CE3166:  R Liew

CE3166 Part I
Structural Steel Design and
System

J Y Richard Liew
Professor
PhD, FSEng, PE, CEng, ACPE, StEr

National University of Singapore

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
E-MAIL: ceeljy@nus.edu.sg
TEL: 65162154
Room: E1A-05-13
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 CE3166:  R Liew

Introduction to
Eurocodes for Steel Design

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Objectives
This module introduces the limit-state design of structural steel frame
and components based on Eurocode 3, EN 1993-1-1.

At the end of the module, you should be able to DESIGN a structure like this:

beams

trusses
connections
columns
Frames

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Intended Learning Outcomes

Upon successful completion of the course, students should be able to

(a) understand response of various structural steel systems under typical loads.
(b) identify and appreciate the behaviour and purpose of different
elements/components in a steel structure.
(c) perform safe, economical and efficient designs of structural steel systems
and various structural elements/components to suit their intended functions
and according to current design codes.
(d) be aware of typical constraints in engineering design and come up with
different solutions/options to achieve the desired outcomes.
(e) communicate relevant thoughts and ideas effectively to others in verbal and
written forms.
(f) understand the impact of engineering solutions in a societal context and to be
able to respond effectively to the needs for sustainable development.
(g) understand professional, ethical and moral responsibility as engineers.
(h) engage in continuous and life-long learning and seek relevant information to
solve engineering problems beyond materials covered in this module.

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Course Outline (1)

First part of CE3166 is covered by Prof. Richard Liew

• Introduction to limit state design

• Local buckling & Section classification
• Compression members
• Tension members
• Restrained Beams
• Laterally unrestrained beams
• Quiz 1.

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Course Outline (2)

Second part of CE3166 is covered by Prof.
Pang Sze Dai
• beam-columns
• Multi-Storey Frames
• Plate Girders
• Connections – welded and bolted

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References
1. BS EN 1993-1-1: 2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings. (IVLE)
2. BS EN 1993-1-5:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-5:
Plated structural elements. (IVLE)
3. BS EN 1993-1-8:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-8:
Design of joints. (IVLE)
4. BS EN 1994-1-1:2004 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. (IVLE)
5. BS EN 1991-1-1: 2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – Part 1-1: General
actions – Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings. (IVLE)
6. BS EN 1990:2002 Eurocode – Basis of structural design. (IVLE)
7. Buick Davison & Graham Owens (Editors), Steel designers’ manual, Wiley-
Blackwell, 2012.
8. Gardner, L. and Nethercot, D. A. (2005). Designers’ guide to Eurocode 3:
Design of steel structures. Thomas Telford Limited. TA684 Gar 2005 (RBR).
9. Trahair, N.S., Bradford, M. A., Nethercot, D. A. and Gardner, L. (2008). The
behavior and design of steel structures to EC3. Fourth Edition. Taylor &
Francis. TA 684 Tra 2008

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Final Examination
• Items allowed in the exam
– Lecture notes
– EN 1993-1-1
mandatory – EN 1993-1-5
– EN 1993-1-8
– Section tables
– Tutorials and Homeworks

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Overview on Structural Eurocodes

10 Structural Eurocodes
 EN1990: Basis of structural design
 EN1991: Actions on structures
 EN1992: Design of concrete structures
 EN1993: Design of steel structures
 EN1994: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
 EN1995: Design of timber structures
 EN1996: Design of masonry structures
 EN1997: Geotechnical design
 EN1998: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
 EN1999: Design of aluminium structures

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Standards relating to EC3 and EC4

(3 Parts) (21 Parts)

(4Parts)

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Overview on Eurocode 3 (EN1993)

Part 1 (General)
 Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
 Part 1-2: Structural fire design
 Part 1-3: Supplementary rules for cold formed members and sheeting
 Part 1-4: Supplementary rules for stainless steel
 Part 1-5: Plated structural elements
 Part 1-6: Strength and stability of shell structures
 Part 1-7: Plated structures subject to out of plane loading
 Part 1-8: Design of joints
 Part 1-9: Fatigue
 Part 1-10: Material toughness and through thickness properties
 Part 1-11: Design of structures with tension components
 Part 1-12: Additional rules for the extension of EN1993 up to steel grades S700
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Advantages of Structural Steel

• High strength: reduced weight
• Uniformity: isotropic properties do not change
appreciably with time
• Elasticity : Hook’s law applies up to fairly high
stresses
• Ductility : offer additional safety
• Toughness: ability to absorb large amount of energy;
ease of fabrication and erection
• Speed of Construction: no formwork, speed of
erection, low self-weight, modifications (strengthening,
extensions), good dimensional control.

