Vegetable Oil Industry
Egypt, Greece, and Rome, among other places. Using a spherical or conical
I. Introduction
A. Vegetable oils
are lipid materials derived from plants. Physically, oils are liquid at room
temperature. Chemically, oils are composed of triglycerides, as contrasted with
waxes which lack glycerin in their structure. Although many different parts of plants
may yield oil, in commercial practice, oil is extracted primarily from seeds.
II. History
A. Milestones
People in many regions began to process vegetable oils thousands of years
ago, utilizing whatever food stuffs they had on hand to obtain oils for a variety
of cooking purposes.
Early peoples learned to use the sun, a fire, or an oven to heat oily plant
products until the plants exuded oil that could then be collected.
The Chinese and Japanese produced soy oil as early as 2000 B.C.
The southern Europeans had begun to produce olive oil by 3000 B.C.
In Mexico and North America, peanuts and sunflower seeds were roasted and
beaten into a paste before being boiled in water; the oil that rose to the
surface was then skimmed off.
Africans also grated and beat palm kernels and coconut meat and then boiled
the resulting pulp, skimming the hot oil off the water.
Some oils have become available only recently, as extraction technology has
improved. Corn oil first became available in the 1960s and Cotton oil,
watermelon seed oil, grapeseed oil, and others are now being considered as
ways to make use of seeds that were, until recently, considered waste.
The first efforts to increase output were undertaken independently in China,
stone mortar and pestle, vertical or horizontal millstones, or simply their feet,
people began to crush vegetable matter to increase its available surface area.
The ground material would subsequently be placed in sieves such as shallow,
flat wicker baskets that were stacked, sometimes as many as 50 high. The
matter was then pressed using lever or wedge presses.
The Greeks and Romans improved this process by introducing edge runners to
grind and a winch or screw to operate a lever press. Their method was used
throughout the Middle Ages.
Refinements of this approach included a stamper press that was invented in
Holland in the 1600s and used until the 1800s to extract oil, a roll mill invented
by English engineer John Smeaton in 1750 to crush vegetable matter more
efficiently,
The hydraulic press, invented by Joseph Bramah in England. The first improved
screw press was invented by V. D. Anderson in the United States in 1876. His
Expeller (a trade name) continuously operated a cage press. When vegetable
matter was placed in Anderson's closed press, the resultant oil drained out of
slots in the side. A screw increased the pressure through the cage toward a
restricted opening.
Enhancements in grinding and pressing plant matter were followed by
improvements in extracting the oil. In 1856, Deiss of England obtained the first
patent for extraction of oil using solvents, following experiments by Jesse
Fisher in 1843. At first, solvents such as benzene were pumped through the
material and drained through false perforated bottoms.
Later, Bollman and Hildebrandt of Germany independently developed
continuous systems that sprayed the material with solvent. Both methods
were eventually improved, and today solvent extraction is standard in the
vegetable oil industry.
III. Sources of Vegetable Oils
A. Seeds of annual plants grown
Most of these annual plants not only are cultivated as a source of oil, but
are also utilized as protein-rich foods.
Oil seeds are obtained from annual plants that must be replanted each
year
B. Oil-bearing trees
Olive, coconut, and palm oils are extracted from the fruit pulp rather than
the seed of the fruit.
Palm also has seeds, which provide palm kernel oil. All of the oil-bearing
tree fruits require a relatively warm climate (i.e., tropical for coconut and
palm and a warm climate for olive trees).
Most of the oil-bearing tree fruits and kernels provide the highest oil
yields.
Fruit oils are harvested from trees with long life spans
Olive trees are the hardiest and can survive to be several hundred years
old.
Coconut trees start to bear fruit after 5 to 6 years and their life
expectancy is as long as 60 years.
Palm trees start to bear fruit after 4 to 5 years and continue to do so for
another 20 years.
IV. Types of Vegetable Oils
A. Canola oil is one of two cultivars of rapeseed or Brassica campestris (Brassica
napus L. and B. campestris. Their seeds are used to produce edible oil that is fit for
human consumption because it has lower levels of erucic acid than traditional
rapeseed oils and to produce livestock feed because it has reduced levels of the
toxic glucosinolates.
B. Corn oil is oil extracted from the germ of corn (maize). Its main use is in cooking,
where its high smoke point makes refined corn oil avaluable frying oil. It is also a
key ingredient in some margarines.[citation needed] Corn oil is generally less
expensive than most other types of vegetable oils.[citation needed] One bushel of
corn contains 1.55 pounds of corn oil (2.8% by weight). Corn agronomists have
developed high-oil varieties; however, these varieties tend to show lower field
yields, so they are not universally accepted by growers.
C. Cottonseed oil is a cooking oil extracted from the seeds of cotton plant of
various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum.
Cotton grown for oil extraction is one of the big four genetically modified crops
grown around the world, next to soy, corn, and rapeseed (canola), mostly
Monsanto products.
D. Peanut oil (arachis oil) is an organic material oil derived from peanuts, noted
to have the aroma and taste of its parent legume. In the UK it is marketed as
"groundnut oil".
E. Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L., is among the oldest crops known. The
species is believed to be indigenous to Southeast Asia, but has long been
cultivated in China, the Near East, and northern Africa.
F. Soybean oil is obtained from soybeans, Glycina maxima, which are grown in
several countries of the world. Soybeans are native to eastern Asia, where
ancient Chinese literature indicates that soybeans have been an important part
of their diet for centuries.
G. Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil expressed from sunflower (Helianthus
annuus) seeds. Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in
cosmetic formulations as an emollient.
H. Coconut oil is extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconut
harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout the tropical
world it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of
people for generations.
I. Olive oil is an oil obtained from the olive (Olea europaea; family Oleaceae), a
traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. It is commonly used in
cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil
lamps. Olive oil is used throughout the world, but especially in the
Mediterranean.
J. Palm oil is an edible plant oils derived from the fruits of palm trees. Palm oil is
extracted from the pulp of the fruit of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis; palm
kernel oil is derived from the kernel (seed) of the oil palm and coconut oil is
derived from the kernel of the coconut (Cocos nucifera). Palm oil is naturally
reddish because it contains a high amount of beta-carotene.
 K. Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the the kernel of the oil palm
Elaeis guineensis. It should not be confused with the other two edible oils
derived from palm fruits: coconut oil, extracted from the kernel of the
coconut, and Palm oil, extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit.
V. Vegetable Oil Formulation
Oils play a significant role in the formulation and performance of a variety of
