequency. Audio amplification then
occurs in the conventional manner.

FIDELITY:-
The fidelity of a radio receiver may be defined as the ability of a receiver to reproduce faithfully all
frequency components present in baseband signal is called fidelity. If any components is missed, or
attenuated considerably, fidelity suffers and the reproduced signal is distorted. This feature is mainly

34
decided by the audio amplifier which amplifiers the baseband signal.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Study the circuit diagram on the front panel of the training board carefully.
2. You will notice that radio receiver circuit contains six sections namely antenna, mixer local
oscillator, IF amplifier, diode detector, AF amplifier &power amplifier.
3. Connect speaker points to speakers through patch cords.
4. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on front panel .power LED
will glow indicating that instrument is ready to use.
5. Adjust volume control switch for optimum volume.
6. Adjust the gang condenser for selecting stations of your choice.

RESULT: We have studied the fidelity of super heterodyne radio receiver.

35
36