Bagian 5

Program Studi Pendidikan Fisika
Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan

Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. HAMKA
Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 1

FKIP - UHAMKA Elektronika
• A model is an equivalent circuit that represents
the AC characteristics of the transistor.
• A model uses circuit elements that approximate

the behavior of the transistor.
• There are two models commonly used in small

signal AC analysis of a transistor:
– re model
– Hybrid equivalent model

e
• BJTs are basically current

current--controlled
devices; therefore the re model uses a diode and
a current source to duplicate the behavior of the
transistor.
• One disadvantage to this model is its

sensitivity to the DC level. This
model is designed for specific circuit conditions.

Common--Base Configuration
Common
26 mV
I c  I e re 
Ie
Input impedance:
Z i  re
Output impedance:
Z o  
Voltage gain:
R L R L
AV  
re re
Current gain:
A i     1

Common--Emitter Configuration
Common
The diode re model can be
replaced by the resistor re.
I e    1I b   I b
26 mV
re 
Ie
more…
Common--Emitter Configuration
Common
Input impedance:
Z i   re
Output impedance:
Z o  ro   
Voltage gain:
RL
AV  
re
Current gain:
A i   ro  

Common--Collector Configuration
Common
Input impedance:
Z i  (   1) re
Output impedance:
Z o  re || R E
Voltage gain:
RE
AV 
R E  re
Current gain:
Ai   1

The Hybrid Equivalent Model
The following hybrid parameters are developed and used
for modeling the transistor. These parameters can be found
on the specification sheet for a transistor.
• hi = input resistance
• hr = reverse transfer voltage ratio (Vi/Vo)  0
• hf = forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii)
• ho = output conductance

Simplified General h-
h-Parameter Model
• hi = input resistance
• hf = forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii)

re vs. h-
h-Parameter Model
Common--Emitter
Common
h ie   re
h fe   ac
Common--Base
Common
h ib  re
h fb     1

The Hybrid p Model
The hybrid p model is most useful for

analysis of high-frequency transistor
applications.
At lower frequencies the hybrid p model
closely approximate the re parameters, and
can be replaced by them.

Common--Emitter Fixed-
Common Fixed-Bias Configuration
• The input is applied to

the base
• The output is from the
collector
• High input impedance
• Low output impedance
• High voltage and
current gain
• Phase shift between
input and output is
180
Common Fixed-Bias Configuration
AC equivalent
re model
Common Fixed-Bias Calculations
Input impedance:
Z i  R B ||  re
Z i   re R E  10 re
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || rO
Z o  R C ro  10R C
Voltage gain: Current gain:

Vo (R || r )
Av   C o I  R B ro
Vi re Ai  o 
I i (ro  R C )(R B   re )
RC
Av   ro  10R C
re A i   ro  10R C , R B  10 re
Current gain from voltage gain:

Zi
Ai  A v
RC

Common--Emitter Voltage-
Common Voltage-Divider Bias
re model requires you to determine , re, and ro.

Common-Emitter Voltage-
Common- Voltage-Divider Bias
Calculations
Input impedance:
R   R 1 || R 2
Z i  R  ||  re
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || ro Current gain:
I  R ro
Z o  R C ro  10R C Ai  o 
I i (ro  R C )(R    re )
I R 
Voltage gain: Ai  o  r  10R C
I i R    re o
Vo  R C || ro I
Av   A i  o   ro  10R C , R   10 re
Vi re Ii
Vo R
Av    C ro  10R C
Vi re Current gain from voltage gain:
Z
Ai  A v i
RC
Common-Emitter Emitter-
Common- Emitter-Bias
Configuration

Impedance Calculations
Input impedance:
Z i  R B || Z b
Z b   re  (  1)R E
Z b  (re  R E )
Z b  R E
Output impedance:
Zo  R C

Gain Calculations
Voltage gain:
Vo R C
Av  
Vi Zb
Vo RC
Av  
Vi re  R E Z b  (re  R E )
Vo R
Av    C Z b  R E
Vi RE
Current gain: Current gain from voltage gain:
I βRB Zi
Ai  o  Ai   Av
I i RB  Z b RC

Emitter--Follower Configuration
Emitter
• This is also known as the common-collector configuration.

