Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 281–285

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Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research

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Full length article

Cage aquaculture production in Zambia: Assessment of opportunities

and challenges on Lake Kariba, Siavonga district
Oliver J. Hasimuna a,c,⇑, Sahya Maulu b, Concillia Monde c, Malawo Mweemba c
a
National Aquaculture Research and Development Centre, P.O. Box 22797, Kitwe, Zambia
b
Centre for Innovative Approach Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
c
Copperbelt University, Kapasa Makasa University Campus, Department of Agriculture and Aquatic Sciences, P.O. Box 480195, Chinsali, Zambia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cage aquaculture is among the recent innovations that have attracted great attention in fish production
Received 7 March 2019 in most African countries. In Zambia, cage aquaculture has recorded significant growth to even emerge as
Revised 17 June 2019 the largest contributor to the total national aquaculture production annually. Our study was aimed at
Accepted 23 June 2019
assessing cage aquaculture production in Siavonga district of Zambia. We targeted the aquaculture and
Available online 3 July 2019
feed manufacturing companies, their production, challenges, and opportunities. This study revealed that
there were five main aquaculture production companies with fish cages ranging from 96 m3 to
Keywords:
135,534 m3 in size. Oreochromis niloticus was found to be the only cultured species. Lack of quality fish
Cage
Aquaculture
seed and feed were the major challenges faced by the aquaculture production companies in Siavonga dis-
Technology trict. The study further revealed that there were two major aquafeed manufacturing companies within
Production the district with a production capacity ranging from 50 tons to 200 tons per day. Lack of readily available
Capacity raw material for feed making was the major challenge facing the aquafeed manufacturing companies.
Zambia There are huge potentials for cage aquaculture in Siavonga district, which can significantly contribute
to the nation’s aquaculture production. These include the availability of large fish feed manufacturing
companies and huge water resources.
Ó 2019 National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries. Hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Introduction
Aquaculture continues to grow faster compared to other major
food production sectors (FAO, 2018). Zambia is a country richly
endowed with natural water resources best suited to aquaculture
development (Nsonga and Simbotwe, 2014). Aquaculture develop-
ment programs have the potential to create jobs, improve food
security among poor households, and remove variability in terms
of household income flow, and increase farm level efficiency and
sustainability (Kaliba et al., 2007; Musuka and Musonda, 2012).
At 36,105 metric tons per annum (DoF, 2019 unpublished), Zam-
bia is the sixth largest producer of farmed fish in Africa and the big-
gest producer of tilapia in the Southern Africa Development
Community (SADC) (DoF, 2019 unpublished; Genschick et al.,
2017; Maulu et al., 2019). Aquaculture farming systems in Zambia
include cages, ponds, circulation tanks, and dams, which account
for an estimated 13% of total fish production (Maguswi, 1994;
Nsonga and Simbotwe, 2014). The high level of fishing pressure
Peer review under responsibility of National Institute of Oceanography and
Fisheries.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: oliverhasimuna@gmail.com (O.J. Hasimuna).
on natural water resources globally has triggered the need to accel-
erate the development of strong complementary technologies -
aquaculture production systems such as cage culture farming and
aquaculture parks. These are new or innovative fish production ave-
nues that have been adopted internationally (Mbowa et al., 2017).
On Lake Kariba, intensive cage fish farming was introduced in
the late 1990s using Oreochromis niloticus. Currently, over 100 cages
have been recorded on the lake compared to only three recorded in
the late 1990s (Genschick et al., 2017). Despite the increasing num-
ber of cages and other supporting industries on the lake, informa-
tion on cage culture and related activities, as well as prospects on
Lake Kariba, is still scanty. Furthermore, the said increase in the
number of cages on Lake Kariba and even on other lakes (e.g. Lake
Tanganyika and Bangweulu) do not seem to address the deficit of
fish on the Zambian markets. Current estimates for annual fish pro-
duction from capture fisheries according to the Department of Fish-
eries, as reported by WorldFish (2017), is about 85, 000 metric tons
and aquaculture is said to be contributing 30,000 metric tons.
WorldFish (2017) and Tran et al. (2018) further state that fish con-
sumption levels in Zambia are low at 5 Kgs/person/year. This study
was aimed at assessing the production, opportunities and chal-
lenges of cage aquaculture in Siavonga district, which falls in Stra-
tum IV of Lake Kariba in Zambia. Stratum IV is the deepest stratum

