Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Journal of the Energy Institute

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institute

Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and
medium speed diesel engines
Miguel Torres-García a, *, Juan Francisco García-Martín b, Francisco Jose

Jime

nez-Espadafor
a c

Aguilar , Douglas Fernandes Barbin , Paloma Alvarez-Mateos b

a
University of Seville-Thermal Power Group e GMTS, Escuela T

ecnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales, Camino de los descubrimientos s/n, 41092,
Seville, Spain
b
Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Profesor García Gonza
lez, 1, 41012, Seville, Spain
c
Department of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: There is a high potential for plant oils as alternative fuel for low and medium speed diesel engines,
Received 9 June 2019 making petroleum-derived fuels likely to be replaced in these types of engines. Vegetable oils have
Received in revised form important advantages over both heavy fuel oil (HFO) and marine gas oil (MGO), the fuels currently used
20 August 2019
in diesel power plants by large two stroke low-speed diesel engines and by medium speed diesel en-
Accepted 28 August 2019
gines, respectively. The emission of certain pollutants and greenhouse gases like SOx, soot and, mainly,
Available online xxx
CO2 can be reduced by using vegetable oils in these types of engines. This work discusses the potential of
vegetable oils as fuel for power plant diesel engines and the problems that can be derived from their use.
Keywords:
Raw vegetable oils Current experiences with medium speed diesel engines together with the analysis carried out in this
Heavy fuel oil paper indicate that vegetable oils can substitute HFO and MGO, without almost any engine modification.
Low speed diesel engine © 2019 Energy Institute. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Marine gas oil

1. Introduction

Biomass has been used as a source of energy by mankind since immemorial time and will play a decisive role in the near future [1].
Biomass comprises all the existing Earth organic matter, all substances of vegetable or animal biodegradable, and currently represents
roughly 14% of the world's energy consumption. It has been estimated that our planet stores roughly 4
1018 kJ green biomass [2], and its
production rate is 1.46
1011 t per year [3]. In addition, most of biomass can re-grow quickly and therefore feedstocks are readily available
after a relatively short period of time.
One of the biomasses used as a source of energy is vegetable oils. The use of plant-derived oils in diesel engines is almost as old as the
diesel engine itself. The first diesel engine, created by Rudolf Diesel in 1900, was supposed to use peanut oil as fuel. Other works reported the
use of vegetable oils in diesel engines in the 1930s and 1940s. In this sense, George Chavanne of the University of Brussels (Belgium) ob-
tained a patent entitled “Procedure for the transformation of vegetable oils for their uses as fuels” (Belgian patent 422,877) on August 31,
1937, which is regarded as the first report on what is today known as biodiesel (methyl and ethyl esters of vegetable oils obtained by acid-
catalysed transesterification). Later the energy and fuel crises of the late 1970s and early 1980s, as well as related concerns over the
exhaustion of the world's non-renewable resources, motivated the search for alternatives to traditional oil-based fuels. This decrease in
fossil fuel reserves and difficulty in accessing remaining unexploited deposits shall increase the resources spent by oil companies, resulting
in an increase in the final price of the fuel, making it less profitable [4]. Furthermore, there is a large amount of greenhouse gases (GHG)
emissions derived from the combustion of these fuels, like nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), carbon oxides (CO and CO2), and
others volatile organic compounds such as methane [4]. Finally, the photochemical interactions of hydrocarbons, CO and NOx are
responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer, which causes the penetration of ultraviolet light into the earth's surface leading to skin
cancer, global warming and acid rain [4].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: migueltorres@us.es (M. Torres-García).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.08.006
1743-9671/© 2019 Energy Institute. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: M. Torres-García et al., Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and medium speed diesel
engines, Journal of the Energy Institute, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.08.006
2 M. Torres-García et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (xxxx) xxx