• The input is applied to the base and the output is taken from the
emitter.
• There is no phase shift between input and output.

Impedance Calculations
Input impedance:
Z i  R B || Z b
Z b   re  (  1)R E
Z b  (re  R E )
Z b  R E
Output impedance:
Z o  R E || re
Z o  re R E  re

Gain Calculations
Voltage gain:
Vo RE
Av  
Vi R E  re
V
A v  o  1 R E  re , R E  re  R E
Vi
Current gain:
R B
Ai  
R B  Zb
Current gain from voltage gain:

Z
Ai  A v i
RE

Common
• The input is applied to the

emitter.
• The output is taken from the
collector.
• Low input impedance.
• High output impedance.
• Current gain less than unity.
• Very high voltage gain.
• No phase shift between input
and output.

Calculations
Input impedance:
Z i  R E || re
Output impedance:
Zo  R C
Voltage gain:
Vo R C R C
Av   
Vi re re
Current gain:
I
A i  o     1
Ii

Common-Emitter Collector Feedback
Common-
Configuration
• This is a variation of the common-emitter fixed-bias configuration

• Input is applied to the base
• Output is taken from the collector
• There is a 180 phase shift between input and output

Calculations
Input impedance:
re
Zi 
1 RC

 RF
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || R F
Voltage gain:
Vo R
Av   C
Vi re
Current gain:
Io R F
Ai  
Ii R F  R C
I RF
Ai  o 
Ii RC

Collector DC Feedback Configuration
• This is a variation of the

common-emitter, fixed-bias
configuration
• The input is applied to the base
• The output is taken from the
collector
• There is a 180 phase shift
between input and output

Calculations
Input impedance:
re
Zi 
1 RC

 RF
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || R F
Voltage gain: Current gain:

Vo R Io R F
Av   C Ai  
Vi re Ii R F  R C
I RF
Ai  o 
I RC
i

Two--Port Systems Approach
Two
This approach:
• Reduces a circuit to a two-port system
• Provides a “Thévenin look” at the output terminals
• Makes it easier to determine the effects of a changing load
With Vi set to 0 V:
Z Th  Z o  R o
The voltage across

the open terminals is:
E Th  A vNL Vi
where AvNL is the

no-load voltage
gain.

Effect of Load Impedance on Gain
This model can be applied to

any current- or voltage-
controlled amplifier.
Adding a load reduces the

gain of the amplifier:
Vo RL
Av   A vNL
Vi RL  Ro
Zi
Ai  A v
RL
30
Effect of Source Impedance on Gain
The fraction of
applied signal that
reaches the input of
the amplifier is:
R i Vs
Vi 
Ri  Rs
The internal resistance of the signal source reduces the

overall gain:
Vo Ri
A vs   A vNL
Vs R i  R s

Combined Effects of RS and RL on Voltage
Gain
Effects of RL:
Vo R L A vNL
Av  
Vi RL  Ro
R
Ai  A v i
RL
Effects of RL and RS:

Vo Ri RL
A vs   A vNL
Vs R i  R s R L  R o
R  Ri
A is   A vs s
RL

Cascaded Systems
 The output of one amplifier is the input to the next amplifier

 The overall voltage gain is determined by the product of gains of the
individual stages
 The DC bias circuits are isolated from each other by the coupling
capacitors
 The DC calculations are independent of the cascading
 The AC calculations for gain and impedance are interdependent

R-C Coupled BJT Amplifiers
Input impedance, first stage:

Z i  R 1 || R 2 ||  re
Output impedance, second stage:

Zo  R C
Voltage gain:
R C || R 1 || R 2 ||  re
A v1 
re
RC
A V2 
re
A v  A v1 A v 2
34
Cascode Connection
This example is a CE–CB

combination. This arrangement
provides high input impedance
but a low voltage gain.
The low voltage gain of the

input stage reduces the Miller
input capacitance, making this
combination suitable for high-
frequency applications.

