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1. Thermal Conduction
dQ
more precisely : kA T
dt
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
1. Convection
natural convection:
resulting from differences in density
forced convection:
the substance is forced to move by a
fan or a pump.
dQ = cTdm
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
1. Radiation
Energy is transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Stefan’s Law B
E
dQ
AeT4
dt
= 6 10-8 W/m2K
A – area of the source surface
e – emissivity of the substance
T – temperature of the source
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Thermal Equilibrium:
If the systems in diathermic contact do not exchange
energy (on the average), we say that they are in thermal
equilibrium.
T 273.16 K lim P
Gas Thermometer
P3 0 P3
T3 = 273.16 K is the temperature at
which water remains in thermal
h equilibrium in three phases (solid,
liquid, gas).
The Celsius scale and, in the US, the Fahrenheit scale are often used.
TC T 273.15 ; TF 9 TC 32
5
Thermal expansion
For all substances, changing the temperature of a body
while maintaining the same stress in the body causes a
change in the size of the body.
l dl linear expansion:
D dl = ldl
dD The proportionality coefficient (T) is called
the linear thermal expansion coefficient.
volume expansion:
dV =VdV
The proportionality coefficient (T) is called
the volume thermal expansion coefficient.
Heat Capacity
The differential amount of absorbed heat (dQ), necessary to
change the temperature of the system, is proportional to the
change in temperature (dT) of the system.
Tf
dQ CdT Q CT dT
Ti
Q = C T
specific heat and molar heat capacity
600 K
temperature
Latent Heat
Q = L m
A thermodynamic process
is a sequence of states of the V
system. In a thermodynamic
process the state parameters
are functions of time. P
internal energy in common processes
• adiabatic process - no heat is transferred
U = W (dU = -dW)
• isochoric process - constant volume process
U = Q (dU = dQ)
• cyclical process - the system returns to the initial state
U = 0
• isothermal process - constant temperature
U = Q - W (dU = dQ - dW)
(for an ideal gas dU = 0)
• isobaric process - constant pressure
U = Q - W (dU = dQ - dW)
• free expansion - adiabatic with no work done
U = 0 (dU = 0)
Ideal Gas
macroscopic definition:
An ideal gas is one that obeys the equation of state
PV = nRT
P - pressure n - amount (in moles)
V - volume R - universal gas constant
T - temperature
microscopic definition:
Except for elastic collisions the particles of an ideal gas
do not interacts - the range of interaction is very short.
Isothermal process in an ideal gas
(Boyle-Mariotte law)
nRT
P
PVV nRT
V
volume
Isobaric process in an ideal gas
(Charles and Gay-Lussac law )
nR
T nRT T
VPV
P
temperature
Isochoric process in an ideal gas
nR
T nRT T
PPV
V
temperature
Macroscopic Work
dW F dx
dW
P PdV
A dx PdV
dx (integral form
W PdV )
process
proof.
From the first law of thermodynamics
dU = dQ = nCVdT T
With the reference for the internal energy at 0 K: U 0 nCV dT nCV T
0
Entropy
dQ r
a
0
b
process T
V
If it was
With the possible
heat sink
QhQh Qc
0 S.
Suniv ShShSeng c 0
Seng S 0
Th Th Tc
engine efficiency
W Q h Qc Qc T
e 1 1 c
Qh Q h Q h Th
consequences of the second law of thermodynamics
in an isobaric process:
1
1
Pi Vi Pf Vf Ti Vi Tf Vf
The Carnot cycle
P
Tc
A Qh e 1
Th
B
Tc Th
Qhc
Tch D
C
adiabatic
isothermal Qc
expantion
compression V
The work W done by the gas equals the net heat delivered to
the gas in the cycle
W = Qh - Qc
four-stroke combustion engine
(Otto cycle)
The Otto cycle represents operation of a common gasoline engine. The
cycle includes two isobaric, two isochoric and two adiabatic processes.
1
P C e 1
1. intake V1 / V2 1
Qh
2. compression
D
W
3. work B
Qc
4. exhaust O A
V
V1 V2
Refrigerators
A refrigerator is a device that moves
Th
heat from a system at a lower temperature
to the system with higher temperature. Qh