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Conventions
Property Symbol Subscript Definition
area A k characteristic
section modulus W d design
radius of gyration i E effect
second moment of area I Rd design resistance
el elastic
Loads Symbol pl plastic
Permanent action G
z
Variable action Q Member axes
Accidental action A y y z–z Minor axis
y–y Major axis
x–x Longitudinal axis
z

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Material Properties & Notation (EC3)

EN 1993-1-1 Clause 3.2.6

Modulus of elasticity: E  210 GPa Shear Modulus G = 81 GPa

Poisson’s ratio:   0.3

Coefficient of thermal expansion:   12  10 6 / o C

z b

tw
y y h d

x-x axis: along

member axis
tf
z 14
 CE3166:  R Liew

Mechanical Properties of Steel

Stress f
E  210 GPa
fu

• fu = ultimate tensile strength

Est • fy = yield strength
fy 1 • E = Young’s modulus
• u = ultimate strain
• y = yield strain
E
• Elongation measured in percentage
1 Elastic
Strain Necking
Plastic hardening and failure
Strain 
y  sh u
Elongation at failure, f

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Nominal values of yield strength fy & ultimate strength fu

for non-alloy structural steel
EN 10025-2:2004
Nominal S235 S275 S355 S450
Thickness fy fu fy fu fy fu fy fu
[mm] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
t ≤ 16 235 360 275 410 355 470 450 550
16 < t ≤ 40 225 360 265 410 345 470 430 550
40 < t ≤ 63 215 360 255 410 335 470 410 550
63 < t < 80 215 360 245 410 325 470 390 550
80 < t < 100 215 360 235 410 315 470 380 550
100 < t < 150 195 350 225 400 295 450 380 530
150 < t < 200 185 340 215 380 285 450 - -
200 < t < 250 175 340 205 380 275 450 - -

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An Example (*)
S275 UB
457×191×98
19.6 mm
S275
Thickness range
fy (MPa)
(mm)*
11.4 mm 16 275
40 265
63 255
80 245
100 235

fy = 275 MPa for web

fy = 265 MPa for flange What is the strength of the entire section?

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Design Philosophies
• Conceptual development
– Recognize the main structural system
– Trace the “load paths” through elements to the
foundation
Gravity load:
self weight + Imposed load

wind

Deflected
shape

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Industrial Buildings
Portal frames

Truss types

Warren truss Pratt truss Vierendeel truss (fixed

joint, large opening)

Fink truss Bowstring truss

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Bridges
Cable stayed bridge

Sutong Bridge (China)

Suspension bridge Longest cable-stayed bridge (longest
span = 1108m, total length = 8206 m)
Main span L
~ L/11

Truss bridge

Golden gate bridge,1937

(longest span = 1280 m, total
length = 2737 m) 20
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Multi-Storey Buildings
Rigid Pinned

Moment frame Braced frame Shear wall frame

Moment connection Pin connection

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Structural Members
• Tension member –
subjected to tensile axial
loads only
• Column (or compression)
member – subjected to
compressive axial loads only
• Beam member – subjected
to flexural loads, i.e., shear
force and bending moment
only. The axial force in a
beam member is negligible
• Beam-column member –
subjected to combined axial
force and flexural loads.
• Connections
• Plate girders

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Common Steel Sections

Hot-rolled sections

UB UC RHS CHS
Build up by plates

Connections

A Section A-A
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Ultimate Limit state design

Design Resistance Design Effect x 
 G
m

Characteristic resistance Characteristic action

÷ ×
Partial factor for resistance Partial factor for action

(Decrease characteristic (Increase characteristic action)

resistance)

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Design Approach of Eurocodes

The approach in Eurocode is based on Limit State Design and the following are the
three main types of limit states:
Ultimate Limit States
states associated with collapse or with other similar forms of structural failure
 yielding
 buckling
 overturning
Serviceability Limit States
states that correspond to conditions beyond which specified service requirements
for a structure or structural member are no longer met.
 excessive deflection
 excessive vibration

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Combination of actions
Fundamental combination of actions can be determined
from Eqs. 6.10, 6.10a or 6.10b of EN1990.


j 1
G, j Gk , j   Q ,1Qk ,1    Q ,i 0,i Qk ,i
i 1
(6.10)

Permanent actions Leading Accompanying

variable variable
action actions
Examples
ψ : combinations factors Dead Load or Self weight = permanent action.
Wind load, imposed load = variable action
Details for γ and ψ in EN 1990: 2002.

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Actions
3 types: permanent (G), variable (Q) and accidental (A).

Partial factors for actions γ :

Actions ULS
Unfavourable conditions:
Permanent action (G) / Dead load (DL) 1.35
Variable action (Q) / Imposed load (IL) 1.5
Favourable conditions:
Permanent action (G) / Dead load (DL) 1.0
Variable action (Q) / Imposed load (IL) 0

Favourable: action results in lower load resultant/effect.

Unfavourable: action results in higher load resultant/effect.
Load resultant/effect: bending moment, shear, tension, compression, overturning, etc.

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Load Combinations for ULS

EN 1990 Clause 6.4.3.2
The fundamental combination for ULS is given as follows:


j 1
G, j Gk , j   Q ,1Qk ,1    Q ,i 0,i Qk ,i
i 1
(6.10)
NON‐LEADING variable action
LEADING variable action 
Example for  Unfavourable Condition
 1.35G
j 1
k, j  1.5Qk ,1   1.5 0,i Qk ,i
i 1 Examples

Values of 0,i are found in NA to SS EN 1990: 2008+A1: 2010): For permanent + imposed action,

Action ψ0 1.35Gk  1.5Qk

Imposed loads
0.7 For permanent + imposed action +
Category A: domestic, residential areas
other variable action,
Category B: office areas 0.7
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 1.35Gk  1.5Qk  1.5  0Qk , i
Category D: shopping areas 0.7
Category E: storage areas
1.0
Category H: roofs
0.7
Wind loads on buildings * 0.5
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Typical ULS combinations:

For beam and floor slab design
1.35DL + 1.5IL (unfavourable DL and IL)

For frame design

1.35DL + 1.5IL + 0.75WL+EHF (unfavourable DL, IL and WL; IL dominant)
1.35DL + 1.5WL + 1.05IL + EHF (unfavourable DL, IL and WL; WL dominant)

EHF = Equivalent horizontal forces (to be covered in Lecture 9: frames)

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Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

Deflection:
• should not affect the appearance of the structure
• should not cause discomfort to the users
• should not affect the function of the structure (including functioning of machines
or services)
• should not cause damage to finishes or non-structural members

Vibration and oscillation

• should not cause discomfort to people
• should not limit the functional effectiveness of the structure

Other damages:
• should not adversely affect appearance
• should not adversely affect durability
• should not adversely affect the functioning of the structure

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Load Combinations for SLS

EN 1990 Clause 6.5.3

Leading variable action

Qk ,1  
i 1
0 , i Qk , i

If the leading variable action is the imposed load, Qk, we can simplfy it as follows:

Qk  0.5Wk
0 = 0.5 based on SS NA

If the leading variable action is the wind load, Wk, we can simplify it as follows:

Wk  0.7Qk
SS National Annex ignores the permanent action in evaluating serviceability
Note: Equivalent Horizontal Force (EHF) needs to be considered for SLS design
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Load Combinations for SLS

Partial Factor for Serviceability Limit State  (SLS)
Action Partial Factor Action ψ0
Imposed loads
Permanent Action (G) G=0.00 Category A: domestic, residential 0.7
areas
0.7
Variable Action (Q) Q=1.00 Category B: office areas
Category C: congregation areas
0.7
Category D: shopping areas 0.7
Category E: storage areas 1.0
The combination of variable actions for Category H: roofs 0.7
serviceability limit states is given as
Wind loads on buildings 0.5
follows:
Qk ,1  
i 1
0 , i Qk , i

Typical SLS combinations:

Beam Design 1.0IL (Imposed load is the only variable)

Frame design 1.0IL + 0.5WL (Imposed load is the leading variable
1.0WL+0.7IL (wind load is leading variable)
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Deflection Check
(a) Vertical deflection due to imposed load
Cantilevers Length/180
Internal beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish Span/360 or 40mm
Other beams (except purlins and sheeting rails) Span/200 or 40mm
Edge beam Span/300 to span/500
or 20mm
(b) Horizontal deflection of columns due to imposed load and wind load
Tops of columns in single-storey buildings, except
Height/300
portal frames
In each storey of a building with more than one storey Height of that
storey/300
(c) Crane girders
Vertical deflection due to static vertical wheel loads
Span/600
from overhead traveling cranes
Horizontal deflection (calculated on the top flange
properties alone) due to horizontal crane loads Span/500
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Classification of Actions
Actions (loads) shall be classified by their variation in time as follows:

- Permanent actions (G), e.g., self-weight of structures, fixed equipment and

road surfacing, prestressing force, indirect actions (e.g., settlement of
supports).

- Variable actions (Q), e.g., imposed loads on building floors, beams and roofs,
wind action and snow actions, indirect actions (e.g., temperature effects).

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Permanent Actions, Gk, (EN 1991-1-1) Also refer to as dead load

Materials Density  (kN/m3)

Light weight concrete 9.0 to 20.0
Normal weight concrete 24.0 to 25.0
Cement mortar 19.0 to 23.0
Gypsum mortar 12.0 to 18.0
Wood 3.5 to 10.8
Plywood 4.5 to 7.0
Particle boards 7.0 to 12.0
Fibre building board 4.0 to 10.0
Steel 77.0 to 78.5
Glass 22.0 to 25.0
Acrylic sheet 12.0
Hot rolled asphalt 23.0

(refer to BS EN 1991- 1 - 1 : 2002 Annex A for full details)

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Imposed Loads (EN 1991-1-1)

Uniformly distributed load Point load
Usage qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
Residential
- Floors 1.5 to 2.0 2.0 to 3.0
- Stairs 2.0 to 4.0 2.0 to 4.0
- Balconies 2.5 to 4.0 2.0 to 3.0
Office 2.0 to 3.0 1.5 to 4.5
Cafe, restaurant 2.0 to 3.0 2.0 to 4.0
Theatres 3.0 to 4.0 2.5 to 7.0 (4.0)
Shopping mall 4.0 to 5.0 3.5 to 7.0

Recommended values are underlined!

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Some values of imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings
Specific Use qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
Bedrooms and dormitories except those in hotels and motels 1.5 2.0
Bedrooms in hotels and motels; hospital wards; toilet areas 2.0 2.0
Office area (At or below ground floor level) 3.0 2.7
Office area (Above ground floor level) 2.5 2.7
Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes and restaurants 2.0 3.0
Reading rooms with no book storage 2.5 4.0
Classrooms 3.0 3.0
Assembly areas with fixed seating 4.0 3.6
Places of worship 3.0 2.7
Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings (not subjected to crowding) 3.0 4.5
Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not subjected to crowding 3.0 4.0
Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings (subjected to crowding) 4.0 4.5
Stairs, landings in all buildings (subjected to crowding) 4.0 4.0
Walkways – Light duty 3.0 2.0
Walkways – General duty 5.0 3.6
Walkways – Heavy duty 7.5 4.5
Museum floors and art galleries for exhibition purposes 4.0 4.5
Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages 5.0 3.6
Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars and places of worship 5.0 3.6
Balconies in hotels and motels 7.5 4.5
Areas in general retail shop, department stores 4.0 3.6
(refer to NA to SS for full details) 37
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Some values of imposed loads due to storage
Specific Use qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
General areas for static equipment not specified elsewhere (institutional and 2.0 1.8
public buildings)
Reading rooms with book storage, e.g. libraries 4.0 4.5
General storage other than those specified 2.4 per metre of storage height 7.0
File rooms, filing and storage space (offices) 5.0 4.5
Stack rooms (books) 2.4 per metre of storage height 7.0
but with a minimum of 6.5

Paper storage for printing plants and stationery stores 4.0 per metre of storage height 9.0

Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trolleys, in public and institutional 4.8 per metre of storage height 7.0
buildings but with a minimum of 9.6

Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trucks, in warehouse 4.8 per metre of storage height 7.0
but with a minimum of 15.0

Cold storage 5.0 per metre of storage height 9.0

but with a minimum of 15.0

(refer to NA to SS for full details)

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Example 1
A beam of span 9 m is simply supported at its ends. It is loaded by two
concentrated loads at its third-points. Calculate the moment and shear
forces required for beam design.

The dead and imposed loads are given as follows:

DL Distributed load 3 kN/m

Concentrated load 40 kN

IL Concentrated load 60 kN

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Design loads
54 kN + 90 kN 54 kN + 90 kN

4.05 kN/m

3m 3m 3m
162 kN 162 kN

Design loads:
DL Distributed load 3 × 1.35 = 4.05 kN/m
Concentrated load 40 × 1.35 = 54 kN

IL Concentrated load 60 × 1.5 = 90 kN

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Load resultants/effects
54 kN + 90 kN 54 kN + 90 kN

4.05 kN/m

3m 3m 3m
162 kN 162 kN

Maximum bending moment occurs at mid-span:

MEd = 162×4.5 – 4.05×4.5×4.5/2 – (54+90)×1.5 = 472 kNm.

Maximum shear force occurs at the supports:

VEd = 162 kN.

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Example 2: Design of primary beam with one-way spanning slabs (office building)
Determine the design loads on Beam 1 supporting one-way spanning slabs. The uniformly
distributed dead and imposed load are 5kN/m2 and 3kN/m2 respectively.

7m
Design permanent loads
1.35Gk = 1.35*5*4 = 27kN/m
4m
Design imposed loads Beam 1

1.5Qk = 1.5*3*4 = 18kN/m

4m
Design loads
1.35Gk + 1.5Qk = 45kN/m

45kN/m
MEd = (45x72 )/8 kNm
Beam 1
VEd = 158kN
158kN 158kN
7m

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One-Way Spanning versus Two-Way

Spanning Slab
L
C D
wL/2 kN/m
w kN/m2 0
A C C D
Beam AC Beam CD
& Beam BD
A B
One-way spanning slab

L
C D wL/2 kN/m wH/2
w kN/m2 A C C D
H
Beam AC Beam CD

A B
Two-way spanning slab 43
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Example 3
The architect decided to extend beams AD, BE and CF to support a balcony of 2
m width under the same distributed loading (a dead load of 4 kN/m2 and an
imposed of 5 kN/m2) and an imposed load of 160 kN at point H. The architect
requires no columns to be located below G, H and I. Evaluate the design load on
beam BEH.
G H I

One-way One-way

2.0 m
Balcony
spanning spanning
F Extension
E
D

One-way

5.0 m
One-way
spanning spanning

B C
A
4m 4m 44
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Example 3
Design load for BE:
Permanent: 1.35 × 4 × 4= 21.6 kN/m;
Imposed: 1.5 × 5 × 4= 30 kN/m

Point load?
H

2.0 m
21.6 + 30 = 51.6 kN/m ? kN
E
B
E H
? kN ? kN

5.0 m
B
4m 4m

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Example 3 4m
H
• Due to one-way spanning, there is no distributed load on HE
• Point load at H = the load intensity × area of upper rectangle 1m
• Point load at E = the load intensity × area of lower rectangle
1m

E
Design load for EH:
Permanent at H or E: 1.35 × 4 × 4 × 1 = 21.6 kN;
Imposed at H: 1.5 × 5 × 4 × 1 + 1.5 × 160 = 270 kN;
Imposed at E: 1.5 × 5 × 4 × 1 = 30 kN H

2.0 m
E
51.6 kN
21.6 + 30 = 51.6 kN/m 291.6 kN

5.0 m
B
E H
12.4 kN 588.8 kN
B
(max)
4m 4m 46
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Example 3
Minimize the contribution of loads on span BE, which are counteracting the
overturning moment caused by the force at point H: (γf = 1.0 for DL on span BE)

51.6 kN
16 + 0 = 16 kN/m 291.6 kN
H

2.0 m
B
E
76.6 kN (Uplift) 499.8 kN H E

5.0 m
Favorable loading condition f
Permanent action 1.0
Variable action 0.0 B
4m 4m

Proper design is required to resist the uplifting force at B, i.e. to anchor the
beam at B.