Darlington Connection
The Darlington circuit provides a very high

current gain—the product of the individual
current gains:
bD = b1b2
The practical significance is that the circuit
provides a very high input impedance.

DC Bias of Darlington Circuits
Base current:
V  VBE
I B  CC
R B  DR E
Emitter current:
I E  ( D  1)I B   D I B
Emitter voltage:
VE  I E R E
Base voltage:
VB  VE  VBE
37
Feedback Pair
This is a two-transistor circuit that operates like a

Darlington pair, but it is not a Darlington pair.
It has similar characteristics:

• High current gain
• Voltage gain near unity
• Low output impedance
• High input impedance
The difference is that a Darlington

uses a pair of like transistors,
whereas the feedback-pair
configuration uses complementary
transistors.

Current Mirror Circuits
Current mirror circuits

provide constant current
in integrated circuits.

Current Source Circuits
Constant-current sources can be built using FETs, BJTs, and
combinations of these devices.
IE  IC
VZ  VBE
I  IE 
RE more…

Current Source Circuits
VGS = 0V
ID = IDSS = 10 mA

Fixed--Bias Configuration
Fixed
Input impedance:
Z i  R B || h ie
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || 1 / h oe
Voltage gain:
Vo h R || 1 / h o e 
Av    fe C
Vi h ie
Current gain:
I
A i  o  h fe Z i  R B || h ie
Ii
42
Voltage--Divider Configuration
Voltage
Input impedance:
Z i  R  || h ie
Output impedance:
Zo  R C
Voltage gain:
gain
h R || 1/h oe 
A v   fe C
h ie
Current gain:
h fe R 
Ai  
R   h ie

Emitter--Follower Configuration
Emitter
Input impedance:
Z b  h fe R E
Z i  R o || Z b
Z b  h fe R E
Output impedance:
Z i  R o || Z b
h
Z o  R E || ie
h fe
Voltage gain:
Vo RE
Av  
Vi R E  h ie / h fe
Current gain:
h fe R B
Ai 
R B  Zb
Zi
Ai  A v
RE
44
Common
Input impedance:
Z i  R E || h ib
Output impedance:
Zo  RC
Voltage gain:
Vo h R
Av    fb C
Vi h ib
Current gain:
I
A i  o  h fb  1
Ii

Troubleshooting
Check the DC bias voltages
 If not correct, check power supply, resistors, transistor.

Also check the coupling capacitor between amplifier
stages.
Check the AC voltages
 If not correct check transistor, capacitors and the

loading effect of the next stage.

“ Carilah seribu sahabat kerana seribu
sahabat itu belumlah banyak. Jauhilah
seorang musuh kerana seorang musuh
itu sudah terlalu banyak “


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Program Studi Pendidikan Fisika

Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 1

• A model uses circuit elements that approximate

• There are two models commonly used in small

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 2

• BJTs are basically current

• One disadvantage to this model is its

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 3

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 4

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 6

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 7

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 8

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 9

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 10

The hybrid p model is most useful for

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 11

• The input is applied to

Voltage gain: Current gain:

Current gain from voltage gain:

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 14

re model requires you to determine , re, and ro.

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 15

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 17

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 18

Current gain: Current gain from voltage gain:

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 19

• This is also known as the common-collector configuration.

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 20

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 21

Current gain from voltage gain:

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 22

• The input is applied to the

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 23

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 24

• This is a variation of the common-emitter fixed-bias configuration

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 25

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 26

• This is a variation of the

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 27

Voltage gain: Current gain:

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 28

The voltage across

where AvNL is the

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 29

This model can be applied to

Adding a load reduces the

The internal resistance of the signal source reduces the

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 31

Effects of RL and RS:

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 32

 The output of one amplifier is the input to the next amplifier

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 33

Input impedance, first stage:

Output impedance, second stage:

This example is a CE–CB

The low voltage gain of the

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 35

The Darlington circuit provides a very high

Program Studi P. FISIKA, Slide - V 36

This is a two-transistor circuit that operates like a

It has similar characteristics: