Chapter 1 Design 11

EXAMPLE 1.1
Figure 1.11a shows the corner of a warehouse building which is
supported on a short brickwork column. The load on the column
is estimated to be as follows:
Load from weight of the building itself = 600 kN
(permanent action)
Load from contents of the warehouse = 450 kN
(variable action)

The column is constructed from Class B engineering bricks with

mortar made from 3 parts sand to 1 part cement.

Determine the required cross-sectional area of the column if the Figure 1.11a
design is based on: A brick column supporting the corner of a
warehouse
(a) Permissible stress principles to CP 111: 1970 (now withdrawn).
(b) Limit state principles to Eurocode 6.

Solution
Comment – Do not worry too much about the details at this stage –
the purpose of this example is to illustrate the different approach to
safety factors.

(a) Permissible stress design

Total load on column = 600 + 450 = 1050 kN
Comment – Class B engineering bricks have a guaranteed minimum
crushing strength of 50 N/mm2 as individual bricks. However, when
built into a brickwork wall the mortar joints produce a considerable reduc-
tion in crushing strength. CP 111 gives the permissible basic stress for
brickwork made with Class B engineering bricks and 3 to 1 mortar as:
Permissible basic stress = 3.3 N/mm2
Comment – This figure already contains a safety factor to take
account of errors in estimating the loads and also possible variations
in material strength. As we shall see in the next chapter: stress =
force/area or area = force/stress.
1050 × 103
Answer Area required = —————– = 318 200 mm2
3.3
(b) Limit state design
Comment –The first stage is to apply load factors (γG and γQ) to the
permanent and variable loads. Limit state design recognises the fact
12 Understanding Structures

that it is easier to predict the permanent load, from the weight of the
structure, than the variable load from the building contents. Therefore
a safety factor of γG = 1.35 is applied to the permanent load and a
higher factor of γQ = 1.5 to the variable load. The factored load is called
the design load.
Design permanent load = 1.35 × 600 = 810 kN
Design variable load = 1.5 × 450 = 675 kN
Total design load = 1485 kN

Comment – The strength given in a limit state code for a particular

material is known as the characteristic strength. It does not contain
a safety factor. We must therefore apply a safety factor, γM, to the mate-
rial strength. Eurocode 6 is more complicated than most standards in
recommending a factor which varies between 2.3 and 3.0 depending
upon the degree of quality control used. We will assume that the highest
standards of quality control are used for both the manufacture of the
bricks and the site construction work – hence γM = 2.3.
2
Assume the characteristic compressive strength = 16.3 N/mm
16.3
Design strength = —— = 7.09 N/mm2
2.3
1485 × 103
Answer Area required = —————– = 209 000 mm2
7.09

Comments – 1. The permissible stress method requires an area of

column 52% greater. If we had not assumed special quality control in
the limit state method and consequently increased the material factor,
γM, to 3.0, then this difference reduces to only 16%.
2. It is clear that the permissible stress approach is simpler and quicker
552.5
552.5 than the limit state approach, but it does not provide as much scope for
logically fitting the design to the prevailing conditions. Some designers
argue that the permissible stress approach should have been retained
for simple jobs.
3. In practice the actual size of the column would be rounded-up to
suit the modular dimensions of bricks. The arrangement of bricks shown
in figure 1.11b has a cross-sectional area of 305 300 mm2. It would
Figure 1.11b therefore be adequate for limit state design, but not quite for permissible
A suitable brick arrangement for limit stress design.
state design
 Chapter 1 Design 13

1.7.3 Accuracy of structural calculations

It is becoming clear that the design of structures requires many
assumptions to be made about the nature of the loads acting on a
structure, the strength of the structural materials used and the
form of the simplified structural model. All of these factors mean
that there is absolutely no point in presenting calculations with
too much precision. Even the simplest scientific calculators give a
minimum of eight figures, and it is the mark of an amateur to copy
them all down in structural calculations. Three, or at most four,
significant figures are generally adequate.
On many occasions a designer needs to round off a calculated
value of a dimension to suit a commonly available size. For
example calculations may indicate that a steel plate needs to be
9.7 mm thick. In this case it would be specified as 10 mm, which
is a standard size that can be obtained ‘off the shelf’. A difficult
decision is sometimes needed if the calculations indicate a thick-
ness of say 10.2 mm. Should a thickness of 10 mm be specified or
the next size up of 12 mm? In general it is prudent to play safe
and round up. In this way, if the calculations are in accordance
with a particular standard, it can be said that the design fully
complies with that standard.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FROM CHAPTER 1