prepared foods. To accomplish the desired performance
the developer must recognize that most applications require a fat or oil
product with different physical and organoleptic properties.
The development of oil products for food applications is dependent on many
interlaced factors
factors may differ from customer to customer depending on
 the equipment used
 processing limitations
 product preference
Fats and oils are very versatile raw materials for which processing methods
have been developed to make them even more useful to the food industry,
and analytical chemists have devised methods to qualify the product
produced.
Satisfactory performance of fats and oils products is dependent on several
important elements that determine suitability.
Fats and oils formulators must identify the important attributes and
effectively utilize the different functional properties of the available
processed fats and oils to satisfy the prepared foods requirements.
Successful production of these products relies on the manipulation of the fat
blend to produce suitable physical properties and prevent undesirable
changes during and after processing.
Important performance characteristics of fats and oils that must be
considered for any product formulation include:
 Flavor: Generally, the flavor of processed fats and oils products
should be completely bland so the flavor of the food product is
enhanced rather than the fat or oil contributing a flavor. In some
specific cases, a typical flavor, such as lard or butter, is desirable
for a particular application; however, the reverted or oxidized
flavors and odors of most fats and oils are objectionable.
 Flavor stability: The bland or typical flavor must be stable
throughout the shelf life plus the use life of the prepared food
product. The fat or oil product must possess the identified
degree of resistance to both oxidative and lipolytic flavor
degradation.
 Physical characteristics: Each fat and oil has a characteristic
composition and distributionof fatty acids. The physical,
functional, and organoleptic properties of fatsand oils are, in
part, a function of the fatty acid composition, but also are
governedby the fatty acid distribution in the triglyceride
composing the raw materials. Theconsistency, plasticity,
emulsification, creaming properties, spreadability,
otherproperties of the fats and oils, and the prepared foods
produced are all affected bythe unsaturation and saturation of
the fatty acids and their position in the triglyceridethat control
melting rate and range.
 Crystal habit: Fats and oils are polymorphic, which means that
with cooling a series of increasingly organized crystal changes
occur until a final stable crystal form is achieved. The crystal
types formed define the textural and functional characteristics of
most fat-based products. Many prepared foods are mixtures of
ingredients held in a matrix of solid fat. The fat is the major
functional ingredient and binds the other ingredients together;
at the same time, it imparts texture and mouth feel to the
product while affecting flavor release and dispersion in the
mouth of the solid materials at a controlled rate.
  Nutritional concerns: Fats and oils are recognized as important
nutrients for both humans and animals because they provide a
concentrated source of energy, contain essential fatty acids, and
serve as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins; however, research
studies have indicated a possible relationship between fats and
the incidence of coronary heart disease. Diet modifications that
include reductions in fat consumption, saturated fats,
cholesterol, and trans-isomers while increasing omega-3 fatty
acids have been proposed.
 Additives: In addition to emulsifiers, a number of other chemical
compounds provide a specific function for edible fats and oils
products. The additive categories are antioxidants, antifoamers,
metal inactivators, colorants, flavors, crystal inhibitors,
preservatives, vitamins, sterol/stanol esters, and emulsifiers.
 Current chemical and physical processing techniques provide the processor
with the capability of modifying one or more fats and oils properties. It is
possible to produce fats and oils products that have little resemblance to the
natural fats and oils and provide the ability to formulate custom products to
suit a particular product or process. Further, the processing techniques
provide the processor with a wider range of alternative raw material sources
to improve commercial viability. Some of the objectives for applying the
available modification or processing techniques include:
1. Production of a fat or oil product to meet certain performance
characteristics not possible with natural source oil and fat
products
2. Potential utilization of a more economic feedstock to duplicate
functionality of a
3. more expensive alternative
4. Extended oxidative stability
5. Palatability improvement
6. Modification of the crystallization behavior
7. Development of more nutritionally acceptable products, for
example, reduce saturatesand trans acids while increasing
omega-3 polyunsaturates
VI. Uses of Vegetable Oil
A. Culinary Uses
Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or used directly as ingredients in
food and dog food - a role that they share with some animal fats, including
butter and ghee. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:
 Shortening - to give pastry a crumbly texture.
 Texture - oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less.
 Flavor - while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, oils such as
olive oil or almond oil may be chosen specifically for the flavor they
impart.
 Flavor base - oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, since
many flavors are present in chemicals that are soluble in oil.
Oils can be heated, and used to cook other foods. Oils that are suitable for this
purpose must have a high flash point. Such oils include the major cooking oils -
canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut etc. Tropical oils, like palm oil, coconut oil
and rice bran oil, are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high temperature
cooking, because of their unusually high flash point.
B. Hydrogenated Oils
Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete
hydrogenation into fats and oils of higher melting point. The hydrogenation
process involves "sparging" the oil at high temperature and pressure with
hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound.
As each double-bond is broken, two hydrogen atoms each form single bonds
with the two carbon atoms. The elimination of double-bonds by adding
hydrogen atoms is called saturation; as the degree of saturation increases, the
oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. Oil may be hydrogenated to
increase resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical
characteristics. As the degree of saturation increases, the oil's viscosity and
melting point increase.
The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never been completely satisfactory. C. Industrial Uses
Because the center arm of the triglyceride is shielded somewhat by the end fatty
acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on the end fatty acids. This makes the Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many
resulting fat more brittle. A margarine made from naturally more saturated oils manufactured products.
will be more plastic (more "spreadable") than margarine made from, say,
hydrogenated soy oil. In addition, partial hydrogenation results in the formation  Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products,
of large amounts of transfats in the oil mixture, which, since the 1970s, have candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic
increasingly been viewed as unhealthy. products.