Vegetable oils have many advantages over petroleum-based fuels: they are renewable and biodegradable, have low aromatic and
sulphur content and high heat content. In addition, they do not increase the level of CO2 in the atmosphere at global level [5], if it is
assumed that the carbon dioxide released during combustion is not higher than the CO2 absorbed by plants during their growth.
Vegetable oils can reduce GHG emissions in the transportation sector, which account for more than a fifth of GHG emissions in Europe [6].
Globally, transportation sector accounted for roughly 23% and 22% of total world CO2 emissions in 2007 and 2008, respectively [6]. The
main transportation GHG emissions were CO2 (95%), which accounts for the potential of vegetable oils in reducing CO2 emissions and thus
GHG emissions.
However, the use of vegetable oils as fuel in diesel engines for vehicles, trucks or tractors (small power, less than 1 MW) can produce
medium and long-term anomalies in these engines designed to run with diesel fuel [7]. In order to avoid these problems, raw vegetable
oils are transformed by transesterification into biodiesel, which has physical properties very similar to conventional diesel [8]. The
specifications for biodiesel in the European Union market for vehicles are regulated by the EN 14,214 standard. This standard is essential
for ensuring good oxidation stability and eliminating impurities derived from the transesterification process (mainly rest of catalyst,
water, glycerol and methanol). Biodiesel can be used alone as fuel or mixed with fossil diesel without major modifications in conventional
diesel engines, offering a similar performance and engine durability to fossil diesel and providing better lubricating qualities [9]. However,
the main problem in the production of biodiesel from vegetable oils is the cost of the raw material, making biodiesel price 1.5 times
higher than that of diesel. As a result, current researches are focused on the production of biodiesel from much less expensive raw
materials such as waste cooking oils and oleaginous microorganisms, thus displacing the production of biodiesel from crude vegetable
oils [8,10e12]. Heterotrophic microorganisms (bacteria, fungi and yeasts) can be grown on waste or low-grade biomass for subsequent
biodiesel production. Microorganism lipids can be directly transformed into biodiesel giving cost savings and increasing lipid extraction
[13]. Notwithstanding, this technology still need to be developed to be economically feasible at an industrial scale-up. Regarding the use
of waste cooking oils, they are not only much cheaper than crude vegetable oils, but also they are not in conflict with food security and
are available as waste products [11]. In spite of these advantages, the use of waste cooking oils for biodiesel production has a strong
drawback: their previous purification, which reduces their economic feasibility. The purification process includes a sieving to remove
largest solid particles (mainly from flour batter), a 3-phase decantation stage to separate the oil from water and sludge and, in some cases,
a centrifugation stage to extract the remaining oil from the sludge fraction, as described elsewhere [12]. Additionally, a previous ester-
ification stage is required when the oil has a high amount of free fatty acids, which can form soaps during the transesterification process,
thus reducing the biodiesel yield [8,11,14].
In the stationary market for electric power production, medium speed diesel engines and large two-stroke low speed diesel engines are
commonly used in power plants all around the world. The last ones were almost forgotten in the 1960's mainly because heavy fuel oil (HFO)
was plentiful and its prices very low. The oil crisis of the 1970's led to a growing interest in these engines for power generation purposes,
mainly because of their superior efficiency when compared to gas turbines and medium speed four-stroke engines. Large two-stroke, low
speed and medium speed diesel engines are typically used for on-site energy generation in special locations like islands, which are
disconnected from a continental electrical network. A good example is the Canary Islands in Spain. Of the total amount of power installed on
these islands (2997 MW on 31st December 2018), more than 17% comes from diesel engines, and more than 17% of the annual energy
produced (2018) was generated by these type of engines, most of them large two-stroke low speed diesel engines [15].
The Electricity and Heat Production sector was the main contributor of greenhouse gas emissions in 2018 [16], generating a growing
interest in the promotion of electrical power generation from renewable sources in Europe. This is explained in Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of
the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 “on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending
and subsequently repealing Directives 2009/28/EC, 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC” [17]. Biofuels meet these requirements and reduce carbon
dioxide emissions to atmosphere. Indeed, the carbon dioxide emissions during biofuel combustion is “balanced” by the atmospheric carbon
dioxide absorbed by plants during photosynthesis.
Another relevant property of vegetable fuels as compared to HFO is the absence of sulphur. In the European Union, energy-related
acidifying emissions (electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply and transportation and storage) were responsible for 32% of the
total acidifying emissions in 2016, which emphasizes the large contribution of energy use to both local and transboundary air pollution. In
the case of SO2, the share of energy-related emissions contributes to 60% of the total emissions of this pollutant [18]. In this area, crude oils
used as diesel for power plants can help to decrease the huge responsibility of energy-related sector for SO2 emissions.
Therefore, vegetable oils represent an alternative to HFO used in low speed diesel engines and to marine gas oil (MGO) burnt in medium
speed diesel engines. This work analyses the potential of vegetable oils as fuel for power plant diesel engines and highlights the problems
derived from their use.

2. Vegetable oil properties: comparison with HFO and MGO used in two-stroke, medium-speed diesel engines

The potential for using vegetable oils as fuel comes from their molecular composition and high energetic capacity. Triglycerides are the
main constituent of vegetable oils, as their molecular structure contains between 90% and 98% of triglycerides. Vegetable oils also contain
free fatty acids, generally between 1% and 5% (w/w), small amounts of mono- and diglycerides, phospholipids, phosphatides, carotenes and
tocopherols, and water traces. Triglycerides are esters composed of a glycerol molecule bound to three fatty acids, which provide significant
amounts of oxygen to their compounds. Fatty acids differ in the length of the carbon chain and the number of double bonds. The most
frequent fatty acids in triglycerides of vegetable oils are stearic (18:0), palmitic (16:0), oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2) and linolenic (18:3) acids.
There is a wide variety of vegetable oils that can be used in these engines. The physical and chemical characteristics of these renewable fuels
are different enough to entail an engine adjustment when fuelled with vegetable oil. Table 1 illustrates the fatty acid composition and cetane
number of the main vegetable oils used, while Table 2 shows their physico-chemical characteristics along with those of an average HFO and
MGO [19e34]. The fatty acid composition of vegetable oils has influence on their physico-chemical properties. For example, the higher the
percentage of unsaturated products, the lower the viscosity, pour point (PP) and cetane number. These properties are further discussed in
the next sections.

