Structural Assignment 2

Assignment Working 1
BSc(Hons) in Civil Eng., Principles of Structural Design/BTEC HND in CBE-Civil

Eng.
Table of Contents
ARTICLE 1 Task 1 ..........................................................................................................2
1.1 Types of Beams in Constructions ......................................................................2
1.1.1 Based on Support Conditions .....................................................................2
ARTICLE 2 TASK 2 ........................................................................................................5
2.1 What are the effects of beam deflection?...........................................................6
2.1.1 How to prevent beam deflection? ...............................................................6
ARTICLE 3 TASK 3 ........................................................................................................7
ARTICLE 4 Task 04 ......................................................................................................12
4.1 Slenderness ratio ............................................................................................12
4.2 Effective length ................................................................................................12
4.3 Corrosion resistance........................................................................................13
4.3.1 Effects of corrosion for load carrying capacity. .........................................13
4.4 Material properties ...........................................................................................14
4.4.1 Elastic modulus/young modulus ...............................................................14
4.4.2 Tensile strength ........................................................................................14
4.4.3 Properties of different materials ................................................................14
ARTICLE 5 Task 05 ......................................................................................................15
ARTICLE 6 TASK 06 ....................................................................................................18
6.1 Ease of construction; .......................................................................................19
6.2 Speed of Construction; ....................................................................................19
6.3 Cost;................................................................................................................19
6.4 Safety; .............................................................................................................20
6.5 Environmental impact; .....................................................................................20
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Simply supported beam ....................................................................................2

Figure 2:Fixed beam........................................................................................................3
Figure 3:Cantilever beam ................................................................................................3
Figure 4:Continuous beam ..............................................................................................4
Figure 5: Reactions of different types of support method ............................................18.0
ESOFT College of Engineering & Technology To Learn and to Apply for the Betterment of Humanity
Eng.
ARTICLE 1 TASK 1
1.1 TYPES OF BEAMS IN CONSTRUCTIONS
There are different types of beams which are classified based on the following conditions
1. Based on Support Conditions
2. Based on Construction Materials
3. Based on Cross-Section Shapes
4. Based on Geometry
5. Based on Equilibrium Condition
6. Based on Method of Construction
7. Others
In this report I consider about based on support conditions only.
1.1.1 Based on Support Conditions
.1 Simply Supported Beam
It is the one of the simplest structural elements that both ends are rest on supports but
are free to rotate. It contains pinned support at one end and roller support at the other
end. On the basis of assign load, it sustains shearing and bending.
Figure 1: Simply supported beam
Eng.
.2 Fixed Beam
It is supported at both ends and fixed to resist rotation. The fixed ends produce fixing
moments other than the reactions.
Figure 2:Fixed beam
.3 Cantilever Beam
If a beam is fixed at one end and set to be free at the end, it is termed as cantilever
beam. The beam distributes the load back to the support where it is forced against with a
moment and shear stress. Cantilever beams allow the creation of a bay window,
balconies, and some bridges
Figure 3:Cantilever beam
Eng.
.4 Continuous Beam
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed along its entire length.
Figure 4:Continuous beam
Eng.
ARTICLE 2 TASK 2
Eng.
2.1 WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF BEAM DEFLECTION?
Due to deflection, serviceability gets affected. Serviceability means, if a beam is

deflected, the slab which it supports also gets deflected. As a result, the floor may not be
perfectly horizontal. Due to that water may stagnate in that low lying area, things can't
stand straight Provided partition gets cracked, due to deflection extra moment is
observe, due to deflection there is chances of slipping in two-way beam system (One
beam over other one), etc., problems may arise for people. Hence, deflection is limited.
2.1.1 How to prevent beam deflection?
• Make the element deeper

