37

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 GENERAL

In this chapter different aspects of high performance concrete (HPC) has

been presented. Findings from various studies have also been included to understand the
type and amount of materials to be included to achieve the desirable HPC performance
properties. Details of the materials used including their properties, the methods adopted
in preparing the test specimens and the different test procedures for the chosen
experiments are discussed.

3.2 HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE

The concept of HPC has definitely evolved with time. Initially it was
equated to high strength concrete (HSC), which certainly has some merit, but it does not
show a complete and true picture. Other properties of the concrete must also be
considered, and may even take priority over the strength criterion. The rheology or flow
properties of high performance concrete (HPC) are important because many factors
such as ease of placement, consolidation, durability and strength depend on the flow
properties. Concrete that is not properly consolidated may have defects like
honeycombs, air voids, and aggregate segregation.

Use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) is necessary for

producing HPC. Concretes with these cementitious materials are used extensively
throughout the world. In HPC, materials and admixtures are precisely selected and
optimised to obtain higher strengths (early as well as ultimate) and higher durability as
 38

compared to normal concrete. HPC is also called "durable" concrete because its strength
and impermeability to hazardous gases or liquids the service life as compared with that
of conventional Plain Cement Concrete (PCC). Some of the major applications of HPCs
are structures connected with power, gas, oil and nuclear industries. The applications of
such concretes are increasing with the passage of time due to their enhanced structural
performance, environment friendliness and low bearing on energy utilisation [17].

HPC also provides enhanced mechanical properties (in terms of tensile and
compressive strength) which are very much needed in precast industry in addition to
enhanced stiffness. The method of proportioning of fundamental components and the
admixtures offer the main difference between HPC and conventional concrete. A high
dosage of water reducing admixture may lead to a required low water/binder ratio,
leading positive effects on concrete properties. By reducing the amount of water, the
cement paste will have higher density, which results in higher paste quality. An increase
in paste quality will yield higher compressive and flexural strength, lower permeability,
and increased resistance to weathering, improve the bond of concrete and
reinforcement, reduce the volume change from drying and wetting, and reduce
shrinkage cracking tendencies [69].

In essence, the proportioning of HPC consists of three interrelated steps:

 Selection of suitable ingredients: OPC, SCMs, aggregates, water and

chemical admixtures.

 Determination of the relative quantities of these materials in order to

produce, as economically as possible, a concrete that has the desired
rheological properties, strength and durability.

 Careful quality control of every phase of the concrete making process.

 39

3.3 MATERIAL COMBINATIONS FOR HPC

It is compulsory to get the maximum performance of all the materials

involved in producing HPC. In many cases, however, concrete is classified as having
‗high performance‘ exclusively because its strength is much greater than that of
typically specified concrete. HPC is usually achieved by using very low water - binder
ratios (w/b). HPC is also defined as a concrete essentially having water - binder ratio not
more than 0.40 [70]. In recent times, recognition has been given to the fact that ‗high-
strength‘ concrete commonly offers other improvements in performance, such as higher
flowability, higher elastic modulus, higher flexural strength, lower permeability,
improved abrasion resistance and better durability [70]. In spite of this, the term HPC
continues to be used primarily for concrete suitable for high-strength application when
one is looking for performance in terms of strength only. However, it must be
remembered that prediction with any certainty regarding the behaviour of each
ingredient when combined in a concrete mixture is not realistic. Any material
incompatibilities will be highly detrimental to the finished product. Thus, the result of
any mix design process must be the extensive testing of trial mixes. HPC will normally
contain not only OPC, aggregate and water, but also superplasticisers and SCMs. It is
possible to achieve compressive strengths up to 98 MPa using FA or GGBS as the
SCMs. However, to achieve strengths in excess of 100 MPa, the use of SF has been
found to be essential, and it is frequently used for concretes in the strength range of
63-98 MPa as well [71].

In concrete the characteristics of the transition zone between the aggregate

particles and cement paste play a significant role in the cement-aggregate bond. Silica
fume addition influences the thickness of transition phase in mortars and the degree of
the orientation of the CH crystals in it. The thickness compared with mortar containing
only ordinary Portland cement decreases and reduction in degree of orientation of CH
crystals in transition phase with the addition of silica fume. Hence mechanical
properties and durability are improved because of the enhancement in interfacial or
bond strength. Mechanism behind is not only connected to chemical formation of
 40

C–S–H (i.e. pozzolanic reaction) at interface, but also to the microstructure modification
(i.e. CH) orientation, porosity and transition zone thickness) as well [30].