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2019.06.007
1687-4285/Ó 2019 National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries. Hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
282 O.J. Hasimuna et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 281–285

due to the dam wall, hence, it has greater potential for having more
fish cages compared to the other three strata.
Materials and methods
Study area
This study was conducted in Siavonga District (Stratum IV)
along Lake Kariba, situated at 160 320 S 280 430 E/16.5330 S 28.7170 E
(Fig. 1). Lake Kariba was formed as a result of damming the Zam-
bezi River in Siavonga in the 1950s for the purpose of hydropower
generation. The two sardine-like fishes (Limnothrissa miodon and
Stolothrissa tanganicae) were introduced from Lake Tanganyika into
the lake and have since been monitored jointly by Zambia and Zim-
babwe. It is worth mentioning that S. tanganicae couldn’t adapt
possibly due to change of natural environment while L. miodon
managed to adapt and has subsequently thrived to levels where
it is now fished commercially. According to the 2010 Zambian Cen-
sus of Population and Housing, Siavonga district had a population
of about 90,213 people. Fishing and Agriculture are the main eco-
nomic activities of the people in the district.
Study design
ture producers and feed manufacturing companies from the local
Department of Fisheries, two groups of semi-structured question-
naires were designed. The first group was designed for the cage
aquaculture producers in Siavonga district and included such infor-
mation as company fish production information and challenges.
The second group was designed for the feed manufacturing compa-
nies and it included such information as feed production, produc-
tion capacity and challenges faced. Based on the information
obtained from the local Department of Fisheries, at least 80% of
the cage aquaculture producers in the district were assessed.
Before the actual data collection, draft questionnaires were
designed and pre-tested with a few cage aquaculture farmers in
the district and necessary adjustments were made. The final ques-
tionnaires were improved, rearranged and modified based on the
response from the pre-tested questionnaires.
Data analysis
In order to get patterns from the responses given, the data col-
lected were organized into charts, tables, and graphs in Microsoft
Excel. The coded responses were later exported to Statistical Pack-
age for Social Scientist (SPSS) software version 23.0, which was
used to obtain descriptive statistics.

Primary data collection included the information on the socio-
economic activities of the surrounding communities, fish cage cul-
ture operators and management practices. On the other hand, the
study looked at the challenges faced in cage aquaculture such as
fish feed and fish seed availability. Additional relevant information
was obtained from personal field observations and in-depth inter-
views with key personnel. After getting information on aquacul-
Results and discussion
Aquaculture production
Table 1 gives a summary of the information on Aquaculture pro-
duction in Siavonga district. Based on the information provided by
the local Department of Fisheries, Siavonga district had five cage

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of Siavonga district along Lake Kariba between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Source: Google maps.

Table 1
Summary of aquaculture production by company in Siavonga district.

Company Fish species Stocking density (fish/m3) Size-range of culture facilities (d) No. of culture facilities Estimated total culture facility size
Yalelo Ltd. O. niloticus 109 20–25 m Cages: 46 135,534 m3
30  20 m–50  30 m Ponds: 42 33,750 m2
Lake harvest Ltd. O. niloticus 53 7–20 m Cages: 45 66,678 m3
Hechikay Aquaculture O. niloticus 160 20–25 m Cages: 3 5656 m3
Dimus Aquaculture O. niloticus 156 4–6 m Cages: 1 96 m3
Phindol Fisheries Ltd. O. niloticus 108 6–8 m Cages: 12 2772 m3
 O.J. Hasimuna et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 281–285 283

