New Ideas in Psychology 59 (2020) 100782

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New Ideas in Psychology

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/newideapsych

The (Neglected) role of the father in Children’s mental health

Eleonora Papaleontiou - Louca a, *, Omar Al Omari b, **
a
European University Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
b
College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, P.O Box: 50, 123, Alkhoud, Oman

A B S T R A C T

Background: Although the bulk of the literature on child development, historically, has focused on the significant role of the mother, less attention has been given to
that of the father. Therefore, more attention has been given to fathers’ roles in the last 20–30 years.
Aim: The aim of the current review was to explore the role of the father on a child’s development.
Methods: An extensive literature search using ’Psycharticles’, ‘PsychInfo’, and ‘Google Scholar’ databases using terms like ’father’s role’, ’child/children’s’, ’child
development’, and ’mental health’ was conducted to achieve the objective of the study.
Results: Fathers were found to play a significant role in nurturing their children. Fathers are considered to be important for the development of the child’s autonomy,
the shaping of gender identity, and the development of the moral system of the child. Usually, he is the one who establishes the feeling of security in the child’s mind.
He is considered to be the protector and defender of the family Freud’s position is that the father is the symbol of security, power, and authority for the child.
Conclusion: Although the original aim of the research was to draw a line between parents’ roles in the family and shed light on the father’s role, the findings suggest
that the fundamental concept in nurturing children depends on the complementary roles of parents as children need their parents equally.

1. Introduction
Modern research in developmental psychology has given more
attention to the mother’s role in children’s life and development
compared with fathers. Previous literature has presented the father as a
secondary figure in terms of emotional expression towards the children
and their daily care; further, their roles ’appear’ after the first three
years of their children’s lives (Cabrera, Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, Hof­
ferth, & Lamb, 2000). These roles have been considered to be an almost
exclusive privilege and duty of the mother. Fathers, in contrast, seem to
function more like a figure, a concept, or sometimes as the ’punisher’
who steps in to restore order among family members. Their primary
contribution was relegated to financing the family, rather than
providing a substantial element of care and/or guidance. In a general
sense, fathers do not participate actively in their children’s daily activ­
ities and concerns. With respect to previous classical roles of fathers,
some well-known psychologists and psychiatrists (e.g. Bowlby, 1988)
value the indirect, supportive role of fathers. It is one thought to enable
and empower mothers, making them feel well so they can contribute
more to their families. This stereotypical picture, for several years,
overlooked fathers’ significant contribution and involvement in their
children’s upbringing, one that entails the development of youngster’s
mental health. However, new research (e.g. Cabrera et al., 2000;
Hoffman, 2011; Lamb, Pleck, Charnov, & Levine, 2017) has started
valuing and signifying the important presence of fathers in the family
structure. Therefore, the aim of the current literature review is to
explore and shed light on the roles of fathers in their children psy­
choemotional development.
2. Motherhood and fatherhood roles
There are several factors that contribute to the roles of mothers and
fathers when it comes to nurturing their children (Cabrera et al., 2000;
Lamb et al., 2017). Fathers are introduced into the fatherhood roles with
less psychological, social, or emotional preparation compared to that of
mothers. Females start thinking about marriage, having children, and
childbearing at a younger age compared to their male counterparts
(Doucet, 2007). Mothers also go through many bio-psychosocial
changes during pregnancy, breastfeeding, and maternity leave, which
prepare them to assume the new role (Hoffman, 2011; Lamb et al.,
2017). Men, in contrast, do not go through the process that women
undergo; this leaves them without sufficient preparation for fatherhood.
(Hoffman, 2011). They also come into fatherhood with less practical
experience and knowledge concerning children, than most women do
(Hoffman, 2011). In fact, they often realise they are not equipped with
the necessary skills, experience, support, time, or recognition needed for

* Corresponding author. 13A, Patriarchi Grigoriou. 2414, Engomi, Nicosia, Cyprus.