1. For the purposes of this book a structure can be defined as a system for transferring loads from one
place to another.
2. Design is a widely used term that is applied to everything from say the creative conceptual design of a
bridge to the detail design of a bolted connection. ‘Analysis’ is the mathematical part of the design process
that is concerned with the determination of forces, stresses and deflections within a given structure.
3. In general all structural design should comply with national or international standards and should only be
carried out by competent and qualified designers.
4. Permissible or allowable stress design tries to ensure that at no time during the working life of a
structure will the stresses exceed a safe value which is always less than the actual strength of the mate-
rial. This approach has been largely superseded.
5. Current practice uses limit state design which is based on probabilities. To guard against reaching the
ultimate limit state of collapse, individual safety factors are applied to both the loads (i.e. the loads are
multiplied by γG or γQ) and the material strength (i.e. the material strength is divided by γM). In addition
the structures should be checked against the serviceability limit state to ensure that they do not crack
or deform too much.
14 Understanding Structures

EXERCISES
E1.1 Section 1.2 showed examples of natural structures. Bearing in mind that the purpose of a structure is
to transfer loads from one place to another, draw simple sketches of three structures either taken from other
examples in nature and/or from examples in the home such as furniture.

E1.2 Figure 1.3 showed two very different design concepts for a large-span bridge. Sketch two different
concepts for either:
a) A tall tower to support a television transmission mast, or
b) The roof of an Olympic sports stadium.

E1.3 A farmer requires an access bridge over a stream (about 5.5 metres span and 2.5 metres roadway
width). The bridge will be used for farm vehicles and animals. Describe the six stages of design as illustrated
in section 1.5 for a garden swing. Use plenty of simple sketches to illustrate your answer.
a) In stage 1 describe the factors that would be taken into account in siting the bridge. Produce a simple
cross-section, drawn roughly to scale, showing the banks of the stream and the water level.
b) Suggest and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of at least three alternative concepts in stage 2
before selecting one for further development.
c) In stage 3 produce a roughly dimensioned side elevation and cross-section of your chosen concept.
d) In stage 4 try to think of some of the loads that the bridge must be designed to carry.
e) For stage 5 transform your sketch of the bridge into a simple line diagram with either pinned or contin-
uous joints. Ignore further analysis.
f) Finally, for stage 6, show at least three ways in which your bridge could fail.

E1.4 Figure 1.12 shows a balcony structure supported by a tensile

steel rod. The force in the rod is as follows:
Load from self-weight of balcony (permanent load) = 12 kN
Load from people (variable load) = 16 kN
Steel rod
Determine the required cross-sectional area of the rod based on
each of the following two design philosophies:
a) Permissible stress design:
permissible stress for steel in tension = 150 N/mm2
Edge of balcony
b) Limit state design:
characteristic ultimate stress for steel = 275 N/mm2
partial safety factor for material strength, γM = 1.0
partial safety factor for permanent load, γG = 1.35
partial safety factor for variable load, γQ = 1.5
Figure 1.12
Balcony supported by steel rod
a) permissible stress area = 187 mm2
b) limit state area = 146 mm2

Online solutions are available at www.palgrave.com/companion/seward-understanding-structures5

2
Basics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter:
n You will have revised your knowledge of basic statics and be familiar with such terms as force,
moment, equilibrium, stress and strain
n You will be able to carry out simple equilibrium checks and have learned the importance of
using correct units in structural calculations

15
16 Understanding Structures
Figure 2.1
Because of gravity, objects with the same
mass only exert a sixth of the force on
the moon
1N
Figure 2.2
A newton is roughly the force exerted on
earth by an (stationary) apple
2.1 Introduction
For most readers this chapter will be revision of material previ-
ously covered. It can be described as simple statics. This means
that we are only concerned with the mechanics of forces applied
to bodies which are not moving. They are said to be in statical
equilibrium. Although much of this material may be familiar, it
is worth ensuring that you fully understand it because it is funda-
mental to the rest of the book.
2.2 Forces
The loads acting on a structure have mass which is usually meas-
ured in kilograms (kg). For the design of static structures on earth
it would be possible to work in kg throughout – but things are
never that simple! In order to be consistent with physics and
mechanics, we must convert the mass into a force.
The basic unit of force is the newton (N). The force exerted
on a structure by a static load is dependent upon both its mass
and the force of gravity. The mass of a body, measured in
kg, is a fundamental measure of quantity and is related to
the number of atoms of material present. If you consider
the beam shown in figure 2.1, it would have exactly the same
mass on earth as it would have on the moon. The force that it
exerts on the man’s shoulder, however, would be six times
greater on earth than on the moon because of the earth’s greater
gravitational pull. Gravity is measured by the acceleration (g)
that it imparts to a falling body, and on earth can be taken as
9.81 m/s2.
From Newton’s second law of motion:
force = mass × acceleration
and 1 newton = force to accelerate 1 kg at 1 m/s2
Therefore, on earth, the force exerted by a mass of 1 kg is:
force = l × g = 9.81 N
The force exerted by a body as a result of gravity can be described
as its weight.
To develop some feel for the magnitude of a newton, it is easy
to remember that it is roughly the weight of an apple ( figure 2.2).