aquaculture producers on Lake Kariba. All of these cage producers flexibility and higher financial returns compared to land-based
were culturing the exotic Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) production systems, and relatively more attractive to investors.
(Table 1). These findings were in line with the findings by
Mbowa et al. (2017), who reported that Oreochromis niloticus is
Fish seed
the predominant species cultured in cages. Additionally, the study
also discovered that the producers had different sizes of cages. This
The present study revealed that 60% of the aquaculture compa-
agrees with the finding of Opiyo et al. (2018), who reported that
nies (Yalelo Limited inclusive) in Siavonga district were obtaining
the five riparian counties in Kenya had cages with sizes ranging
their fingerlings from Yalelo Limited (Fig. 2). The company was
from 8 to 125 m3. The variations in sizes of cages may be attributed
deemed to be among the companies producing quality fingerlings
to difference in financial resources since bigger companies had big-
in the district. The other 40% were obtaining their fingerlings from
ger cages on average and were benefiting from the economies of
other parts of the country such as Chirundu district at Chirundu
scale. This study also revealed that all the aquaculture companies
Bream Farm Limited. Regarding the quality of fingerlings obtained
operating in the district had existed for less than 10 years as of
within the districts, 40% of the respondents said they were of
2018. Among these companies, the oldest were Yalelo Limited
excellent quality, 40% said they were very good, while 20% said
and Lake Harvest Limited. While the latter has existed for a long
they were not good (Table 2). The opinions disclosed by the
time on the Zimbabwean side of Lake Kariba, the former claims
respondents were based on their personal judgement of the seed
of having emerged as a leading aquaculture producer in Zambia
used until harvest.
and among the largest in Southern Africa within a short period of
time. Yalelo Limited is the fastest growing aquaculture company
that has in recent years expanded its operations into fingerlings Fish feed
production. Apart from one producer (Dimus Aquaculture), who
used square cages, all the aquaculture producers in the district The study revealed that most of the aquaculture producers in
were utilizing circular fish cages for their production. The shape Siavonga district were feeding their fish 3 times per day at 3–5%
of the cage selected by a particular producers was based on indi- live body weight (Fig. 3). However, most of them were experienc-
vidual financial capacity, knowledge related to management and ing challenges in estimating the correct amount of feed to be
own preferences. Furthermore, all the interviewed producers indi- administered to the fish. As a result, it was observed that the lar-
cated that each production cycle ranged between five and eight gest portion of the production cost (i.e. more 50%) was attributed
months on average. to fish feed. Lack of proper techniques for estimating actual bio-
Similar to the findings of Njiru et al. (2018) and Aura et al. mass in a production unit was the major challenge related to fish
(2018), cage aquaculture production ownership in Siavonga dis- feed.
trict is dominated by males. Based on our observation, this was This study also revealed that 60% of the fish feeds used for aqua-
attributed to the fact that managing cage culture production facil- culture production in Siavonga district is obtained from feed man-
ities is labour intensive since it is practiced on water where most ufacturing plants located within the district, 20% was obtained
women may not find it appealing. from other parts of the country and 20% from outside the country
Quality fish seed is among the major constraints to aquaculture (Table 3). For those sourcing their seed and feed outside the dis-
growth in Zambia like many other developing countries. The rapid trict, the cost of transportation made their production costs to be
growth of Yalelo Limited, therefore, is attributed to the fact that relatively higher. On the quality of the fish feeds used, 40% indi-
they produce their own fingerlings, which can be stocked accord- cated that the quality was very good, 40% revealed that the feed
ing to their planned programme. The company also supplies finger- was good while 20% of the companies revealed that the quality
lings to other companies within and outside the district. of the fish feed was rather bad (Table 3).
Companies, which depend on other sources for fish seed, usually
face problems related to poor quality and shortages of fingerlings.
Moreover, Yalelo limited was also utilizing fish ponds for aquacul-
ture production, which provided the company with more advan-
tages related to fish culture conditions.
The study also revealed that all the aquaculture producers in
Siavonga district were only producing the exotic Nile tilapia (Ore-
ochromis niloticus) at different stocking densities. This was attribu-
ted to the species’ ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental
conditions and its fast growth (Maulu and Musuka, 2018). More-
over, Nile tilapia is widely cultured around the world, hence the
species has a strong worldwide market (FAO, 2009). On average,