Please cite this article as: M. Torres-García et al., Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and medium speed diesel
engines, Journal of the Energy Institute, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.08.006
 M. Torres-García et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (xxxx) xxx 3

Table 1
Fatty acid composition and cetane number of vegetable oils.

Vegetable oil C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:1-OH C18:2 C18:3 Cetane number

Mahua e 16.0e28.2 20.0e25.0 41.0e51.0 e 10.0-14-0 e e

Jatropha 0.5e1.4 12.0e17.0 5.0e9.5 37.0e63.0 e 19.0e41.0 e 38.0
Cotton seed 0.4 20.0 2.0 35.0 e 42.0 0.1e2.1 e
Sunflower <1.0 3.0e6.0 1.0e3.0 14.0e35.0 e 44.0e75.0 <1.5 37.1
Soybean <0.5 7.0e11.0 2.0e6.0 19.0e34.0 e 43.0e56.0 5.0e11.0 37.9
Sesame e 7.0e9.0 4.0e5.0 40.0e50.0 e 35.0e45.0 e 41.8
Coconut 13.0e19.0 8.0e11.0 1.0e3.0 5.0e8.0 e 0.0e1.0 e e
Palm 0.5e2.0 32.0e45.0 2.0e7.0 38.0e52.0 e 5.0e11.0 e 41.0
Peanut e 6.0e9.0 3.0e6.0 52.0e60.0 e 13.0e27.0 e 41.8
Corn 0.2e1.0 8.0e12.0 2.0e5.0 19.0e49.0 e 34.0e62.0 <2.0 37.6
Castor e 0.9 0.2 3.5 89.3 4.2 0.9 42.3
Rapeseed e 4.9 1.6 33.0 e 20.4 7.4 37.6
Linseed e 4.0e7.0 2.0e5.0 12.0e34.0 e 17.0e24.0 35.0e60.0 34.6

14:0 ¼ myristic acid; 16:0 ¼ palmitic acid; 18:0 ¼ stearic acid; 18:1 ¼ oleic acid; C18:1-OH ¼ ricinoleic acid; 18:2 ¼ linoleic acid; 18:3 ¼ linolenic acid.

Table 2
Physico-chemical properties of vegetable oils, average heavy fuel oil (HFO) and marine gas oil (MGO).

Vegetable oil LHV (kJ/kg) Viscosity (mm2/s) PP ( C) FP ( C) Density (kg/m3) Sulphur (%) Carbon residue (%) Ash (%)

Mahua 38,863 37.2 (40 C) 15.0 238 904 0.01 0.42 0.021
Jatropha 39,584 49.9 (38  C) 8.0 240/110 918 0.13 0.64 e
Cotton seed 39,468 33.5 (38  C) 15.0 234 910 0.01 0.24 0.010
Sunflower 39,575 37.1 (38  C) 15.0 274 920 0.01 0.23 0.010
Soybean 39,623 32.6 (38  C) 12.0 254 910 0.01 0.27 0.010
Sesame 39,349 35.5 (38  C) 9.4 260 910 0.01 0.25 0.010
Safflower 39,519 31.3 (38  C) 6.7 260 910 0.01 0.25 0.006
Coconut 40,000 26.0 (38  C) e e 910 0.01 e e
Palm 36,553 39.6 (38  C) e 267 920 0.01 e e
Peanut 39,782 39.6 (38  C) 6.7 271 900 0.01 0.24 0.005
Corn 39,500 34.9 (38  C) 40.0 277 910 0.01 0.24 0.010
Castor 39,500 239.4 (38  C) 31.7 310 957 0.01 e e
Crambe 40,482 53.6 (38  C) 12.2 274 900 0.01 0.23 0.050
Rapeseed 39,709 37.2 (38  C) 31.7 246 910 0.01 0.30 0.054
Linseed 39,307 27.2 (38  C) 15.0 241 920 0.01 0.22 0.010
Average HFO 40,000e41000 19.3 (40  C) 6,þ6 60 <1010 <5 <22 <0.2
Average MGO 42,800 3.4 (40  C) 60 843 <0.05 <0.2 <0.010

PP ¼ pour point; FP ¼ flash point.