• Make the member wider
• Introduce compression reinforcement
• Add tension reinforcement
• Apply or increase restressing
• Revise geometry of the structure
• Review deflection limit criteria
Eng.
ARTICLE 3 TASK 3
1.
Given data;
E for steel (Elastic modulus) = 205000N/mm2
Section designation = A 457 × 191 UB 98
Second moment of area = 45700 cm4
Simply supported at the ends of a span = 7.0m
Calculate the maximum deflection of mid of the beam.
5wL4
𝑦 = 384EI
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.
𝐿 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠.
𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
Eng.
5𝑤𝐿4
𝑦 =
384𝐸𝐼
5 × 50 × 103 × 74
𝑦 =
384 × 205000 × 106 × 45700 × 10−8
𝑦 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟗 𝒎𝒎
2.
Given data;
𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠) = 205000𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴 406 × 178 𝑈𝐵 60
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 21600 𝑐𝑚 4
Now we calculate deflection of mid span.
𝑃𝐿3
𝑦 =
48𝐸𝐼
𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.
Eng.
𝑃𝐿3
𝑦 =
48𝐸𝐼
150 × 103 × 63 𝑁𝑚 2
𝑦 =
48 × 205000 × 106 × 21600 × 10−8
𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝒎𝒎
3.
Given data;
𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠) = 205000𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴 356 × 171 𝑈𝐵 45
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 12100 𝑐𝑚 4
This beam carries an inclusive UDL of 15k/N and a central point load of 70kN. Then
calculate maximum deflection.
Eng.
Before calculations this beam separate 2 parts given below.
5𝑤𝐿4 𝑃𝐿3
𝑦 = +
384𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼
5 × 15 × 103 × 5.54 𝑁𝑚 3
𝑦 =
384 × 205000 × 106 × 12100 × 10−8 𝑁𝑚 2
70 × 103 × 5.53 𝑁𝑚 3
+
48 × 205000 × 106 × 12100 × 10−8 𝑁𝑚 2
𝑦 = 7.21𝑚𝑚 + 9.78𝑚𝑚
𝒚 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝒎𝒎
4.
Given data;
Section designation = A 356 × 171 UB 45
Second moment of area = 12100 cm4
Eng.
E for steel (Elastic modulus) = 205000N/mm2
Maximum deflection of beam
𝐹𝐿3
𝑦 = −
3𝐸𝐼
𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹𝐿3
𝑦 = −
3𝐸𝐼
15 × 103 × 1.23 𝑁𝑚 2
𝑦 = −
3 × 205000 × 106 × 2900 × 10−8 𝑁𝑚
25.92 × 103
𝑦 =−
17835
𝒚 = − 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓𝟑𝒎𝒎
Eng.
ARTICLE 4 TASK 04
In this task I briefly describe factors that affecting load carrying capacity of columns.
Here I also describe slenderness ratio concept, effective length concept, corrosion
resistance and material properties.
4.1 SLENDERNESS RATIO
The slenderness ratio is the ratio of the unsupported length of a column divided by the
radius of gyration of its cross-sectional area. The length and the area should be in the
same units; hence the slenderness ratio is dimensionless.
The slenderness ratio is obtained by:
𝑟 = 𝑙/𝑘
Where l is effective length and k is radius of gyration
Radius of gyration can be obtained by:
√𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝑘= 2
Slenderness ratio has no unit because it is a ratio.
Classification and strength of columns is also depending on slenderness ratio i.e. If the
slenderness ratio increases compressive strength of the column decrease as the
tendency of buckle is increased.
The slenderness ratio is an indicator of the ability of the column to resist buckling when
subjected to compressive load. The lower the slenderness ratio, the more resistant
would be the column against buckling and consequently could take a higher
compression load
4.2 EFFECTIVE LENGTH
The concept of the effective length factors of columns has been well established and
widely used by design engineers and plays an important role in compression member
design. Most structural design codes and specifications have provisions concerning the
effective length factor.
Mathematically, the effective length factor or the elastic 𝑘-factor is defined as:
𝑃𝑒 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑘=√ =√ 2
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝑙 𝑃𝑐𝑟
Eng.
In which 𝐸𝐼 is the flexural rigidity of the column, 𝑃𝑒 is the Euler load, the elastic buckling
load of a pin-ended column and 𝑃𝑐𝑟 is the elastic buckling load of an end-restrained
framed column
4.3 CORROSION RESISTANCE
Corrosion is a chemical process, in which refined metals – steel in our case – revert
back to their lower energy, more natural and stable state of ore. The phenomena are
scientifically explained with the Law of Entropy. The reaction happens with losing steel
material and producing red rust, which is generally 4 to 7 times larger in volume.
Corrosion in structures is a just a durability-related issue in the first glance. Well, that is
far from the truth. In fact, corrosion can directly affect mechanical and structural
properties of components. Corrosion can affect the global response of the structure.
Corrosion affect many types of structures such as steel structures and reinforced
concrete structures.
4.3.1 Effects of corrosion for load carrying capacity.
.1 Reduce strength
➢ Corrosion reduces the effective cross section of structural components.

This will reduce the axial, and flexural strength of elements, and makes
them structurally weak
.2 Reduced Bond Strength
➢ The capacity of composite elements such as RC elements depends on

the characteristics of concrete-rebar interface. When steel corrodes, the
products of corrosion expand. This will leave a poor quality steel layer
over the surface of the reinforcement. This layer has a poor bond with
surrounding concrete; therefore, it will reduce the capacity of the section.
In case of lap splices or anchorage, this may reduce the effective length
of anchorage, and resulting in premature failure of sections
.3 Limited Ductility
➢ Corrosion can significantly reduce the ductility of RC sections. This is

critical in seismic design and evaluation. Corroded sections have lower
ductility, which means their plastic deformation is limited. This will affect
the seismic response of the elements. Corrosion of reinforcement in the
lap splices will affect the load transfer in the laps, preventing the to
develop yield stress.
.4 Reduced Shear Capacity
➢ Corrosion can reduce the effective cross-sectional area of transverse

reinforcement in beams and columns, and reducing the shear capacity of
the section. In concrete slabs, this can reduce the shear strength of the
Eng.
slab close of the columns, and increasing the chance of punching shear
failure. In footings, the corrosion can result in shear failure of the footing,
anchorage failure, or flexural yielding of steel reinforcement.
.5 Fatigue
➢ Another structural effect of corrosion is on the fatigue strength of steel

elements, connections, and RC elements. Corrosion may accelerate
fatigue crack propagation in structural steels.
4.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Material properties of columns which are measured by the elastic modulus/young

modulus and tensile strength.
4.4.1 Elastic modulus/young modulus
Elastic modulus is the ratio of stress, below the proportional limit, to the corresponding
strain. It is the measure of rigidity or stiffness of a material. In terms of the stress-strain
curve, the modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the range of
linear proportionality of stress to strain.
The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the smaller the elastic strain that
results from the application of a given stress. The modulus is an important design
parameter used for computing elastic deflections.
4.4.2 Tensile strength
Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand a pulling (tensile) force. It is

customarily measured in units of force per cross-sectional area.
The ability to resist breaking under tensile stress is one of the most important and widely
measured properties of materials used in structural applications. Tensile strength is
important in the use of brittle materials more than ductile materials.
4.4.3 Properties of different materials
Properties Steel Timber Concrete Reinforced

(Oak wood) (C20) concrete
Elastic 200 GPa 11 GPa 29962 MPa It depends on
modulus/young what kind of
modulus steel we use for
concrete
Tensile strength 420MPa 5.50MPa 2.2-4.2 MPa 20-102 MPa
Eng.
ARTICLE 5 TASK 05
1.
Calculations of safe axial load of this column.
𝑁 = 0.4𝐹𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑐 + 0.75𝐴𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝑦
𝑁 = 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹𝑐𝑢 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 460𝑁𝑚𝑚 −2
Given data;
Concrete grade = C20
Use eight 25mm diameter steel bars
First, we calculate concrete area of this column.
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑝𝑖𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐴𝑐 = (400 × 400) − (8 × 12.52 × 𝜋)
𝑨𝒄 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟕𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟕𝟑𝒎𝒎𝟐
Eng.
Calculations of steel in the concrete
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 8 × 12.52 × 𝜋
𝑨𝒔𝒄 = 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝒎𝒎𝟐
Now we can calculate safe axial load of this column.
𝑁 = 0.4𝐹𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑐 + 0.75𝐴𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝑦
𝑁 = 0.4 × 20 × 156073 + 0.75 × 3926.991 × 460
𝑁 = 1248584 + 1354811.895
𝑵 = 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟑. 𝟑𝟗𝟔𝒌𝑵
2.
Given data:
𝑇 = 20.5𝑚𝑚 (𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)
𝑡 = 12.7𝑚𝑚 (𝑤𝑒𝑏)
ℎ (𝑑) = 222.2𝑚𝑚
𝑏 = 209.1𝑚𝑚
𝐴 = 110𝑐𝑚 2
As the first step we want to find design strength
Web thickness = 12.7mm
Flange thickness = 20.5mm
(using table 09 of BS-5950 part 1)
These both thicknesses are smaller than 40mm.
∴ design strength = 𝑃𝑦 = 265𝑁𝑚𝑚 −2
275
𝜀=√ = 1.019 = 1.02
265
Eng.
Then we want to find ration
𝑏 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( ) =
𝑇 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
(209.1)
𝑏 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( ) = 2
𝑇 20.5𝑚𝑚
𝑏
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( ) = 5.1 < 9𝜀
𝑇
(using table 09 of BS-5950 part 1)
5.1 < 9.18
∴limiting value of 𝒃 is class 1 plastic
Then we want to find web ration:
𝑑 222.2𝑚
=
𝑡 12.7𝑚𝑚
𝑑
= 17.5
𝑡
Here web and flange related to class 3
𝐿 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝜆= =
𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐿 360𝑐𝑚
𝜆𝑥−𝑥 = = = 67.42
𝑟𝑥−𝑥 5.34𝑐𝑚
𝐿 360𝑐𝑚
𝜆𝑦−𝑦 = = = 38.79
𝑟𝑦−𝑦 9.28𝑐𝑚
Higher value of 𝜆𝑥−𝑥 = 67.42
𝑃𝑦 = 265 𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
Using Table 24 of BS-5950 part 1
𝑝𝑦 = 0.7 + 184𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑝𝑦 = 184.7𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
Now we can find compression resistance using below equation;
Eng.
𝑃𝐶 = compression resistance
𝐴𝑔 = cross section area
𝑃𝑐 = compressive strength
𝑃𝐶 = 𝐴𝑔 × 𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝐶 = 110 × 102 × 184.7
𝑷𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝑷𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏. 𝟕𝒌𝑵
ARTICLE 6 TASK 06
This is small 4 storey building. Therefore, I suggest simply support method. Because this
support method is can be bear huge load and very stable because in this type support
method reactions are less than comparing with other support method.
Figure 5: Reactions of different types of support method
And also, here my employer has asked to me most suitable material for this building
therefore, I suggest steel columns and beams use this building. Below I briefly explain
why am I using steel and why am I not recommended concrete or timber.
Concrete and steel are very durable and strong construction materials. Comparing with
concrete and steel, timber can’t bear a huge load and timber is not durable material.
Therefore, I don’t recommended timber for this building.
Below I describe why am I suggest steel for this building.
Eng.
6.1 EASE OF CONSTRUCTION;
Steel
Quality control is very easier.
Steel is a flexible material that can be fabricated into a wide array of designs for endless
applications. The strength-to-weight ratio of steel is much higher when compared to
other affordable building materials. Steel also offers many different aesthetic options that
different materials, such as concrete, cannot compete with.
Concrete
Quality control is difficult.
Although concrete can be molded into many different shapes, it does face some
limitations when it comes to floor-to-floor construction heights and long, open spans.
6.2 SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION;
Steel
Steel buildings do not require the time for any of those steps, except for concrete
foundations, where used. Instead, the steel components can be installed quickly,
efficiently, and with no waiting.
Concrete
Concrete work requires a number of time-consuming steps, including creating and

placing formwork, mixing and pouring concrete, waiting for the curing process to take
place, and form removal. Masonry similarly requires mixing of mortar and grout, the
placement of the masonry units, and then the curing of the mortar.
6.3 COST;
Steel
While structural steel experienced a 50% increase over mill prices from 2003-2005 it still
represented less than 20% of all steel used in building construction. While overall project
costs have risen for all materials, the increased cost of a steel framing system is still less
than 2% of the increase in costs. This is because a majority of construction today uses
recycled steel, which is less expensive than virgin steel.
Prefabrication off-site reduces labor costs since the crew won’t be needed as long. The
building arrives ready to erect and there is little to no on-site metal work or waste.
Eng.
Concrete
The cost of ready-mix has remained stable; however, supply and demand has had an
impact on price and availability in the past decade, especially during times of extensive
construction after natural disasters. Since most structural concrete contains steel
reinforcement, any change in steel prices will affect it as well.
Cast-in-place, reinforced concrete can be more quickly started on the jobsite but over
time will take a larger crew longer to complete than steel, meaning higher labor bills.
6.4 SAFETY;
Steel
As an inorganic material of unparalleled strength, steel brings built-in resistance to fires,