those with few fish cages were stocking their fish at relatively
higher densities compared to those with more cages (Table 1).
However, the stocking density by cage aquaculture producers
(ranging from 53 to 160 fingerling/m3) in the district was far lower
than that of the cage fish producers on Lake Victoria in Kenya, esti-
Fig. 2. Sources of fingerlings for the aquaculture companies in Siavonga district.
mated at 60 to 350 fingerlings/m3 (Opiyo et al., 2018; Njiru et al.,
2018). Although in both cases tilapia was the cultured species,
the differences in stocking densities may be due to the size at
Table 2
which the fish are stocked and harvested, water conditions, and Opinion of the respondents regarding the quality of fingerlings used.
management related reasons. Similar to the findings of Philips
Quality of the fingerlings used Percentage
and De Silva (2006), the use of the already existing body of water
and no land requirement were the major factors that influenced Excellent 40%
the companies to venture into cage fish farming. Additionally, Very Good 40%
Bad 20%
El-Sayed (2006), observed that cage aquaculture offers more
284 O.J. Hasimuna et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 281–285
Fig. 3. Fish feeding frequencies for the aquaculture producers in Siavonga district.
Table 3
Information on the fish feed use for aquaculture in Siavonga district.
Source of fish feed Percentage (%)
Within Siavonga district 60
Other parts of Zambia 20
Outside Zambia 20
Quality Percentage (%)
Very good 40
Good 40
Bad 20
Looking at the percentage of the producers who said the feed
was bad (20%) against that of those who said the feed was of very
good and good quality (80%) respectively, it could be possible that
the problem may have not necessarily been the quality of fish feed.
It could be possible that other factors such as husbandry practices
and the fish seed they were using may perhaps be the reason
behind the poor production. This is because growth in fishes is a
function of genetics and environment. The genetics aspects covers
the entire quality of both the broodstock and their offspring in
terms of their health and genetic make-up. The hatcheries where
the fingerlings are obtained should have a good breeding program
such that no traces of inbreeding and negative should be found
they have the potential of compromising the quality of the seed
and subsequently the entire production. On the other hand, man-
agement includes the various day to day routine practices such
as the feeding and feeding regime, nutritional composition of the
feed being administered to the fish, stocking densities in the cul-
ture facilities and many others.
The current study discovered that there were two big aquacul-
ture feed production plants in Siavonga district. Both companies
had existed for not more than 3 years in the country despite having
been operating in other African countries. The coming of the two
companies in Siavonga was mainly due to the high demand for fish
feed in the district driven by the rapid growth of cage aquaculture
on Lake Kariba. These findings agreed with those of Maulu and
Musuka (2018), who reported that Stratum IV of Lake Kariba Fish-
ery, which falls in Siavonga district, was rapidly expanding in cage
aquaculture due to conditions favoring cage fish culture.
The two aquaculture feed manufacturing companies located in
Siavonga district were identified as Aller-Aqua Limited and Skret-
ting Limited (Table 4). The feed plants were located in strategic
Table 4
Details of fish feed producing companies.
Feed company name Feed production capacity/day Current amount of feed produced/day
Aller-Aqua Ltd. 150–200 tons 50–100 tons
Skretting Ltd. 50–100 tons 50–100 tons
positions suited for feed marketing. Aller-Aqua was located close
to Yalelo Limited, which was the major buyer of its feed. Skretting
Limited, on the other hand, was located close to Lake Harvest Lim-
ited, which seemed to be the largest buyer of the company’s feed.
The study revealed that Skretting Limited was producing both
fish and crocodile feeds compared to Aller-Aqua Limited, which
was specialized in the production of fish feeds only. Although both
companies were producing floating feeds (which is ideal for tila-
pias species due to their feeding habits), Aller-Aqua Limited was
producing feed for all fish stages while Skretting Limited was only
producing for starter and grower fish stages. When the production
status of the companies was compared, the study revealed that
both companies were producing 50–100 tons of feed on a daily
basis. Skretting Limited was producing at its maximum capacity
(50–100 tons/day) while Aller-Aqua Limited had the capacity to
produce up to 200 tons of fish feed per day (Table 4). The produc-
tion levels of the companies were attributed to the needs of the
major buyers of their feeds.
Major challenges in cage aquaculture
Several challenges that could impede aquaculture growth in
Siavonga district and Zambia at large were uncovered during the
study. Most of the aquaculture producers especially those operat-
ing on a small-scale indicated that Environmental Impact Assess-
ment (EIA) costs, procedures and other related costs were among
the major challenges faced at the commencement of their cage
aquaculture ventures. The majority of the producers particularly