3.4 MIX PROPORTIONS

HPC mixes were designed initially by following the procedure as described

in the proposed method by Aitcin [70]. This method is based on the calculation of the
composition of non air-entrained HPC. The method itself is very simple. It follows the
same approach as ACI 211-1, Standard Practice for Selection Proportions for normal,
heavy weight and mass concrete [72]. This method is a combination of empirical results
and mathematical calculations based on the absolute volume method. The water
contributed by the Superplasticiser (SP) was considered as part of the mixing water. A
flow chart for this method is shown in Figure 3.1. The procedure is started by selecting
five different mix characteristics or materials proportions in the following way:

No. 1 : Water-binder ratio

No. 2 : Water content

No. 3 : Superplasticiser dosage

No. 4 : Coarse aggregate content

No. 5 : Entrapped air content (assumed value)

The conservative value of targeted compressive strength (cube) was kept as

60 MPa, 80 MPa and 100 MPa (on 100mm cubes) for the given water – binder ratio
(w/b) of 0.26, 0.24, 0.22 respectively as found from the curve (proposed w/b vs
compressive strength) is shown in Figure 3.2 [70]. The mix proportions for some of the
High Performance Concretes are shown in Table 3.1. The slump value ranges between
110 – 255 mm for various mixes with cylinder compressive strength varying between
83 – 119 MPa [15]. The slump value used in the practical applications ranged between
60 – 90mm [30]. Hence, the mix proportions were arrived at after having done many
trials so as to have a slump between 100 - 125 mm at a w/b as mentioned above is
shown in Table 3.2. The slump was adjusted by adding different dosages of the SP. The
 41

final mix proportions used in the study for obtaining M60, M80 and M100 with required
slump for control concretes are shown in Table 3.3. These mixes were further modified
to get HyFRC as shown in Table 3.4.

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5

w/b Water Superplasticiser Coarse Air

Selection content (SP) dosage aggregate content
content

Binder
content

Sand content

Trial batch

No
Workability Adjustment
s

Yes

No Change the
Strength w/b

Yes

Final
Composition

Figure 3.1 Flow Chart of the Proposed Mix Design Method [70]
 42

160

140
f 'c (MPa)

120 (MPa)

100

80

60

40
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
W/B

Figure 3.2 Compressive Strength Versus Water-Binder Ratio [70]

Table 3.1 Mix Proportions of Some High Performance Concretes [15]

Ingredient Mix Designation

(kg/m3) A B C D E F G H I

Portland Cement 534 500 315 513 163 228 425 450 460

Silica fume 40 30 36 43 54 46 40 45 -

Flyash 59 - - - - - - -

GGBS - 137 - 325 182 - - -

Fine Aggregate 623 700 745 685 730 800 755 736 780

Coarse Aggregate 1069 1100 1130 1080 1100 1110 1045 1118 1080

Water 139 143 150 139 136 138 1751 143 138

W/B 0.22 0.27 0.31 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.38 0.29 0.30

Slump (mm) 255 - - - 200 220 230 230 110

Cylinder Compressive strength at the end of 28 days

- 93 83 119 114 105 95 111 83

 43

Table 3.2 Slump Values of Various Mixes Used in the Study

M60 M80 M100

Ingredient
Trial HPM1 Trial HPM2 Trial HPM3
(kg/m3)
Mix1 Mix2 Mix3 Mix1 Mix2 Mix3 Mix1 Mix2 Mix3
Binder Content 550 550 550 590 590 590 650 650 650
Cement 412 412 412 472 472 472 552 552 552
Silica Fume 55 55 55 47 47 47 98 98 98
Fly ash 83 83 83 71 71 71 - - -
Fine Aggregate 640 640 640 610 610 610 600 600 600
Coarse 1075 1075 1075 1060 1060 1060 1050 1050 1050
Aggregate
Water 145 145 145 142 142 142 140 140 140
SP (litres/m3) 7 7.5 8 7.5 8 8.3 11 12 13
W/B 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.22
Slump (mm) 100 105 110 105 112 120 115 120 125

Table 3.3 Proportions of Mix for Control HPC

Mix
Ingredient HPM1 HPM2 HPM3
(M60) (M80) (M100)
Binder Content (kg/m3) 550 590 650
Cement (kg/m3) 412 472 552
Silica Fume (kg/m3) 55 47 98
3
Fly ash (kg/m ) 83 71 -
3
Fine Aggregate (kg/m ) 640 610 600
3
Coarse Aggregate (kg/m ) 1075 1060 1050
3
Water (kg/m ) 145 142 140
SP (litres/m3) 8 8.3 13
W/B 0.26 0.24 0.22
Slump (mm) 110 120 125
Compressive strength at the end of 28 days using above proportions
Cube Strength (fck), MPa 65.2 84.2 107.3
Cylinder Strength (fcy), MPa 52 67.10 85.90
 44

Table 3.4 Proportion of Fibre Mix Added in Concrete

Fibre content by Fibre content by Total Slump

Type of volume (%) weight (kg/m3) Fibre (mm)
Mix ID
Mix content
MS HS PE MS HS PE (kg/m3)
Concrete Grade (60MPa)
HPM1 Plain - - - - - - - 125

HPM1DF1 HyFRC 0.25 0.75 - 19.62 58.88 - 78.50 85

HPM1DF2 HyFRC - 0.75 0.50 - 58.88 4.85 63.73 90

HPM1DF3 HyFRC 0.25 - 0.50 19.62 - 4.85 24.47 85

HPM1TF HyFRC 0.25 0.75 0.50 19.62 58.88 4.85 83.35 80

Concrete Grade (80MPa)

HPM2 Plain - - - - - - - 115

HPM2DF1 HyFRC 0.25 0.75 - 19.62 58.88 - 78.50 80

HPM2DF2 HyFRC - 0.75 0.50 - 58.88 4.85 63.73 90

HPM2DF3 HyFRC 0.25 - 0.50 19.62 - 4.85 24.47 85

HPM2TF HyFRC 0.25 0.75 0.50 19.62 58.88 4.85 83.35 80

Concrete Grade (100MPa)

HPM3 Plain - - - - - - - 110

HPM3DF1 HyFRC 0.25 0.75 - 19.62 58.88 - 78.50 80

HPM3DF2 HyFRC - 0.75 0.50 - 58.88 4.85 63.73 85

HPM3DF3 HyFRC 0.25 - 0.50 19.62 - 4.85 24.47 80

HPM3TF HyFRC 0.25 0.75 0.50 19.62 58.88 4.85 83.35 75

MS – Micro Steel; HS-Hooked Steel; PE-Polyethylene

(Fibre content by volume is represented in percentage by volume of the total mixture)

3.5 MATERIALS

The materials used in this investigation were locally available and these
include Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) IS 12269:1987 [73], micro silica and fly ash
as a binder, river sand as fine aggregate and crushed stone as coarse aggregate. Three
 45

different types of fibres were used in combination, two of which were steel fibres, and
the other was polyethylene fibre. For this purpose five mixes, one plain control mix and
four fibre reinforced mixes were prepared for three different grades of concrete. In four
of the fibre-reinforced mixes, a hybrid form of reinforcement was used. Potable tap
water was used for mixing and curing throughout the entire investigation.

3.5.1 Cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most common type of binder used
for concrete production and hence, OPC 53 grade conforming to Indian Standard
IS:12269(1987) [74] was used as a binder. The chemical composition and some
physical properties of the material used are shown in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Physical and Chemical Properties of OPC

Properties Test Results Requirements of

IS:12269-1987

Physical Properties

Specific Gravity 3.08 -

Surface Area, Blaine‘s (cm2/gm) 2746 Not Less than 2250

Initial setting time, (minutes) 64 Not Less than 30

Final setting time, (minutes) 425 Not more than 600

Chemical Properties

Lime Saturation Factor 0.84 Not Less than 0.8 and

not more than 1.02

Alumina Iron Ratio 1.42 Not Less than 0.66

MgO (%) 1.02 Not more than 6

SO3 (%) 2.33 Not more than 3

Alkali Content (%) 0.38 Not more than 0.6

LOI (%) 2.31 Not more than 4

 46

3.5.2 Fly Ash

The fly ash was obtained by burning of harder, older anthracite and
bituminous coal producing Class F fly ash [78]. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and
contains less than 10% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica
and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement,
quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of water in order to react and produce
cementitious compounds. The water to binder ratio was calculated taking the whole
amount of fly-ash and silica fume together with OPC into account. The chemical
composition and some physical properties of these materials used are shown in
Table 3.6.

Table 3.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of Fly Ash

Properties Test Results Elahi et al. [30]

Physical Properties
Specific Gravity 2.16 2.52
Passing 45µm sieve (%) 90% -
Retained on 150µm sieve (%) 1% -
Surface Area, Blaine‘s (cm2/gm) 3683 3400
Chemical Properties
SiO2 (%) 61.85 50.70
Al2O3 (%) 28.03 28.80
Fe2O3 (%) 5.03 8.8
CaO (%) 1.06 2.38
MgO (%) 1.05 1.39
SO3 (%) 0.07 0.9
Na2O (%) 0.21 0.84
K2O (%) 1.34 2.4
Cl (%) 0.001 -
LOI (%) 0.95 3.79
Type/Class ASTM Class F
 47

3.5.3 Micro - Silica

The microsilica of grade 940-U is undensified microsilica from Elkem

Materials. This microsilica contains up to 87 percent of SiO2. 95.3 percent of the
microsilica particles are smaller than 2 μm. The physical and chemical properties of
silica fume provided by the supplier are shown in Table 3.7. The values given by
different researchers for a similar type of silica fume are given in the same table.

Table 3.7 Physical and Chemical Properties of Micro - Silica

Properties Value Sandvik Titherington Yazici

provided by and Gjørv and Hooton (2008) [77]
Elkem (1992) [75] (2004) [76]
Physical Properties
Specific Gravity 2.22 - - 2.2
Chemical Properties
SiO2 (%) 87.13 92.1 96.65 92.26
Al2O3 (%) 1.96 0.5 0.23 0.89
Fe2O3 (%) 1.13 1.4 0.07 1.97
CaO (%) 7.16 0.5 0.31 0.49
MgO (%) 0.33 0.3 0.04 0.96
SO3 (%) 0.12 - 0.17 0.33
Na2O (%) 0.09 0.3 0.15 0.42
K2O (%) 0.33 0.7 0.56 1.31
LOI (%) 1.52 2.8 2.27 -

3.5.4 Sand

River sand collected from Palar river basin was used throughout the
investigation as fine aggregates conforming to grading zone II as per IS:383(1970) [78].
The specific gravity and fineness modulus are 2.65 and 2.64 respectively, were
determined. The particle size distribution of the sand is presented in Figure 3.3.
 48

3.5.5 Aggregate

Crushed stone aggregate obtained from local quarry which is a charnakite

granite variety (i.e) 10-12 mm sizes were used for the study. The particle size
distribution of the crushed granite stone aggregate is presented in Figure 3.4.

100
90
Percentage Passing

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve size (mm)

Figure 3.3 Particle Size Distribution for Fine Aggregate

3.5.6 Superplasticizer

In recent times, it is essentially impossible to make HPC (inclusive of HSC)

at adequate workability in the field without the use of superplasticiser. Unfortunately,
different superplasticisers will behave quite differently with different cements (even
cements of nominally the same type). This is because of the variability in the minor
components of the cement (which are not generally specified), and in part to the fact
that the acceptance standards for superplasticisers themselves are not very tightly
written. Thus, some cement will simply be found to be incompatible with certain
superplasticisers. A high range water reducing superplasticizer was used for the mix. It
is a high performance superplasticiser made from polycarboxylic ether intended for
applications where increased early and ultimate compressive strengths are required and
 49

it has been developed for use in high performance concrete. The density is
10.566 kN/m3. The chlorine content in the superplasticiser is 0.012%. The maximum
amount which the manufacturer suggests is 3 percent of the weight by binder content.

100
90
80
Percentage Passing

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Sieve size (mm)

Figure 3.4 Particle Size Distribution for Coarse Aggregate

There is no specific way of determining the required superplasticiser

dosage. It must be determined after carrying out some sort of trial and error procedure.
For the development of high strength, one should work with the lowest w/b possible,
and thus the highest superplasticiser dosage rate. For high strength concrete, the dosage
of the superplasticiser is kept normally 5 to 15 litres per cubic metre of concrete,
depending on the solids content in the superplasticiser and its nature. Such a dosage
allows a reduction in water content of about 450 to 750 N/m3 of concrete [79]. This is
because HPC mix must be sufficiently workable for the solids to be dispersed in such a
manner that dense packing is achieved, which requires deflocculation of cement
particles. This is achieved by the use of a superplasticiser at a large dosage. However, if
the rheological properties of the HPC (in terms of strength) are very important, then the
highest water-binder ratio consistent with the required strength should be used. Then the
desired workability is achieved by adjusting the dosage of the superplasticiser. In
 50

general, some intermediate position must be found, so that the combination of strength
and rheological properties can be optimised.

3.5.7 Fibres

The steel fibres used were obtained from Bekaert, Belgium. Two types of
steel fibres were used (micro-steel fibre and macro steel fibre). The polyethylene fibres
used were obtained from Toyobo, Japan. The geometry of the fibres used is shown in
Figure 3.5. The properties of the fibres as given by the manufacturer are given in
Table 3.8.

(a) Short Smooth Micro Steel Fibre (b) Hooked Steel

(c) Polyethylene Fibre

Figure 3.5 Different Types of Fibres Used in the Study

 51

Table 3.8 Properties of Various Fibres

Properties Micro - Steel Hooked Steel Polyethylene

Length (mm) 13 35 12

Diameter (mm) 0.16 0.55 0.012

Aspect ratio (l/d) 81.25 64 1000

Density (N/m3) 78500 78500 9700

Elastic Modulus (GPa) 200 200 79

Tensile strength (MPa) 2000 1700 2600

3.6 PREPARATION OF CONCRETE SPECIMENS

Concrete was manufactured using a 500 N pan mixer. The mixing procedure
used is described below.

 Before the addition of the materials, a damp cloth was used to moisten
the pan of the mixer.

 Approximately half of the coarse aggregates, all the fine aggregate and
the remaining coarse aggregate were added, in that order, evenly into
the mixer.

 The aggregates were mixed for 30 seconds.

 Half of the total volume of water was added within the next 15 seconds.

 The materials were mixed for three minutes in the mixer.

 Cement, silica fume and flyash were added to the mix and the materials
were mixed for another minute

 The required superplasticizer was poured into the half of the total
volume of total water outside the mixer.

 The mixer was stopped and any concrete particles adhering to the
paddles were scraped into the mixer.
 52

 Mixing was restarted and the remaining water with superplasticizer was
added within the next 30 seconds to achieve a workability of 75 –
125mm.

 Fibres were dispersed by hand in the mixture to achieve a uniform

distribution throughout the concrete, which was mixed for a total of 4
minutes.

 At this stage, the slump test was performed according to ASTM C143
standard [80].

 Fresh concrete was cast in steel moulds and compacted on a vibrating

table. After pouring the mix into moulds lined with oil, a vibrator was
used to decrease the amount of air bubbles.

 All mixes were workable and proper fibre dispersion was achieved. This
conclusion was drawn as there was no difficulty experienced in molding
the specimens, fibre balling was not visible and mixes flowed easily
under an external vibration.

 The specimens were demoulded after 1 day and then immersed in water
for 27 days for curing. 12 hours prior to the tests, the specimens were
taken out from water and allowed to air dry in the laboratory.

The combinations of different types and amounts of steel fibres and

polyethylene, which will be applied, were fixed as such in the beginning as shown in
Table 3.4. These combinations were partly based on own experience, and partly on the
results of previous research on different high-performance hybrid fibre concretes, such
as those on multi-modal fibre concrete [3, 5, 47, 50].

3.7 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

The tests conducted for studying mechanical properties of hybrid fibre

reinforced concrete include compression, flexure, direct tension and direct shear. The
test program of this investigation is shown in Table 3.9 in which all the test contained
concrete with and without hybrid fibres. The compressive strength of concrete was
 53

determined using 100 mm cubes. The static modulus of elasticity was determined from
compression test as per ASTM C 469 [80] procedure using 100 mm diameter × 200 mm
height cylinders for HyFRC. All the tests were conducted after 28 days of respective
curing cycles.

Table 3.9 Details of Tests to Study the Mechanical Properties of HyFRC

Tests Properties Standards Specimen Size No. of

Studied Specimens
cast
Compressive 90
- Cube : 100mm
Strength
Compression Cylinder : 120
Stress-strain
ASTM C 469 Dia :100 mm
plot
Height : 200 mm
Size finalised dog-bone shape 60
Direct tensile
by the
strength 100 x 75 mm
investigator
Tension
ASTM C 60
Flexure and 100 × 100 ×
1018 and
toughness 500mm prism
JSCE SF-4
100 mm diameter × 90
Shear
Shear - 250 mm height
strength
Notched cylinder

Toughness is not the easiest of terms to define and its measurement has been
a source of argument during the last twenty years. In general terms, the toughness of
FRC materials can be considered as their energy absorption capacity which is
conventionally characterized by the area under the load-displacement curve obtained
experimentally. Although a range of tests has been carried out on FRC materials
(including tension, compression, shear and torsion) most toughness measurements have
been performed on unnotched beams in flexure using a four-point loading arrangement
[82]. The toughness characteristics of these concretes were calculated by first plotting
the flexural strength - deflection plot using 100 × 100 × 500 mm beams under four point
loading and then calculating the area under the plot. The toughness index was calculated
at different deformation levels namely I5, I10, I20 etc., as per ASTM C 1018 [83] and
JSCE Standard SF-4 method [84].
 54

Toughness index is also calculated for HyFRC concretes by first plotting the
stress-strain curve in direct tension using dog bone‘s model and then determining the
area under the plot. Frequently, the area under the curve after cracking is compared with
the pre cracking area [85].

The shear strength of concrete is studied using double notched specimens

(notch provided in a cylinder of 100 mm diameter and 250 mm length) taking distance
between the notches as 30mm as obtained from analytical investigation. The cylinder is
loaded longitudinally in compression to give a shear stress distribution along the length
joining the roots of the notches.

3.8 COMPRESSION TEST

This experiment was carried out, to observe the improvement in

compressive strength of the HyFRC on addition of different volumes of fibres. For this
purpose five mixes, one plain control mix and four fibre reinforced mixes were prepared
for three different grades of concrete (total of 15 mixtures). In four of the fibre-
reinforced mixes, a hybrid form of reinforcement was used using plain concrete. The
specimen for compression tests consisted of 100 mm cubes and 100mm diameter by
200mm long cylinders.

It is difficult to say whether cube test gives more realistic strength properties
of concrete or cylinder gives a better picture about the strength of concrete. However, it
can be said that the cylinder is less affected by the end restraints caused by platens and
hence it seems to give more uniform results than cube [86]. Therefore, the use of
cylinder is becoming more popular, particularly in the research laboratories. Cylinders
are cast and tested in the same position, whereas cubes are cast in one direction and
tested from the other direction. In actual structures in the field, the casting and loading
is similar to that of the cylinder and not like the cube. As such, cylinder simulates the
condition of the actual structural member in the field in respect of direction of load. The
points in favour of the cube specimen are that the shape of the cube resembles the shape
 55

of the structural members often met with on the ground. The cube does not require
capping, whereas cylinder requires capping. The capping material used in case of
cylinder may influence to some extent the strength of the cylinder [86].

Both the ends of the cylindrical specimen were carefully levelled and coated
with sulphur to get plain and parallel surfaces. The experiment is carried out in a servo
controlled compression testing machine as per ASTM C 469 procedure [81] and IS 516.
All the tests were conducted after 28 days of respective curing periods. Figure 3.6
shows the compressometer set up on cylindrical specimens to evaluate the stress-strain
behaviour of concrete mixtures.

Figure 3.6 Compressometer Set Up for Cylinders

 56

3.8.1 Elastic Modulus of Concrete

Modulus of Elasticity is a necessary parameter to determine the stresses in

materials and structures. Even though concrete has nonlinear stress-strain behaviour,
modulus of elasticity is important material property to design and analyse concrete
structures. The cementitious materials have already microcracks between the paste and
fillers before loading [87]. As the load is increased the crack in transition zone and the
matrix is going to be bigger and finally reaches failure. However, until 50 – 60 percent
of ultimate load, microcrack is considered stable and matrix cracking is minimal. The
elastic modulus is determined using initial tangent modulus (i.e) the slope of the stress-
strain curve at the origin. The initial tangent modulus represents the initial behaviour of
concrete. The correlation between elastic modulus and compressive strength of the
concrete is also discussed.

3.8.2 Energy Absorption Capacity and Ductility

Energy absorption capacity of the concrete is calculated as the area under

the stress-strain curve up to the maximum strain. The strain energy stored is expressed
as N-mm per cubic millimeter. The term ductility in seismic design is used to explain
the ability of a structure to withstand large amplitude cyclic deformations in the
inelastic range without a considerable strength reduction [88, 89]. Ductility factor,
which is defined as the maximum deformation divided by the corresponding
deformation when yielding occurs, permits the maximum deformation to be expressed
in nondimensional terms. This can be used as indices of inelastic deformation for
seismic design and analysis. Energy absorption capacity and ductility is determined for
the plain concrete specimens and Hybrid Fibre reinforced concrete specimens.

3.8.3 Toughness of HyFRC in Compression

In the present study, an extensive experimental work has been carried out to
study the stress-strain behavior of steel-fibre reinforced concrete with compressive
strength ranging from 60 to 110 MPa. The influence of fibre addition on peak stress,
 57

strain at peak stress, the toughness of concrete and the nature of the stress-strain curve
were investigated. Analytical expression similar to the one proposed by Nataraja et al.
[90] and Ezeldin and Balaguru [91], which generates the complete stress-strain curves
for concrete reinforced with micro-steel, hooked steel and polyethylene fibres.

3.9 DIRECT SHEAR STRENGTH TEST

In a concrete structure, shear failure is to be avoided because it is highly

catastrophic, since the shear stress induces indirectly principal tension and the concrete is
very weak in tension. Although there are test methods to find the modulus of rupture
(MOR) and split tensile strength of concrete, to test the concrete in direct shear no
standard test is available. Several types of specimens have been used with the objective
of producing shear along a prescribed plane (defined normally by cutting notches in the
specimen), employing compression and bending loads [37] and are shown in Figure 3.7.
An approach that has been quite popular for the estimation of the direct shear response
of the material is the notched shear specimen (Fig. 3.7.a-c), of which different variations
have been used [37, 38, 40, 92 – 95]. The specimen is basically a prism consisting of
two L-shaped blocks that are 'connected' through a ligament along which the shear
loading is applied. Other configurations include the punching shear geometry (Fig. 3.7
d and e), the Iosipescu beam (Fig 3.7 f) and the confined shear box tests (Fig. 3.7 g).

Test specimen as shown in Figure 3.8 is chosen because the notched prism
in Figure 3.7a may not be available in the laboratories and split tension of push-off
specimen in 3.7c is somewhat difficult to perform in the laboratory. The chosen
geometry is provided with notches so that a vertical plane is identified in between the
notches and will be in pure shear. The shear strength of concrete is studied using double
notched specimens (notch provided in a cylinder of 100 mm diameter and 250 mm
length) taking distance between the notches as 30mm as obtained from analytical
investigation. In this study, the objective is to estimate the relationship between
compressive strength and shear strength due to direct shear on notched cylindrical
specimens.
 58

a. Notched Prism b. Notched Cylinder c. Push-off Specimen

d. Punching Shear Specimen e. Punching Shear Specimen

f. Iosipescu Beam g. Confined Shear Box

Figure 3.7 Schematic Representations of Specimen Models for Direct Shear Tests
[37, 38, 40, 92 – 95]
 59

3.9.1 Finite Element Analysis of Shear Strength of Concrete

Standard testing methods and analytical equations are already available for
prediction of strength of concrete in compression, flexure and tension. Hence, an
analytical investigation is proposed using finite element analysis in ANSYS to estimate
the shear strength of concrete and validate with the experimental investigation.

3.9.2 Preparation of the Shear Mould

For the preparation of specimen the moulds are prepared by considering 100
mm diameter mild steel pipe. The pipe is cut into a number of pieces providing a height
of 250 mm. The specimens have dimensions of 100mm diameter and 250mm height
with distance between the notches (slits) as 30mm. The depth of the slit is 10mm at a
distance of 100 mm from the bottom of the cylinder and diametrically opposite another
slit is provided which is equidistant from top of the cylinder as shown in Figure 3.8.

3.9.3 Preparation of Shear Specimen

Concrete was poured until the bottom surface of the notch and horizontal
plank to cover the first slit was provided and vibrated. Then the concrete was been
placed till the bottom surface of the top level of the notch and the next horizontal plank
to cover the second slit was provided and vibrated. Then the concrete was filled up to
the top level of the cylinder and compacted finally. The top and bottom level of concrete
in the mould was capped using sulphur before testing. The experimental programme
included three specimens for each type of mix used and three cubes (100 x 100 x
100mm) were used as control specimen of desired concrete.

3.9.4 Test Set Up and Procedure

The direct shear specimens was cast using high performance concrete mix
in 100 mm diameter x 250 mm height notched cylindrical moulds. This experiment
was carried out to observe the improvement in shear strength of the high performance
 60

concrete on addition of different volumes of steel fibre and polyethylene fibre. All the
specimens were loaded in compression which induces direct shear stress along the
shear plane between the slits. Both the ends of the specimen were carefully levelled
and capped with sulphur to get plain and parallel surfaces. All the tests were conducted
after 28 days of respective curing periods. The specimen was tested using
compression testing machine as per IS 516 [96] rate of loading 14 N/mm2/min. The
specimen placed under compression testing machine is shown in Figure 3.9.

Note: All dimensions are in mm

Figure 3.8 Diagrammatic Sketch of the Shear Specimen

3.10 FLEXURE TEST

Experimental investigations were carried out to study the flexural strength

and toughness characteristics of high performance hybrid fibre reinforced concrete
specimens. The test method adopted was in line with ASTM C1018 [83] and
 61

JSCE-Standard SF4 [84] for determining the flexural toughness of concrete under four
point loading.

Figure 3.9 Loading Under Compression Testing Machine

The most important reasons for adding steel fibres to a concrete matrix are
to improve the post cracking response of the concrete (i.e., to improve its energy
absorption capacity and apparent ductility) and to provide crack resistance and crack
control. For fibre reinforced concrete (FRC), the concept of flexural toughness (which is
a measure of the energy absorption) is often used to characterize these important
improvements [41].

The data may be interpreted in several different ways: either by using

dimensionless indices such as those prescribed by ASTM C1018 [83], which are
theoretically independent of specimen dimensions, or by using absolute values of
toughness, such as those prescribed by JSCE-SF4(1984) [84] which depend on
specimen geometry.

The most common method to measure toughness is to use the load -

deflection curve obtained using a simply supported beam loaded at the four points [97].
 62

The two widely used standard test methods are the ASTM C1018 standard test method
and the Japan society of civil engineers (JSCE) standard SF-4 method.

3.10.1 Toughness Index using ASTM C 1018

The ASTM C 1018 standard method [83] is based on determining the

amount of energy required first to deflect and crack an FRC beam loaded at its four
points, and then to further deflect the beam out to selected multiples of the first-crack
deflection. Toughness indexes I5, I10, I20, I30, etc., are then calculated by taking the ratios
of the energy absorbed to a certain multiple of first-crack deflection and the energy
consumed up to the occurrence of first crack expressed in general terms. IN= Energy
absorbed up to a certain multiple of first-crack deflection/ Energy absorbed up to the
first crack. Figure 3.10 shows the definition of ASTM Toughness Indices. Although
ASTM C1018 is a widely accepted standard test method, there are some problems
related to the application of this method like effect of extraneous deformations,
decision of location of the first crack point and stability problems [3, 82, 98].

First Crack
C
A E

G
Load (kN)

K
(kN)

25.5
15.5
10.5
5.5
3
B D F H J L
0
is the first deflection
Deflection (mm)

I5 = Area OACDBO / Area OABO ; I10 = Area OAEFBO / Area OABO

I20 = Area OAGHBO / Area OABO ; I30 = Area OAIJBO / Area OABO
I50 = Area OAKLBO / Area OABO

Figure 3.10 Description of ASTM Toughness Indices

 63

Evaluating the toughness indices including the extraneous deformations

(like support settlements) leads to erroneous results. This is due to the fact that all
indices are dependent on the first crack deflection. In order to measure correct
deflections some modifications are necessary. In ASTM C1018 the first crack point
is defined as the point at which the curvature first increases sharply and then slope of
the curve exhibits a definite change. This is a subjective definition and often the load-
deflection curves lack a distinct point as mentioned in the definition due to micro
cracking which is hard to detect precisely on the time axis and subsequent multiple
cracks before the peak load is reached. There is a need for an objective definition
of first crack so that determination of first crack point is not affected by who performs
the test and evaluates it [3, 82, 98]. The first crack is the point on the load deflection
curve at which the form of the curve first becomes nonlinear (approximates the onset
of cracking in the concrete mix) [83].

3.10.2 Toughness Index using JSCE SF-4

In this method the area under the load-deflection plot up to a deflection of

span/150 is obtained. From this measure of flexural toughness (TJSCE), a flexural
toughness factor (FJSCE) is calculated [84]. It may be noted that FJSCE has the unit of
stress such that its value indicates, in a way, the post – matrix cracking residual strength
of the material when loaded to a deflection of span/150. The chosen deflection of
span/150 for its calculation is purely arbitrary and is not based on serviceability
considerations. Figure 3.11 shows the definition of JSCE toughness and toughness
factor.