2.1. Kinematic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is one of the parameters that mostly affect combustion in medium speed diesel engines. It varies between 30 and
50 mm2/s at 38  C for most vegetable oils (Table 2), although some of them surpass this range (crambe and castor oil). The high viscosity of
these vegetable oils is due to their chemical structure and large molecular mass, with a molecular weight between 600 and 900, much
higher than MGO [20]. Viscosity should remain within an appropriate range for proper engine operation. For two stroke and low speed
diesel engines, an optimum kinematic viscosity of fuel between 13 and 17 mm2/s before entering the pump is recommended, and between
2.0 and 4.5 mm2/s for medium speed diesel engines. If viscosity is low, the lubrication of the pump elements is inadequate, reducing the
efficiency of the injection pump and its service life, and increasing fuel leaks. On the other hand, a very high viscosity increases the pumping
work and enlarges the size of the droplets formed by the injector in the jet. This results in a deficient formation of the mixture, a reduction in
thermodynamic efficiency and an increase in carbon and particle emissions [31]. The MGO viscosity at room temperature is within the range
required, while that of vegetable oils is not. In order to use vegetable oils in medium speed diesel engines designed to operate with MGO, it is
necessary to supply a heating device to obtain the required viscosity.
However, HFO presents very high viscosity at low temperatures that clearly exceeds the range required. This makes it imperative to heat
the HFO before injection into the pump, since the viscosity decreases rapidly with increase of temperature [35]. For a typical viscosity of
180 mm2/s to 50  C, it is necessary to heat the HFO to at least 120  C to achieve adequate viscosity. Vegetable oils need heating to a lower
temperature, on average between 68  C and 71  C to get the same viscosity reference as the heated HFO [20]. In most installations, heating is
carried out by steam, and viscosity is kept at the specified level by a viscosity regulator controlling the steam supply. Therefore, the use of
vegetable oil decreases the energy required for heating, thus making it easier the conditioning of the fuel. Lower values of viscosity make oils
easier to transport between tanks, thus reducing the energy required by the auxiliary machinery.
The dependence of vegetable oil viscosity on temperature allows controlling this parameter easily. However, due to the presence of
double bond, vegetable oils tend to form polymers when the temperature rises above a certain threshold. In the fuel return gallery of the
injection system, excessive temperatures can be reached that could induce the polymerization of vegetable oils, which results in the for-
mation of clots that can obstruct the return line. It is therefore necessary to identify the existing hot spots in the return gallery and change
their design if required.

Please cite this article as: M. Torres-García et al., Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and medium speed diesel
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2.2. Density

Density is a parameter of great importance regarding equipment selection and engine performance. The higher the density, the higher
the energy concentration per unit of vegetable oil pumped and the greater the energy supplied per cycle, since the pump is a volumetric
device. Nonetheless, a higher density increases polluting emissions, mainly particles at high charge because the fuel-air ratio is higher in the
mixture formed inside of the combustion chamber. The density of vegetable oils is somewhat lower than the density of heavy fuel (Table 2)
around 9% on average.

2.3. Calculated coal aromaticity index (CCAI)

CCAI is the most frequently used formulation with HFO to evaluate the quality of a fuel with respect to auto ignition characteristics, with
values around 800. This parameter must be low to increase the thermodynamic performance of the engine, improve engine reliability and
reduce emissions, fundamentally those of HC (unburned hydrocarbons) and NOX. The higher the CCAI, the longer the ignition time, which
must be less than 20 ms for low and medium speed two stroke diesel engines. When the starting delay is excessive, combustion may then
take the form of an explosion that damages pistons, rings and bearings. Whereas a low speed engine sometimes has a longer start-up delay
than its average speed counterpart with the same fuel, the start-up delay is still relatively shorter in terms of crankshaft angle degrees in a
low speed engine [36]. As shown in Fig. 1, the typical fuel injection period in millisecond terms is 2e3 times longer in a low-speed engine, at
a maximum of 29 ms. Typical ignition delays are as low as 10 ms in a medium speed engine and up to 20 ms in a low speed engine.
Considering fuel with tendency to long retard ignition, all the fuel for a blow may have been injected into a medium speed engine before
ignition occurs, which is not acceptable. In the low-speed engine, also with a long starting delay, less fuel is injected before ignition. This
diminishes the risk of detonation.
The CCAI can be calculated from density and kinematic viscosity using equation (1). The results from this equation are less precise than
other experimental methodologies [36], but are accurate enough to allow comparison between vegetable oils and HFO:

CCAI ¼ D e 140.7 log [log (V þ 0.85)] e 80.6e210 $ ln {(T þ 273)/323} (1)

where:
D ¼ Density to 15  C (kg/m3).
V ¼ Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s).
T ¼ Temperature to which viscosity is measured ( C).
Results obtained from applying Eq. (1) to HFO and to vegetable oils are shown graphically in Fig. 2.
Manufacturers of low and medium speed diesel engines suggest a value below 870 for the CCAI parameter, a recommendation that all the
vegetable oils shown in Fig. 2 meet. However, during operation at part load, this level for CCAI is not enough, mainly in medium speed diesel
engines; hence, the lowest CCAI possible is desirable. Thus, from the point of view of combustion quality, vegetable oils should perform
much better than HFO in low and medium speed two-stroke diesel engines. A poor quality ignition fuel, i.e. high CCAI, hinders the engine
start up as well as the operation at low loads. Also, when the ignition delay rises, the combustion phase of the premix grows, which elevates
both the maximum pressure and the combustion temperature, altering the mechanical components of the engine, elevating the NOx
formation and raising the level of noise [37].
On the other hand, less ignition delay leads to lower CCAI and fewer HC emissions, which always increase with ignition delay. Simul-
taneously, a reduction in smoke level is expected if the period before the start of combustion decreases because of the reduction in the

Fig. 1. Typical injection and delay periods in diesel power plant engines.

Please cite this article as: M. Torres-García et al., Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and medium speed diesel
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Fig. 2. Calculated coal aromaticity index (CCAI) for vegetable oils, HFO and MGO.

highest combustion temperature. Lastly, excessive ignition delay leads to deposits on the piston, the exhaust-valves, the exhaust manifold
and the turbo; hence a low CCAI will improve the availability and effectiveness of a low-speed diesel engine [38].

2.4. Lower heating value (LHV)

The lower heating value of vegetable oils is, on average, approximately 4% inferior to that of HFOs (Table 2). That means that with the
same fuel delivery (mm3/stroke) of injected vegetable oil per cycle and its density just slightly lower than that of the heavy fuel, there is a
decrease in the energy supplied in each cycle of the engine. The existence of about 11% oxygen in vegetable oil molecules causes this
decrease in LHV compared to that of HFO [39]. In this way, vegetable oils in Table 1 present, on average, an energy density of 35.2 MJ/L in
contrast to 39.5 MJ/L of HFO and 36.1 MJ/L of MGO. In order to maintain the installed power of engines designed to burn HFO when using
vegetable oil as fuel, the pumping capacity of the injection system should be increased about 10%. This can be achieved with just a simple
adjustment to the fuel pump.

2.5. Pour Point (PP)

PP is 3  C higher than the temperature to which fuel flows by gravity, indicating the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be easily
pumped in test conditions. The temperature must remain between 5  C and 10  C above the PP to assure fuel pumping. Table 1 shows that,
except for jatropha and mahua oil, the rest of the vegetable oils have a PP below that of HFO. This means that, for most vegetable oils, the
current conditions for storage, distribution and pumping use of heavy fuel for diesel power plants are sufficient, thus not requiring different
technical solutions.

2.6. Flash point (FP)

Flash point represents the minimum temperature from which the inflammation of the gases of the fuel takes place when a flame is
applied under test conditions. It is an important parameter concerning fuel security, which affects fuel storage and distribution systems. Fuel
can be dangerous to handle and store, especially if the pour point is high, which makes it necessary to heat the HFO close to its flash point.
There are insurance companies that require the use of fuels with a flashpoint above 60  C. All vegetable oils in Table 2 present flash
temperatures close to 200  C, well above the 60e65  C for heavy fuel and marine gas oil (MGO), resulting in fewer safety requirements with
vegetable oils than heavy fuel, which makes manipulation safer.
The high value of FP can also affect operational issues related to low-load start-up and operation. High FP is related to the low volatility
[20] and the CCAI shorten the ignition delay. Both effects are offset in part because, while the ignition delay is lowered, which eases start-up
and reduces associated smoke emissions; reduced volatility makes it difficult to vaporize the fuel, increasing combustion life and improving
lubricating oil dilution. At present, low and medium speed, two-stroke diesel engines are started with distilled fuel, fully compatible with
vegetable oils; hence, the current technical solutions in diesel plants are also applicable to vegetable oils.

2.7. Content of carbon residues

The content or carbon residues defines the amount of carbon residues after fuel evaporation and pyrolysis, providing information on the
tendency to deposition of residues into the combustion chamber as well as into the exhaust system, mostly in low engine loads. There exists
an important correlation between the combustion chamber residues, the rings as well as the valves and the coal residues, thus this
parameter should stay low. It is observed that the maximum percentage of residue for vegetable oils is much lower than that presented in
heavy fuel, 0.2% in contrast to 22% (Table 2), so that residue formation in the engine is not expected when using vegetable oils.

Please cite this article as: M. Torres-García et al., Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and medium speed diesel
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Carbonaceous products that are formed in the cylinders and inlet ports when the combustion is erratic, when there are faulty injectors,
insufficient scavenge or wrong injection or distribution timing, contribute to filling the looseness between piston and liner with hard
materials, producing abrasion. As for vegetable oils, the low value of the residual carbon for all of them (below 0.3%, Table 2) significantly
diminishes the likelihood of abrasions taking place from hard compounds of a carbonaceous nature.