stated that EIA required huge sums of money before they could
start the production. These findings were similar to the findings
of Musuka and Musonda (2012) who reported that EIA was among
the major challenges in Commercial aquaculture in Zambia. This
was also echoed in the study by Maulu et al. (2019) that high fees
charged to do EIA studies before the commencement of operations
was among the major challenges especially to small-scale fish
farmers and potential fish farmers. The study further revealed that
most of the small-scale aquaculture producers in Siavonga lacked
the capacity to buy appropriate technologies such as equipment
for fish grading, feeding, and harvesting for their aquaculture pro-
duction. As a result, they hired some of the required equipment
from the commercial aquaculture producers such as Yalelo Limited
and Lake Harvest Limited.
Inadequate supply of quality fish seed and feed was also report-
edly a major challenge for both small and large-scale fish produc-
ers in Siavonga district. This was because what was produced
locally could not meet the demand, thereby making it difficult to
produce fish according to the producer’s plan or program. These
results agree with the findings of Blow and Leonard (2007) who
reported that lack of quality seed and feed production were among
the major challenges affecting cage fish culture in Africa. Moreover,
similar findings were reported for cage fish culture on Lake Victoria
in Kenya by Njiru et al. (2018). While theft and predation are some
of the important challenges in aquaculture, this study however
didn’t capture them be some of the challenges affecting cage aqua-
culture in Siavonga. This could be due to the fact that every com-
pany had security guards stationed at the site. Additionally, the
stocks were well secured from predators such as birds, crocodiles
and predatory fishes.
Feed type Characteristic of feed
Fish feed for all stages Floating feed
Starter and grower Floating feed
 O.J. Hasimuna et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 281–285
For the aquaculture feed manufacturing companies, lack of
readily available low-cost raw materials was the major challenge
faced. When interviewed, both companies’ representatives indi-
cated that raw materials for feed manufacturing were difficult to
source in the country especially the micro-ingredients such as vita-
mins, premixes and fish meal. They further revealed that for the
few available materials, the costs were relatively higher than nor-
mal. This challenge could be attributed to the fact that there is very
little agricultural productivity in Siavonga district owing to its hilly
and rocky terrain. As a result, fishing is the major economic activity
by the majority of the population.
Agricultural crops such as maize, Soybean, Cassava, groundnuts,
and others are usually the main raw materials used for fish feed
manufacturing. Having existed for not more than 3 years in the dis-
trict, the fish feed manufacturing companies had challenges with
the marketing of their feeds as they were not popular in other
areas in the country. This is likely to be the main reason why
Aller-Aqua Limited was operating at 50–100 tons of feed per day
despite having the capacity to produce 150–200 tons per day.
Conclusions and recommendations
Aquaculture production has the potential to ease the pressure
on natural fisheries and to cover the current fish deficit in Zambia.
Fish consumption levels, which are reported to be low, can be
increased with the increase in aquaculture production. Cage aqua-
culture is particularly suitable in Zambia owing to the country’s
abundant water resources and suitable land. Siavonga district’s
cage fish culture represents the largest proportion of the total
national aquaculture production. Zambia has great opportunities
of increasing fish production through cage aquaculture due to
abundant water resources. For example, other water bodies like
Lake Mweru, Lake Bangweulu and Lake Tanganyika, have recorded
limited to no cage aquaculture activities despite the suitable eco-
logical conditions. We therefore, conclude that cage aquaculture
production in Siavonga district and Zambia at large has great
potential. This potential can be enhanced through the optimum
use of available resources and by addressing the challenges high-
lighted in this study, which are largely not insurmountable. Since
intensive cage aquaculture can lead to accumulation of nutrients
in the sediments under the cage (Troell and Berg, 2008), we recom-
mend further studies focusing on the environmental sustainability
of cage aquaculture production and productivity in Siavonga and
other districts in Zambia where cage aquaculture is practiced.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors have no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Zambian Department of
Fisheries in Siavonga district for availing the necessary information
required in this study. We also extend our gratitude to the
285
Aquaculture producers and feed manufacturing companies in Sia-
vonga district for co-operating in information sharing during the
study. Mr. Mwaanda Sikanyenyene is sincerely thanked for sacri-
ficing his precious time and braving the hot weather during the
data collection period.
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