** Corresponding author. P.O Box: 50, 123, Alkhoud, Oman.
E-mail addresses: E.Papaleontiou@euc.ac.cy (E. Papaleontiou - Louca), O.alomari@squ.edu.om (O. Al Omari).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2020.100782
Received 11 October 2019; Received in revised form 4 February 2020; Accepted 6 February 2020
Available online 6 March 2020
0732-118X/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Papaleontiou - Louca and O. Al Omari
successful fatherhood (Allen & Hawkins, 1999). Therefore, they tend to
make more conscious choices, compared to mothers, about when to
become actively involved in nurturing their children (Goodman, 2005).
Research findings suggest that fathers feel they receive less support as
parents compared to mothers; or that men mainly depend on their
spouses for support, while mothers were more likely to draw support
from several sources (Ohio State University, 2018; Van Holland De
Graaf, Hoogenboom, De Roos, & Bucx, 2018).
Although the original aim of the research was to draw a line between
parents’ roles in the family and shed light on fathers’ roles, the funda­
mental concept in nurturing children depends on the complementary
roles of parents as children need their parents equally. That is because
the relationship a child develops with father differs from that with the
mother, but all are equally important areas for the development of the
child (Lamb & Lewis, 2010; Stocker, 1995).
Parents play several roles in their children’s lives. Fathers often push
their children to make achievements and promote their independence as
well as exploration of the outside world, while mothers emphasise ed­
ucation (Rosenberg & Wilcox, 2006). Furthermore, mothers tend to use
more parenting techniques that focus on gentleness and safety, while
fathers favour autonomy and dynamism. These approaches help chil­
dren understand the world in balanced different perspectives (US
Department of Health and Human Services, 2019). Playing style is
another area where mothers and fathers are handle their children in
different ways. Fathers use more physical play with their children while
mothers prefer language games. Fathers can attract their children’s
attention with intense modes of play, including stimuli and challenges.
These interactions help children learn to regulate their emotions and
behaviour. The ’wild game’ with dad teaches children to handle their
aggressive impulses and physical contact, without losing control of their
emotions (Goldman, Salus, Wolcott, & Kennedy, 2003; Parke & Slaby,
1983). On the other hand, mothers tend to play more language games
and to use more objects and books in interactions with their children
(Parke, 1987). Fathers play other roles as well (e.g. like teaching the
concept of justice; monitoring and enforcing regulations and rules
firmly; teaching children the consequences of right and wrong), while
mothers emphasise understanding, care, and assistance. In conclusion,
both the paternal and maternal roles succeed better, not in absence of
each other, but when harmoniously complementing each other.
3. Benefits from the paternal involvement
Although there is no specific form of a father’s involvement in a
child’s life that has been shown to be optimal, it generally seems that
active and regular involvement is associated with a number of positive
effects. The active participation of fathers in the lives of their children
can protect the youngster(s) from adjustment difficulties and behav­
ioural problems (Flouri & Buchanan, 2002). A study among school­
children found that those children who had a better relationship with
their fathers were less likely to experience depression, display disruptive
behaviour or lie, and were more likely to exhibit prosocial behaviour.
The same study found that boys who received the support of their father
had fewer behaviour problems at school, while girls displayed better
self-esteem (Mosley & Thompson, 1995). The academic performance
and social relationships of the students have been found to be positively
influenced when their fathers are more involved (Flouri, 2005; Kefali­
dou, 2011). Children with involved fathers are also more likely to excel
in courses of language and mathematics (Bing, 1963; Goldstein, 1982;
Radin, 1982). They have higher average academic grades and very good
performance on school-based tests (Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Cook­
sey & Fondell, 1996; Feldman & Wentzel, 1990; National Center of
Education Statistics, 1997; Shinn, 1978; Snarey, 1993). Children tend
also to be more confident and love school more when they receive the
support of their fathers (Flouri, Buchannan, & Bream, 2002; Katz &
Gottman, 1996).
The emotional dimension is another area to which fathers contribute.
2
New Ideas in Psychology 59 (2020) 100782
When fathers understand the emotional reactions of their children and
help them deal and cope with them with a ’problems solving’ approach,
they helping their children to score higher on emotional intelligence
tests (Cititas, 2001). Quality father-child time increases self-esteem,
trust, social skills, and life skills (Amato, 1994). Children who have a
close relationship with their father have greater self-esteem and are less
likely to become depressed (Dubowitz et al., 2001). These children tend
to be more patient; handle school pressures and frustrations more easily
compared to counterparts whose fathers are less involved in their
nurturing (Pruett, 2000; Sternberg, 1997).
Another benefit of paternal involvement is in the linguistic and
cognitive dimension. It has been shown (Goldstine, 1982) that fathers
reinforce the linguistic and cognitive development of their children,
especially when they take on an active role early and frequently in the
lives of their children, even before they are born. A number of studies
(Pancsofar & Vernon-Feagans, 2006; Rowe, Cocker, & Pan, 2004)
showed that children whose fathers who participate in their daily lives
and activities have a higher IQ, better language skills; better cognitive
skills, and higher academic readiness levels when they start their
schooling).
Children learn from their fathers how to treat their future wives.
Fathers who communicate with their spouse in front of their children
with respect and dignity and solve their conflicts in a mature way are
more likely to raise boys who are not aggressive toward women and
who, in the future, will treat them with respect. Also, girls so raised will
have higher expectations for the quality of their relationships with men
and are less likely to engage in violent or dysfunctional relationships. In
contrast, research has shown that spouses who exhibit anger and show
contempt towards their wives are more likely to have children who are
restless, anxious, and more withdrawn or antisocial (Gable, Crnic, &
Belsky, 1994).
Even from birth, children with involved fathers are more likely to be
emotionally secure, secure in exploring their environment and, as they
grow, have better social relationships with peers and other adults. It is
also less probable for them to engage in quarrels at home, at school, or in
the neighborhood (Yeung, Duncan, & Hill, 2000). Moreover, infants
who enjoy high levels of affection from their fathers (who quickly
respond to their crying, play with them, etc.) have more secure attach­
ment. Finally, a number of studies show that such children are more
social throughout infancy (Pruett, 2000).
4. When the father is absent
The results of bad and immature behaviour in the practice of paternal
duties and the excessive use of paternal authority have almost the same
result as when the father is absent. Children raised in such settings are
expected to express the rebellion, delinquency, and/or violent responses
or, on the other hand, total submission. Both are devastating for the
development of their personality (Soulandrou, 2017). When the father is
absent, their model place is left empty and the child is left to discover the
male identity without support. As a result, boys are often vulnerable to
imitating stereotypical male behaviours, as reflected by the mentality of
society (hard, aggressive, and violent behaviour), which often hinders
their relationship with others. In extreme cases and when children are in
desperate need for a male identity, boys adopt behaviours that reach
delinquency (Soulandrou, 2017). An international study of more than
100,000 children (Rohner, 1998) concluded that the cold or distant
relationship with a father has devastating consequences on a child’s life
even decades later.
In conclusion, fathers offer a substantial and positive contribution to
the overall development of their children. If their roles are recognised
and fully utilized, the fathers can become what potentially they are
already: a valuable ally in the optimal development of children.
E. Papaleontiou - Louca and O. Al Omari New Ideas in Psychology 59 (2020) 100782

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