2.8. Ash content

The ash and oxide content of a fundamental abrasion nature in the engine can produce corrosive wear on gas rings, pistons and liners and
deposit formation on exhaust valves and turbine. Different ash components, such as vanadium, nickel, sodium, aluminium and silicon,
damage the engine; hence, ash content should be low. Engine surfaces subjected to temperatures higher than 600  C, especially exhaust
valves, are susceptible to heat corrosion. This is fundamentally due to the deposition of V2O5, Na2O and Na2SO4 on the metal surfaces of the
engine, which are corrosive if the temperature overcomes their melting points. The tendency to this behaviour arises if the sodium-
vanadium relationship is higher than 1:6. The addition of magnesium-based additives in the fuel can control this type of corrosion. So-
dium compounds lowers vanadium melting point, which is highly corrosive in the liquid phase. The adhering temperature of the mixed
oxides and vanadium can lead to deposit formation in either the exhaust valve, exhaust system or turbocharger. This HFO is composed of
vanadium and sodium, bounded by typical low speed engine specifications to values of the order of 300 mg/kg on vanadium and 60 mg/kg
on sodium to prevent the turbine from deteriorating prematurely. However, vegetable oils lack these pollutants so that hot corrosion
associated with HFO does not take place. As can be seen in Table 2, the ashes are 10e20 times lower for vegetable oils with respect to HFO, so
the use of these renewable fuels is not a hindrance for the operation of the engine, and also increases engine reliability and diminishes
maintenance cost.

2.9. Sulphur

Sulphur is a compound of fuel that has become the object of great debate related to its potential as an acidifying substance, as stated in
section 1 of this paper. Sulphur compounds also tend to be adsorbed by particulate matter [40], a contaminant produced by diesel engines
where energy-related sectors were responsible for 60% of total emissions of this pollutant to the atmosphere in 2017 [18]. The European
Union has established limits on the sulphur content of fuels in order to reduce emissions of sulphur oxides. The use of plant oils as a fuel
prevents the necessity to implement desulphurisation systems at refineries, to handle exhaust gases with desulphurisation techniques or to
deal with emissions of sulphur [40].
From the point of view of engine reliability, sulphur in fuel may cause cold corrosion and corrosive wear. It speeds up the erosion of the
liners by the formation of acids in the cylinder wall fundamentally at moderate and low loads, a fact that is correctable through neutralizing
the acids with additional alkaline bases in the lubricating oil. Almost all sulphur is transformed during combustion into SO2, but a minor
part, as high as 8%, produces some SO3 partly due to excess of air in diesel combustion. Although the temperature of the gas is high, the gas is
cooled in the proximity of the tank walls if a boundary thermal layer is created, where heat is transferred from the gas (average maximum
temperatures until 2500 K) up to the tank wall (average temperature around 400 K). Therefore, the gas temperature touching the tank wall
is significantly diminished, and occasionally occurs acid condensation in the liner. Such a situation is presented with more frequency at
start-up as well as in low and medium loads [41,42]. In the case of vegetable oils and because of the absence of sulphur, any corrosive or
abrasive impact is not expected.
Sulphur, along with vanadium and sodium as sulphates, also helps the formation of deposits in the exhaust system. Sulphur content is
minimum in vegetable oils compared to that present in heavy fuels, which completely eliminates pollution by SOx. However, the absence of
sulphur in vegetable oils requires a revision of alkalinity in the lubricant oil. Since there can be an excess of the neutralization agent, which is
not consumed due to the absence of sulphur, hard residue and ash can be generated in the combustion chamber. This dictates an accurate
selection of lubricating oil according to its total basis amount [42].

2.10. Pollution

Any high value in this parameter may obstruct filters and nozzles, being abrasive even for the injection system. Methods used to remove
this impurity in heavy fuel are based on filtration and on occasion in fuel centrifugation. Pollution potential from vegetable oils is
considerably lower than that of HFO, even if the same methodology adopted at present in diesel power plants is applicable for its
elimination.

2.11. Aluminium and silicon content

The aluminium and silicon oxides are commonly found also in heavy fuels as they originate from a refinery process in which these have
accidentally escaped; these are usually named as catalytic fines or cat fines. They form hard compounds, which can lead to a severe abrasive
wear, mostly on the injection pump and nozzles, and then on the cylinder liner and piston rings. Vegetable oils are free from this sort of
oxides because they neither constitute raw matter nor are subjected to any chemical process that could contaminate them.

2.12. Acid number, total acid number (TAN)

TAN shows the amount of free fatty acids and is calculated in mg KOH/g. Free fatty acids of vegetable oils can attack the system of fuel
supply, pipes, seals, the injection pump and storage tanks. This parameter should be low so that it is suitable for the demands from the
injection system. Vegetable oils present higher TAN than heavy fuels (<1 mg KOH/g), so that vegetable with high TAN, such as crude
vegetable oils, should be previously refined. Rapeseed oil presents the lowest TAN of all vegetable oils, less than 2.5 mg KOH/g.