lightning, high winds, heavy snows, mold, and termites.
Steel is easily fireproofed with a variety of spray on or attached materials that can be
matched to the need. Structural steel is very heat resistant on its own and the added
fireproofing prevents widespread damage to other materials.
Concrete
Concrete produces a strong structure that is resistant to damage from fire, wind, and
termites.
6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT;
Steel
Steel is 100% recyclable and 85% of steel is recycled at the end of its life. Due to its
magnetic properties, steel is easy to separate from other debris and making the
recycling process more efficient. In addition, the energy used to produce recycled steel
is about one-third of what is required to produce virgin steel from iron ore.
This translates into less CO2, less energy, and fewer resources being used.
Even iron ore mining companies have gotten in on the green movement and made
efforts to decrease the environmental impact of producing new steel.
Concrete
Some sources say up to 50% of concrete is crushed and recycled; 40% is down-cycled
to be used for hardcore in substructure works or road construction. The remaining 10%
is waste that goes to the landfill. The BRE group has developed a rating system called
Ecopoints to compare the environmental impact of certain materials. The higher the
number, the higher the impact.\
Eng.
References
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http://uoqasim.edu.iq/e_Learning/lec_file/ACI%20318R-14.pdf [Accessed 26 Feb. 2019].
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Structural Assignment 2

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Structural Assignment 2

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Assignment Working 1

BSc(Hons) in Civil Eng., Principles of Structural Design/BTEC HND in CBE-Civil

Figure 1: Simply supported beam ....................................................................................2

1.1 TYPES OF BEAMS IN CONSTRUCTIONS

.1 Simply Supported Beam

Figure 1: Simply supported beam

Figure 2:Fixed beam

Figure 3:Cantilever beam

Figure 4:Continuous beam

2.1 WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF BEAM DEFLECTION?

Due to deflection, serviceability gets affected. Serviceability means, if a beam is

2.1.1 How to prevent beam deflection?

• Make the element deeper

E for steel (Elastic modulus) = 205000N/mm2

Section designation = A 457 × 191 UB 98

Second moment of area = 45700 cm4

Simply supported at the ends of a span = 7.0m

Calculate the maximum deflection of mid of the beam.

𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.

𝐿 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.

𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.

𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠) = 205000𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴 406 × 178 𝑈𝐵 60

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 21600 𝑐𝑚 4

Now we calculate deflection of mid span.

𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.

𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.

𝐿 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.

𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠) = 205000𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴 356 × 171 𝑈𝐵 45

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 12100 𝑐𝑚 4

Before calculations this beam separate 2 parts given below.

Section designation = A 356 × 171 UB 45

Second moment of area = 12100 cm4

E for steel (Elastic modulus) = 205000N/mm2

Maximum deflection of beam

𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.

𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.

𝐿 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚.

4.1 SLENDERNESS RATIO

The slenderness ratio is obtained by:

Where l is effective length and k is radius of gyration

Radius of gyration can be obtained by:

Slenderness ratio has no unit because it is a ratio.

4.2 EFFECTIVE LENGTH

4.3 CORROSION RESISTANCE

4.3.1 Effects of corrosion for load carrying capacity.

➢ Corrosion reduces the effective cross section of structural components.

.2 Reduced Bond Strength

➢ The capacity of composite elements such as RC elements depends on

➢ Corrosion can significantly reduce the ductility of RC sections. This is

.4 Reduced Shear Capacity

➢ Corrosion can reduce the effective cross-sectional area of transverse

➢ Another structural effect of corrosion is on the fatigue strength of steel

4.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Material properties of columns which are measured by the elastic modulus/young

4.4.1 Elastic modulus/young modulus

4.4.2 Tensile strength

Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand a pulling (tensile) force. It is

4.4.3 Properties of different materials

Properties Steel Timber Concrete Reinforced

Calculations of safe axial load of this column.

𝑁 = 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝐹𝑐𝑢 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