Determination of first crack point is not a concern in this test method. In

addition stability problems encountered right after the first crack do not affect the
obtained results significantly as beams are deflected too far out from the first crack
point. However, results of this test method are highly dependent on specimen size and
geometry. The (span/150) deflection chosen in this test method is often criticized for
being much greater than the acceptable serviceability limits. This test method does not
 64

distinguish between the pre and post crack behaviour, which may be very important in
some applications [82, 84].

A
Load (kN)

E
(kN)

L, B and H are the span, width and height of the beam respectively.
Wtb is deflection of L/150 of span (2mm when span is 300mm).
F
0 Wtb= L/150
Deflection (mm)

Toughness TJSCE = AREAOAEFO ; Toughness Factor FJSCE = (TJSCE x L) / (B x H2 x wtb)

Figure 3.11 Description of JSCE Toughness and Toughness Factor

3.10.3 Experimental Set Up For Flexural Test

A servo controlled Universal testing machine with displacement control of

the crosshead was used. The view of the flexural test set up and the loading of the test
specimen is shown in Figure 3.12 and 3.13 respectively. The bearing surfaces of the
supporting and loading rollers are wiped clean, and any loose sand or other material
removed from the surfaces of the specimen where they are to make contact with the
rollers. The specimen is then placed in the machine in such a manner that the load is
applied to the uppermost surface as cast in the mould, along two lines spaced 133 mm
apart for 400mm span. The axis of the specimen is carefully aligned with the axis of the
loading device. No packing is used between the bearing surfaces of the specimen and
the rollers. The load is applied without shock and increasing continuously at a rate such
that the extreme fibre stress increases at approximately 1800 N/min. The beams were
simply supported hinge on one side and roller at the other end. The supports were
horizontally movable to avoid any restraint on the deformation until the specimen
completely ruptures. The load is increased until the specimen fails, and the maximum
load applied to the specimen during the test is recorded.
 65

Loading Points

D
Beam

Dial Gauge Support

Reaction
L/3 L/3 L/3
400mm

Figure 3.12 Schematic View of the Flexural Test Setup

Figure 3.13 Loading of the Specimen

3.11 DIRECT TENSION TEST

The most commonly used specimen geometrics for testing of HPC (High
Performance Concrete) behaviour under direct tension were so-called dumb-bell prisms
are shown in Figure 3.14 [99]. The shape of such prisms avoids failure in the area of
 66

grips in the specimen, which otherwise occurs due to an unavoidable complex stress
state and/or an abrupt change in stiffness in the transitory region from loading plates to
specimen. A smooth transition from the wider part of the specimen to the narrow,
middle portion as used in the experiments appears to be, at least theoretically, the most
appropriate geometric shape needed to avoid local stress concentration [100].

a. b. c. d. e.

(a) Prism (b) Cylinder with Notch (c) and (d) Thick and Thin Dog Bone
(e) Dumbbell

Figure 3.14 Various Configurations of Specimens Used in the Tensile Tests [99]

To overcome the problems associated with specimen grips, end tapered

specimens were tested in tension. The tension test was carried out on Dog-bone shaped
tensile specimens and the geometry of typical specimen is shown in Figure 3.15. The
cross section in the constant width portion is 100 mm x 75mm and the gauge length of
the specimen is 210 mm. The overall height of the specimen was 350 mm and both end
edge width is 150 mm. Special steel moulds were ordered and fabricated for the
preparation of direct tension test specimens. Typical test specimen with end grips is
shown in Figure 3.16. Overall, about 45 specimens were prepared and tested. The
loading in tension is shown in Figure 3.17.

3.11.1 Test Set Up and Procedure

The section of tensile specimens used is 100 x 75mm, and the gauge length
of the specimens is 210 mm. The alignment of tensile set-up was carefully checked
 67

before testing by using a plumb, and the specimens were installed with care to avoid any
influence of eccentricity. A displacement control Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
was used to conduct the tensile tests. The speed of displacement during testing was
0.5 mm/min, and the boundary conditions at both ends of the tensile test set-up are
obtained using specially designed grips to suit the specimen geometry [67]. Elongation
of the tensile specimen was obtained from two strain gauges pasted on opposite faces to
measure the tensile strain, and the average value from the two strain gauges was used in
calculating tensile strain until the peak tensile stress. The load has been measured
directly from the load indicator of the machine. The tension test attachment to UTM is
shown in Figure 3.18.

All dimensions are in mm

Figure 3.15 Specimen Geometry Used in Tensile Test

Figure 3.16 Specimen with End Grip Special Arrangement to Suit the UTM
Available
 68

Figure 3.17 Loading of Direct Tension Specimen

Figure 3.18 Specimen Under Direct Tension Test

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3.12 SUMMARY

The mixture proportions for the High Performance concrete for M60, M80
and M100 grade concrete by Aitcin method is discussed. The test methodology used to
study the mechanical properties such as: compression, flexure, direct tension and direct
shear are also discussed. The test results and discussions are presented in the following
chapters.