Please cite this article as: M. Torres-García et al., Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and medium speed diesel
engines, Journal of the Energy Institute, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.08.006
 M. Torres-García et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (xxxx) xxx 7

The use of unsaturated vegetable oils may cause the fuel to have a higher viscosity and to leave more carbon residues than fossil diesel.
Besides, the use of plant oils in engines should overcome the problems of injector coking, carbon deposits in the combustion chamber, and
contamination of filter and lubricant oil in the engine system [43e45]. To achieve this, oil degumming and purification processes can be
applied.
The viscid deposits or impurities in crude plant oils are called gums. They are mixtures of phospholipids, sugars, and trace metals and are
present in oils at approximately 1e3 wt. (%). Most of these gums are hydrophilic and can thus be removed using a hydration degumming
process with water [46,47]. The degumming process might affect not only the application of vegetable oils in diesel engines but also the
biodiesel fuel production. The use of crude plant oils without degumming may result in several drawbacks during or after the trans-
esterification reaction. For example, using crude plant oils without degumming may inhibit the catalyst during the transesterification re-
action and thus result in a lower conversion rate. In addition, it is difficult to separate biodiesel and glycerol due to the emulsifying effect that
occurs after the transesterification reaction [48,49].
The phospholipids in oils are usually present in hydratable and nonhydratable forms. The nonhydratable form is produced when the
phospholipids are combined with metal cations; this form can react with acid to convert them into hydrated gums. The hydratable form of
phospholipids can utilize water to convert them into hydrated gums. These hydrated gums should be removed by centrifugation or
gravitation [49e51].

2.13. Water content

This water may originate from a number of different sources: it may be either fresh or saline or it may result from condensation in the
facility's storage tanks. If the water is fresh and properly emulsified with HFO, then the actual energy content of the fuel drops, resulting in
an increase in the consumption of fuel for the same fuel mass flow although this does not introduce any risk on the engine operation.
However, when HFO is contaminated with seawater, chlorine in salt will corrode the fuel handling system, which includes fuel injection
system. The extraction process of plant oil is mechanical, with no additional water, so the vegetable oil's moisture content is far lower than
those in heavy fuels.

2.14. Cetane number

Cetane number or cetane index is related to the time elapsed between the injection of the fuel and the start of its combustion, also called
“ignition interval”. A rapid ignition followed by a total and uniform burning of the fuel is desired. The higher the cetane number, the lower
the ignition delay and the better the combustion quality. On the contrary, those fuels with a low cetane number require a longer time for
ignition to occur and then burn very quickly, producing high pressure. If the cetane number is too low, combustion is inadequate and causes
excessive noise, increased emissions, reduced performance and increased engine fatigue [10]. Excessive smoke and noise are common
problems in diesel engines, especially under cold start conditions. Cetane number depends on fatty acid profile of vegetable oil [10], so this
parameter can be calculated from fatty acid composition. To be specific, the longer the chain length and the lower the unsaturation of an oil,
the higher its cetane number. In this sense, sunflower, soybean and corn oils contain large amounts of linoleic acid (Table 1), which accounts
for their low cetane numbers (37.1, 37.9 and 37.6, respectively), while those of palm and peanut oils (41.0 and 41.8, respectively) are higher
due to their lower polyunsaturated fatty acid content.

3. Exhaust gas emission of diesel engine power plants burning vegetable oil

There are many researches about small diesel engines burning raw vegetable oil in terms of power, efficiency and exhaust gas emissions
[52e54]. However, there are not literature available about large two stroke low and medium speed diesel engines fuelled with vegetable oils.
The composition of major pollutants in the exhaust gas of a low speed two-stroke diesel engine burning HFO includes O2 (13%), N2 (76%),
CO2 (5%), H2O (5%), NOx (1500 ppm), SOx (600 ppm), CO (60 ppm), HC (180 ppm) and particulate matter (120 mg/Nm3) [54]. Exhaust
emissions from an internal combustion engine depend on the fuel used, combustion process and intake and engine conditions, and on the
control strategies adopted for that engine. The main exhaust elements are nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2), both from the atmosphere, and
carbon dioxide (CO2) as well as water (H2O) in the combustion products from burning hydrocarbon fuel. The products of incomplete
combustion are a minor portion of the exhaust gases and are carbon monoxide (CO), not-burnt hydrocarbons (HC), sulphur oxides (SOx),
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter.
With respect to NOx emissions, most of them are caused by the high temperature exposure of atmospheric nitrogen with oxygen during
the burning process. An additional contribution is derived from the nitrogen content in the fuel. The burning process emits almost
exclusively NO that during expansion and in the leakage oxidizes to NO2 (in the range of 2% and 5%). NO and NO2 are generated mainly under
the high temperature and pressure conditions characteristic of the combustion process of the slow speed diesel engines. The concentration
of NOx in the exhaust gas essentially depends on the highest value achieved by the gas temperature and the oxygen concentration in the mix
[55e58]. In the case of vegetable oils, a higher oxygen content in their molecules compared to HFO and MGO allows for an increase in NOx
formation, supposing that the fuel flow is tuned in order to keep engine running. Table 3 shows the diminution of smoke opacity, an indirect
measure of particulate matter, when comparing MGO to rape seed oil, in the burning of these fuels in a medium speed diesel engine (6L23/
30H) at four engine loads [59].
Hydrocarbon emissions have several causes. One is related to unburned fuel through the cylinder, a basic premixed engine problem that
does not exist in the direct injection engines of today. Lubricating oil not burned for cylinder lubrication or leaks in the valve stem is another
main contributor to hydrocarbon emissions or particle emissions. It is also known that the nozzle bag is an important source of hydrocarbon
emission on both medium and large engines, but only few engines are operated with special mini-sac fuel nozzles to decrease this source
[60,61]. Another important source for this contaminant is associated with the ignition delay of the combustion linked to the CCAI. Vegetable
oils contain lower CCAI than HFO; hence, a decrease in the ignition delay and in hydrocarbon emissions is likely if vegetable oil is used as an
alternative fuel.

Please cite this article as: M. Torres-García et al., Vegetable oils as renewable fuels for power plants based on low and medium speed diesel
engines, Journal of the Energy Institute, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.08.006
8 M. Torres-García et al. / Journal of the Energy Institute xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3
Comparative NOx emissions and opacity from MGO and rape seed oil in a medium speed diesel engine (6L23/30H) [41].

Engine load (%) 25 50 75 100

MGO NOx emission (ppm 15% O2) 430 510 510 495
Rape seed oil NOx emission (ppm 15% O2) 455 625 750 710
MGO opacity (Bosch Smoke No. 1) 0.7 0.3 0.1 0.1
Rape seed oil opacity (Bosch Smoke No. 1) 0.6 0.1 0.03 0.02

Carbon monoxide formation is primarily a function of the proportion of excess air [56,62] and is severely damaged by the local cir-
cumstances inside the combustion chamber. Consequently, a good air-fuel blending process and the excess air normally available in big two-
stroke low and medium speed diesel engines is the key for a minimum CO emission. The additional oxygen in the structure of vegetable oils
contributes to reducing CO formation.
Other pollutants in exhaust gas, such as particulate matter, may originate from different sources, such as small particles agglomeration
from partially burned oil; the ash content from the fuel, lubricating oil and sulphates in the cylinders; and water and hydrocarbons from an
incomplete combustion of oil.
In the burning process, soot is made through a hydrocracking process and is subsequently used for oxidation of these products when
there is enough oxygen and the temperature is sufficiently large. Since the soot formation is linked to the diffusion flame [59], the turbulence
of the air in the cylinder improves the mixture between the fuel and the air and decreases the amount of fuel contributing to soot formation.

4. Conclusions

The performed comparison of the vegetable oil properties with HFO and MGO allows to conclude that, at least from this point of view, the
current technical solutions for storage and distribution of petroleum derived fuels in diesel power plants are totally compatible with
vegetable oils because their use as fuel does not require technical solutions different from the current ones. In the case of medium speed
diesel engines designed for MGO operation, vegetable oils should be heated before injection pump in order to reduce viscosity. In addition, a
vegetable oil with low TAN value is desirable; this would allow less frequent engine services.
Fuel composition is important in the soot formation process. Through any plane of a diffusion flame, the fuel-oxygen ratio varies widely
from very rich to very poor conditions. Therefore, in the diffusion flames, a zone always exists close to the flame which is at high temperature
and which has a high carbon oxygen ratio. When using vegetable oils and due to the high oxygen concentration, the blending will be poorer
in the fuel-rich regions of the combustion fuel spray and will therefore reduce the amount of soot produced. In addition, due to the absence
of sulphur in vegetable oils, the generation of particulate matter will be reduced. Lastly, the contribution of lubricating oils to soot, mainly
composed of calcium that is inserted into the oil to counteract sulphur, should be low since vegetable oils do not contain sulphur and
therefore these compounds should not be present in the lubricating oil.
A small increase in NOx emissions is expected when using vegetable oil as fuel, although present techniques for controlling this pollutant
can almost eliminate it. The rest of the CO, unburned hydrocarbons and particulate matter emissions will be lower when burning vegetable
oils instead of petroleum derived fuel.
To sum up, the advantages of vegetable oils over heavy fuel oil and marine gas oil have been highlighted, as well as the aspects for further
research for vegetable oils processing to improve its properties to make similar use of fossil fuels.

Acknowledgments

Douglas Fernandes Barbin would like to express his gratitude to University of Seville for the mobility grant (VIPPIT-2019-I.3) awarded

n y Transferencia of the University of Seville.
under the VI Plan Propio de Investigacio

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engines, Journal of the Energy Institute, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.08.006