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Wind Loads (EN 1991-1-4)

Wind loads on external surfaces of the building:
We  q p  ze   ceq
q p  ze  peak velocity pressure

ze reference height for the external pressure

ceq pressure coefficient for the external pressure

qp  v 2
m

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Load combinations – Example 4

A gantry structure experiences the following loads. Evaluate the load

combinations that need to be considered in the ultimate limit state design of the
legs.

G = 3, , Q = 3.5
Permanent action G
Self-weight of beam = 3 kN W =5
Self-weight of each column = 2 kN

Imposed action on beam Q = 3.5 kN

2 2
Wind load W = 5 kN 7m

4m
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Maximum compression at support A

G, Q 1.35×3
1.5 x 3.5
W=0
Unfavorable – increases RA.
Favorable – reduces RA.

7m
G and Q are unfavorable while W = 0 is favorable. 1.35×2

Use equilibrium of moments about right support

to calculate RA:
4m
RA×4 + 0×5×7
RA
= 1.35×2×4 + 1.35×3×2 + 1.5×3.5×2

 RA = 7.35 kN.
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Maximum tension at support A

G = 1.0×3
Q =0 x 3.5
W= 1.5x5
• Unfavorable – increases RA.
• Favorable – reduces RA.
7m
• W is unfavorable while G and Q are favorable. 1.0×2

• Use equilibrium of moments about right support

• to calculate RA:
4m

• RA×4 + 1.0×2×4 + 1.0×3×2 + 0×3.5×2 RA

• = 1.5×5×7
RA must be designed for both
compression and tension.
•  RA = 9.63 kN.
52 CE3166:  R Liew

Maximum compression at support B

1.35×3
1.5 x 3.5

W= 1.5x0.5x5
• Unfavorable – increases RB.
• Favorable – reduces RB.
7m
• G, Q and W are unfavorable. 1.35×2

• Use equilibrium of moments about left support

• to calculate RB:
4m

• Imposed load as leading variable action: RB

• RB×4
• = 1.35×2×4 + 1.35×3×2 + 1.5×3.5×2 + (1.5×0.5)×5×7

•  RB = 13.9 kN. Reduction factor for wind load

53 CE3166:  R Liew

Maximum compression at support B G = 1.35×3

Q =1.5x 0.7x 3.5

W= 1.5x5
Unfavorable – increases RB.
Favorable – reduces RB.
7m
G, Q and W are unfavorable. 1.35×2

Use equilibrium of moments about left support

to calculate RB:
4m

Wind load as leading variable action: RB

RB×4
= 1.35×2×4 + 1.35×3×2 + (1.5×0.7)×3.5×2 + 1.5×5×7

 RB = 19.7 kN. Wind load as leading variable action is the

critical case for maximum RB in compression.
54 CE3166:  R Liew

Maximum tension at support B G = 1.0×3

Q = 0 x 3.5
W= 0x5
• Unfavorable – increases RB.
• Favorable – reduces RB.

7m
• G, Q and W are favorable. 1.0×2

• Use equilibrium of moments about left support

• to calculate RB:
4m
• RB×4 + 1.0×2×4 + 1.0×3×2 + 0×3.5×2 + 0×5×7
RB
RB only needs to be designed
•  RB = -3.50 kN. for compression.
55 CE3166:  R Liew

Summary
• Reaction at support A:
• Support A must be designed for both compression and tension.
• Maximum compression = 7.35 kN.
• Maximum tension = 9.63 kN.

• Reaction at support B:
• Support B only needs to be designed for compression.
• Maximum compression = 19.7 kN.

Summary: Since wind loads can act in reverse direction, the design
forces for the supports are:
Compression = 19.7 kN
Tension: 9.63 kN
 CE3166:  R Liew

Additional Problem
The roof structure is subject to the following characteristic
loads: Dead Load, Live Load (or imposed load), Wind
Load, Rain Load. Determine the design loads (factored
loads).
They are three variable loads. Need to find suitable load
combination depending whether they are favaourable or
unfavourable.
Dead load
Live load
Rain load
Wind load downward)

Wind load ( upward)

56