 Some oils are particularly suitable as drying agents, and are

used in making paints and other wood treatment products.
Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for
example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of
wooden boats.
 Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical
industry as insulators as vegetable oils are non-toxic to the
environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and
fire points. However, vegetable oils are less chemically-stable,
so they are generally used in systems where they are not
exposed to oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil
distillate. Two examples are FR3 by Cooper Power and Biotemp
by ABB. Midel 7131 by M & I materials is a synthetic tetra-ester,
like a vegetable oil but with four fatty acid chains compared to
the normal three found in a natural ester, and is manufactured
by an alcohol plus acid reaction
 Vegetable oil is being used to produce bio-degradable hydraulic
fluid and lubricant.

 Common vegetable oil has also been used experimentally as a

cooling agent in PCs.
  One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all
such oils eventually chemically decompose turning rancid. Oils
that are more stable, such as Ben oil or mineral oil, are
preferred for some industrial uses.
Vegetable-based oils, like castor oil, have been used as medicine and as
lubricants for a long time. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses, primarily due
to the presence of hydroxyl groups on the fatty acid chains. Castor oil, and other
vegetable oils which have been chemically modified to contain hydroxyl groups,
are becoming increasingly important in the production of polyurethane plastic
for many applications. These modified vegetable oils are known as natural oil
polyols.
D. Pet Food Additive
Vegetable oil is used in production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines vegetable
oil, in this context, as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the
oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes. In some poorer
grade pet foods, the oil is listed only as "vegetable oil", without specifying the
particular oil.
The melting temperature distinction between oils and fats is imprecise,
since definitions of room temperature vary, and typically natural oils have
a melting range instead of a single melting point since natural oils are not
chemically homogenous.
Vegetable oils are too viscous and too reactive with atmospheric oxygen
to establish significant markets for use in cosmetics, lubricants, and
certain chemical additives.
Fortunately, properties such as viscosity, pour point, freezing point, and
reactivity can be decreased by chemically introducing branching groups or
side chains on the straight-chained fatty acids the physical properties of
natural fats and oils vary widely because:
 proportions of fatty acids vary over wide ranges, and
 Triacylglycerol structures vary for each individual oil and fat.
Fats and oils are commonly referred to as triglycerides because the
glycerin molecule has three hydroxyl groups where a fatty acid can be
attached.

E. Fuel

Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used like
conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles
but straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared
vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity. The
vegetable oil economy is growing and the availability of biodiesel around the
world is increasing.

VII. Chemistry
Triglyceride
A. Physical Properties
B. Chemical Properties
Liquid at room temperature
The fatty acid components are distinguished in three ways:
  are undesirable, therefore, the objective in all edible oil processing
 chain length is to remove the objectionable impurities with the least possible
 number and position of the double bonds damage to the desirable constituents.
 position of the fatty acids within the glyceride molecule.
Phospholipids
The fatty-acid carbon-chain lengths vary between 4 and 24 carbon atoms  These compounds are better known to oil processors as
with up to six double bonds. phosphatides and are frequently referred to, together with small
The most prevalent saturated fatty acids are: quantities of carbohydrates and resins, as gums, which have adverse
 lauric (C-12:0) effects on product quality and refined oil yield.
 myristic (C-14:0)  are emulsifiers and hinder the separation of oil and water phases in
 palmitic(C-16:0) the chemical refining process, interfere with effective bleaching, are
 stearic (C-18:0) catalyst poisons, shorten shelf life, and foul equipment surfaces.
 arachidic (C-20:0)
 behenic (C-22:0) Tocopherols and Tocotrienols
 lignoceric (C-24:0).  Tocols, natural antioxidants found in plant-based oils, include four
The most important monounsaturated fatty acids are: tocopherol and four tocotrienol isomers, each designated as alpha
 oleic (C-18:1) (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ) depending on the number and
 erucic (C-22:1) position of methyl groups on a chromane ring; they also possess
The essential polyunsaturated fatty acids are: vitamin E activity.
 linoleic (C-18:2)  The stability of many vegetable oils has been credited to the
 linolenic(C18:3) presence of these natural antioxidants; however, too high a
 EPA (eicosapentaenoicacid) (C-20:5) tocopherol level will enhance oxidation of the unsaturated fatty
 DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) (C-22:6). acids.13 Seed oils are the major sources of tocopherols and there
The triglyceride structure of an edible fat or oil is affected by the fatty acids that seems to be a direct relationship between the degree of
are present and the point of attachment of each fatty acid to the glycerin. unsaturation and the total tocopherol content, that is, higher
Triglycerides with three identical fatty acids are called monoacid triglycerides. tocopherol concentrations are present when the unsaturation level
Triglycerides containing more than one type of fatty acid are called mixed indicates a need to prevent oxidation.
triglycerides.

Non-Glyceride Component of Vegetable Oil

 crude vegetable oils commonly contain 2% or more non-glyceride

substances
 referred to as the unsaponifiable fraction, consist of phospholipids, Sequalene
tocopherols, sterols, resins, carbohydrates, pesticides, proteins,
trace metals, and pigments, such as gossypol, carotene, and  Squalene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon, C30H50, with
chlorophyll. important biological properties.
  Sequalene is a low-density compound that is lighter than water
with a specific gravity of 0.855.
 It can easily produce oxygen by combining with water. It is a
metabolic precursor of the entire steroid family.
 Sequalene has also been shown to possess moderate antioxidant
properties; however, it sustains a significant loss of these
properties during storage. Shark liver oil is a rich source of
squalene and small amounts are found in some vegetable oils.
Olive oil and amaranth seed oil are two rich plant sources of
squalene. It also is a natural byproduct of natural vitamin A
commercial production.

Sterols
 Sterols are minor components of all natural fats and oils and
comprise most of the unsaponifiable matter, the remainder
consists essentially of hydrocarbons.
 The sterols are high melting, colorless, and somewhat inert. It
was thought that sterols did not contribute any property to a fat
or oil; however, an antipolymerization activity has been
identified for some sterols in heated oils, they can undergo
oxidation to form a variety of oxidation products, and they can
lower LDL (low-density Raw Materials 11 lipoproteins) VIII. Manufacturing Process
cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic individuals.
Some vegetable oils, such as olive, peanut, and some coconut and sunflower oils, are
Pigments cold-pressed. This method, which entails minimal processing, produces a light, flavorful
oil suitable for some cooking needs. Most oil sources, however, are not suitable for cold
 include the carotenes that impart yellow and red colors to the oil, pressing, because it would leave many undesirable trace elements in the oil, causing it
chlorophylls that give it a greenish cast, degraded proteins and to be odiferous, bitter tasting, or dark. These oils undergo many steps beyond mere
carbohydrates that have a brownish cast, gossypol that provides the extraction to produce bland, clear, and consistent oil.
yellowish color to cottonseed oil.
 Pressing
Extracting additional oil with solvents
Cleaning and Grinding
Incoming oil seeds are passed over magnets to remove any trace metal
before being dehulled, deskinned, or otherwise stripped of all extraneous
material. In the case of cotton, the ginned seeds must be stripped of their
lint as well as dehulled.
In the case of corn, the kernel must undergo milling to separate the germ.
The stripped seeds or nuts are then ground into coarse meal to provide
more surface area to be pressed.
Mechanized grooved rollers or hammer mills crush the material to the
proper consistency. The meal is then heated to facilitate the extraction of
the oil.
While the procedure allows more oil to be pressed out, more impurities
are also pressed out with the oil, and these must be removed before the
oil can be deemed edible.
The heated meal is then fed continuously into a screw press,
which increases the pressure progressively as the meal passes
through a slotted barrel.
Pressure generally increases from 68,950 to 206,850 kilopascals
as the oil is squeezed out from the slots in the barrel, where it
can be recovered.
Soybeans are usually not pressed at all before solvent extraction,
because they have relatively little oil, but most oil seeds with
more oil are pressed and solvent-treated.
After the initial oil has been recovered from the screw press, the
oil cake remaining in the press is processed by solvent extraction
to attain the maximum yield.
A volatile hydrocarbon (most commonly hexane) dissolves the oil
out of the oil cake, which is then recovered by distilling the light
solvent out.
The Blaw-Knox Rotocell is used to meet the demands of the
United States soybean oil industry. In using this machine, flakes
of meal are sent through wedge-shaped cells of a cylindrical
vessel.
The solvent then passes through the matter to be collected at
the bottom.
Also still in use by a significant number of manufacturers is the
Bollman or Hansa-Muhle unit, in which oilseed flakes are placed
in perforated baskets that circulate continuously.
The solvent percolates through the matter which is periodically
dumped and replaced.
 Refining the oil
The oil is next refined to remove color, odor, and bitterness.
Refining consists of heating the oil to between 107 and 188 degrees
Fahrenheit (40 and 85 degrees Celsius) and mixing an alkaline substance
such as sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate with it.
Soap forms from the undesired fatty acids and the alkaline additive, and it
is usually removed by centrifuge. The oil is further washed to remove
traces of soap and then dried.
Oils are also degummed at this time by treating them with water heated
to between 188 and 206 degrees Fahrenheit (85 and 95 degrees Celsius),
steam, or water with acid. The gums, most of which are phosphatides,
precipitate out, and the dregs are removed by centrifuge.
Oil that will be heated (for use in cooking) is then bleached by filtering it
through fuller's earth, activated carbon, or activated clays that absorb
certain pigmented material from the oil. By contrast, oil that will undergo
refrigeration (because it is intended for salad dressing, for example) is
winterized—rapidly chilled and filtered to remove waxes. This procedure
ensures that the oil will not partially solidify in the refrigerator.
Finally, the oil is deodorized. In this process, steam is passed over hot oil
in a vacuum at between 440 and 485 degrees Fahrenheit (225 and 250
degrees Celsius), thus allowing the volatile taste and odor components to
distill from the oil. Typically, citric acid at. 01 percent is also added to oil
after deodorization to inactivate trace metals that might promote
oxidation within the oil and hence shorten its shelf-life.
Packaging the oil
The completely processed oil is then I V measured and poured into clean
containers, usually plastic bottles for domestic oils to be sold in
supermarkets, glass bottles for imports or domestic oils to be sold in
specialty stores, or cans for imports (usually olive oil).
By-products/Waste Management
The most obvious byproduct of the oil making process is oil seed
cake.
Most kinds of seed cake are used to make animal feed and low-
grade fertilizer; others are simply disposed of. In the case of cotton,
the lint on the seed is used to make yarn and cellulose that go into
such products as mattresses, rayon, and lacquer.
Coconut oil generates several byproducts, with various uses:
desiccated coconut meat (copra) is used in the confectionery
industry; coconut milk can be consumed; and coir,  the fiber from
the outer coat, is used to make mats and rope.
Since corn oil is derived from a small portion of the entire kernel, it
creates corn meal and hominy if it is dry milled, and corn starch
and corn syrup if it is wet milled.
Lecithin is a byproduct of the degumming process used in making
soybean oil. This industrially valuable product is used to make
animalfeed, chocolate, cosmetics, soap, paint, and plastics—to
name just a few of its diverse uses.
Recent research has focused on utilizing the residual oil seed cake.
The cake is high in protein and other nutrients, and researchers
are working to develop methods of processing it into a palatable
food that can be distributed in areas where people lack sufficient
protein in their diets.
This goal requires ridding (through additional processing) the oil
seed cake of various undesirable toxins (such as gossypol in cotton
seed, or aflatoxin in peanut meal). Initial results are promising.
Quality Control
The nuts and seeds used to make oil are inspected and graded
after harvest by licensed inspectors in accordance with the United
States Grain Standards Act, and the fat content of the incoming To prevent oxidation of the oil (and therefore its tendency to go
seeds is measured. rancid), the inert (nonreactive) gas nitrogen is used to fill up the
For the best oil, the seeds should not be stored at all, or for a only space remaining at the top of the bottle.
very short time, since storage increases the chance of H. Vegetable Oil Economy
deterioration due to mold, loss of nutrients, and rancidity.
The seeds should be stored in well-ventilated warehouses with a Vegetable oil economy deals with the potential of vegetable oil to replace
constantly maintained low temperature and humidity. fossil fuels in the economy and how it compares to other potential
Pests should be eradicated, and mold growth should be kept to a replacements, including renewable electricity.
minimum. Seeds to be stored must have a low moisture content
(around 10 percent), or they should be dried until it reaches this Availability of biodiesel around the World is increasing. It is estimated that
level (dryer seeds are less likely to encourage the growth of mold). by 2010 the market for biodiesel will be 7.5 billion litres (2 billion
Processed oil should be consistent in all aspects such as color, USgallons) in the U.S and 9.5 billion litres (2.5 billion USgallons) in Europe.
taste, and viscosity. Biodiesel currently has 3% of the diesel market in Germany and is the
Color is tested using the Lovibund Tintometer or a similar method number 1 alternative fuel. The German government has a Biofuels
in which an experienced observer compares an oil's color against Roadmap in which they expect to reach 10% biofuels by 2010 with the
the shading of standard colored glasses. diesel 10% coming from fuel made from vegetable oil.
Experienced tasters also check the flavor of the oil, and its
viscosity is measured using a viscometer.
From 2005 to 2007 a number of types of vegetable oil have doubled in
To use this device, oil is poured into a tube that has a bulb at
price. The rise in vegetable oil prices is largely attributed to biofuel
one end set off by two marks. The oil is then drained, and the time
demand.
required for the bulb to empty is measured and compared to a
chart to determine viscosity. In addition, the oil should be free of
Much of the fuel price at the pump is due to fuel tax. Since vegetable oil
impurities and meet the demands placed upon it for use in
(even as biodiesel) does not contribute to greenhouse gas, governments
cooking.
may tax it much less than gasoline as they have done with ethanol. This
To ensure this, the product is tested under controlled conditions
would help them reach Kyoto protocol targets.
to see at what temperature it begins to smoke (the smoke
point), flash, and catch on fire; warnings are issued appropriately.
To allow its safe use in baking and frying, an oil should have a I. Issues
smoke point of between 402 and 503 degrees Fahrenheit (204 and
260 degrees Celsius). This rising demand is resulting in tropical forest being cleared to establish
The temperature is then lowered to test the oil's cloud point. new palm plantations.
This is ascertained by chilling 120 milliliters of salad oil to a
temperature of 35 degrees Fahrenheit (zero degrees Celsius) for There is growing concern that this will be harmful to the environment in
five and a half hours, during which period acceptable salad oil will several ways:
not cloud.
Before being filled, the bottles that hold the oil are cleaned and
electronically inspected for foreign material.
  Significant greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation, mainly in
tropical areas, account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic
CO2 emissions.
 Habitat destruction of critically endangered species (e.g. the
Sumatran tiger, the Asian rhinoceros, and the Sumatran
Orangutan).
 Extinction of these species.
 Many places that are of interest for growing palm are biodiversity
hotspots, increasing the impact of this development on the
environment. In addition to environmental impact, the logging,
land-clearing and planting of oil palm continues to occur on native
(Dayak) land, despite their frequent objections. This has caused the
degradation of their food, water, forest product sources as well as
destroying their cash crop farms such as fruit and rubber trees in
Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan, Borneo.
Damage to peatland, partly due to palm oil production, is claimed to contribute to
environmental degradation, including four percent of global greenhouse gas
emissions
Eight percent of all global emissions caused annually by burning fossil fuels
NGOs have accused the growth of new palm oil plantations as also being
responsible for peat forest destruction in Indonesia and for accelerating global
warming..
Friends of the Earth have concluded that the increase in demand comes from
biofuel, with producers now looking to use palm as a source.
Environmental groups such as Greenpeace claim that the deforestation caused by
making way for oil palm plantations is far more damaging for the climate than the
benefits gained by switching to biofuel
The world's centres for oil palm production are Indonesia and Malaysia where rapid
deforestation and the drying out of associated peatlands are, Greenpeace claim,
releasing huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and thereby
speeding climate change
Research conducted by Greenpeace through its Forest Defenders Camp in Riau
documents how a major Indonesian palm oil producer is engaging in the large-scale,
illegal destruction of peatland in flagrant violation of an Indonesian presidential
order, as well as national forestry regulations.
Environmentalists and conservationists have been called upon to become palm oil
farmers themselves, so they can use the profits to invest in their cause. It has been
suggested that this is a more productive strategy than the current confrontational
approach that threatens the livelihoods of millions of smallholders.
Many of the major companies in the vegetable oil economy participate in the
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, which is trying to address this problem.
In 2008 Unilever, a member of the group, committed to use only palm oil which is
certified as sustainable, by ensuring that the large companies and smallholders that
supply it convert to sustainable production by 2015.
Greenpalm is a certificate trading programme which aims to tackle the
environmental and social problems created by palm oil production. The purpose of
the programme is to help producers can earn more for their crop through
sustainable farming.
Much of the recent investment in new palm plantations for biofuel has been part-
funded through carbon credit projects through the Clean Development Mechanism
Food vs fuel debate
In some poor countries the rising price of vegetable oil is causing problems.
There are those that say using a food crop for fuel sets up competition
between food in poor countries and fuel in rich countries. Some propose
that fuel only be made from non-edible vegetable oils like jatropha oil.
Others argue that the problem is more fundamental. Farmers can switch
 from producing food crops to producing biofuel crops to make more money,  rural job creation
even if the new crops are not edible. The law of supply and demand predicts
that if less farmers are producing food the price of food will rise. It may take  less of a 'monopolistic' market due to the increased number of
some time, as farmers can take some time to change which things they are producers
growing, but increasing demand for biofuels is likely to result in price
increases for many kinds of food. Some have pointed out that there are  benefits to local economy as a greater part of any profits stay in the
poor farmers and poor countries making more money because of the higher local economy
price of vegetable oil.
 decreased transportation of feedstock and end product
Hazard Summary-Created in April 1992; Revised in January 2000
 Hexane is used to extract edible oils from seeds and vegetables, as a
 consumers close to and able to observe the effects of production
special-use solvent, and as a cleaning agent. Acute (short-term)
inhalation exposure of humans to high levels of hexane causes mild
J. Future of Vegetable oils
central nervous system (CNS) effects, including dizziness, giddiness, slight
Along with straight vegetable oil and biodiesel, some energy technologies
nausea, and headache. Chronic (long-term) exposure to hexane in air is
that could play an important part in the future include :
associated with polyneuropathy in humans, with numbness in the
extremities, muscular weakness, blurred vision, headache, and fatigue
hydrogen economy, methanol fuel, ethanol fuel, synthetic fuel, biofuel
observed. Neurotoxic effects have also been exhibited in rats. No
information is available on the carcinogenic effects of hexane in humans
or animals. EPA has classified hexane as a Group D, not classifiable as to Algae for vegetable oil production
human carcinogenicity. Vegetable oil addresses both the source of primary energy and of energy
Centralised vs. decentralised production storage. The cost and weight to store a given amount of energy as vegetable
oil is low compared to many of the potential replacements for fossil fuels.
There is debate around the best model for fuel production. One side promotes Companies and Organizations
centralised processing of feedstock to vegetable oil fuels citing:

 efficiency
 greater potential for fuel standardisation

 ease of administrating taxes Celebes Agricultural Corporation

 possibility for rapid expansion

The other side of the argument points to:

 increased fuel security

 Sunrise Foods Limited

ASEAN Vegetable Oils Club (AVOC).

MEMBERS :
Minola Refining Corporation
 BICOL OIL MILLS & REFINERY CORP.
Unit 10-D, 10/F, JMT Corporate Condominium,
Ortigas Commercial Center, ADB Ave., Pasig City
Tel: (63-2) 632-0616 / 633-8631
Fax: (63-2) 634-1066
E-Mail: bomar@i-next.net         
Manuel L. Olivan - President
William R. Shotwell - EVP & Gen. Manager
FOSFA INTERNATIONAL

 LU DO & LU YM CORPORATION
Rm. 505, Equitable Bank Bldg., Juan Luna St., Binondo,
1006 Manila
NDU INVESTMENTS LIMITED
Tels: (63-2) 241-5968 / 241-6088
Fax: (63-2) 241-5785
Cosay Oil Mill & Refinery (Legazpi City, Albay) E-Mail: farecorn@yahoo.com
Victor Lu Ym - Vice President
 CAGAYAN DE ORO OIL COMPANY, INC.
BICOL OIL MILLS AND REFINERY CORPORATION 16/F, UCPB Bldg., Makati Ave., Makati City,
1200 Metro Manila
Philippines Coconut Oil Producers Association, Inc. Tels: (63-2) 892-7961 to 69 / 750-2480
Fax: (63-2) 815-3370 / 891-1922
E-Mail: esantos@ciif.ph
Website: www.ciif.ph
 Danilo M. Coronacion - President & CEO
Edgardo D. Santos - VP & Chief Trading Officer
 PHILIPPINE INTERNATIONAL DEV'T, INC
Rm. 407, Bank of P.I. Bldg., Plaza Cervantes,
1006 Manila
Tels: (63-2) 242-0898 / 242-0866 / 242-1178
Fax: (63-2) 242-1149
E-Mail: eyw727@gmail.com
Website: www.web-tri-isys.com/phidco
Efren Y. Wee - President
 CARGILL PHILIPPINES, INC
14/F, Citibank Tower, 8741 Paseo de Roxas,
Makati City, Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 848-0106 / 848-1445 to 48
Fax: (63-2) 815-8809 / 752-1883
E-Mail: efren_barlisan@cargill.com
Website: www.cargill.com
Efren G. Barlisan - Gen. Manager
 INTERNATIONAL OIL FACTORY
666 Muella de Binondo, Manila
Tel: (63-2) 242-0001
Fax: (63-2) 241-7684
20 F. Manalo St., San Juan, Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 726-0921 to 24
Fax: (63-2) 726-5105
Renato O. Gamboa - General Manager
 CO SAY & COMPANY, INC
Unit 2514, Herrera Tower, 98 Herrera cor. Valero Sts.,
Salcedo Village, Makati City,
Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 845-1548 to 50
Fax: (63-2) 845-1547
Victor Co Say - President
 SAMAR COCO PRODUCTS MFG. CORP
Rm. 307-308 Cadar Executive Bldg., 26 Timog Ave.
cor. Scout Tobias St., Quezon City
Tels: (63-2) 723-0395
Fax: (63-2) 416-2724
E-Mail: samarcocoproducts@yahoo.com
Reymund C. Co - Corporate Secretary
 DUMAGUETE COCONUT MILLS, INC
12/F, Suite 1201, Security Bank Centre,
6776 Ayala Ave., 1200 Makati City, Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 752-1556 to 57 / 894-2605
Telefax: (63-2) 894-2591
Fax: (63-2) 751-7027
Reynald C. Uy - President & Gen. Manager
 SAN PABLO MANUFACTURING CORP
16/F, UCPB Bldg., Makati Ave., Makati City, 1200 Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 815-3369 / 818-8188 / 892-7961 to 69
Fax: (63-2) 810-5990 / 892-2148 / 815-3370 / 891-1922
E-Mail: esantos@ciif.com
Website: www.ciif.ph
Jesus Lim Aranza - President & CEO
Edgardo D. Santos - VP & Chief Trading Officer
 GLOBE COCO PRODUCTS MFG. CORP
4/F, STK Tower, 681 Aurora Blvd., New Manila, Quezon City,
1112 Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 723-0381 / 727-9095
Fax: (63-2) 727-9098
E-Mail: primex1@pldtdsl.com / aibeuytan@globecoco.com
Website: www.primecoco.com
Aibe Tan - Corporate Secretary
 SC GLOBAL COCO PRODUCTS, INC.
2601 Jollibee Plaza Bldg., F. Ortigas Jr.
Road Ortigas Center, Pasig City 1605
Tels: (63-2) 635-4020 / 635-4026 / 635-4038 / 914-0645
Fax: (63-2) 635-4007
E-Mail: alicup@scglobal.com.ph / dlicup@scglobal.com.ph
Website: www.ciif.ph
Sergio Licup - President
 GRANEXPORT MANUFACTURING CORP.
16/F, UCPB Bldg., Makati Ave., Makati City,
1200 Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 892-7961-7961 to 69
 Fax: (63-2) 815-3370 / 891-1922 
E-Mail: esantos@ciif.ph
Website: www.ciif.ph
Jesus Lim Arranza- President & CEO
Edgardo D. Santos - VP & Chief Trading Officer
 SOUTHERN LUZON COCONUT OIL MILLS, INC
16/F UCPB Bldg., Makati Ave., Makati City, 1200 Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 750-2480 / 892-7961 to 69
Fax: (63-2) 815-3370 / 891-1922
E-Mail: esantos@ciif.ph
Website: www.ciif.ph
Jesus Lim Aranza - President & CEO
Edgardo D. Santos - VP & Chief Trading Officer

 LEGASPI OIL COMPANY, INC

16/F, UCPB Bldg., Makati Ave., Makati City,
1200 Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 892-7961 to 69
Fax: (63-2) 892-5832 / 893-1956
E-Mail: dcoronacion@ciif.ph
Website: www.ciif.ph
Danilo M. Coronacion - President & CEO
Edgardo D. Santos - VP & Chief Trading Officer
 TANTUCO ENTERPRISES, INC
663 J.P. Rizal St., Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 535-5265 / 531-9071
Fax: (63-2) 532-1722
E-Mail: tantuco@mindgate.net
Edison G. Tantuco - President & Gen. Manager
Kelvin T. Tantuco - Export Manager
 THIRD MILLENNIUM COMMODITY TRADING
Rm. 403, CSP Bldg., Quezon Ave., Quezon City, Metro Manila
Tels: (63-2) 373-1219 / 373-1229
Fax: (63-2) 373-1209
E-Mail: arnoldlimjr@tmomi.com / benjaminuy@tmomi.com
Arnold Lim, Jr. - OIC & Gen. Manager