Abstract
Sr. Lecturer in MIT,
The earth has finite resources in terms of fossil
fuel and a finite capacity for disposal of waste.
Biopolymers may offer a solution to both these
issues in the long-term. In recent years, biopolymers
has attracted much attention in the application in
packaging and controlled drug release.
This review sets out to examine the current trends
in biopolymer science. The different types of
biopolymers that have been studied here include
starch, cellulose, chitin, protein, casein, PLA,
PHA etc. This review also covers the thrust
application areas of biopolymers in packaging and
controlled drug release and explains the different
factors related to biopolymers which affects the
drug delivery systems.
Introduction
Biopolymers have been around for billions
of years longer than synthetic polymers like
Today, biobased polymers are gaining Aastha Santanu Dutta
importance because conventional Aurangabad
resources as well as polymers being Bhupendra Singh
Maze Cards India Pvt. Ltd.
used are proving hazardous to our
environment. In the days to come
more and more stress will be exerted
on such ecofriendly sources so as to
save our environment.
plastics. They are macromolecules of biological
origin.
The input materials for the production of these
polymers may be either renewable (based on
agricultural plant or animal products) or synthetic.
All linear biopolymers have a defined beginning
and end. Biopolymer synthesis is an anabolic
process (requires energy input). All biopolymers
are synthesised in one direction only. Some of
Packaging India  October - November, 2010 27
 the monomer is lost in polymerisation, leaving a
‘residue’ incorporated in the growing chain.
Biopolymers largely affect the drug delivery
l Proteins: It can be divided into proteins
systems. The polymer or matrix defines the release
rate and the target for delivery, which is a very
important aspect of drug delivery. Hydrophobic
Due to their drugs are very difficult to deliver in human body
as the system is hydrophilic. This problem can
biodegradability
be solved by using hyperbranched polymer or
and
dendrimers which are capable of encapsulating
biocompatibility hydrophobic drug and simultaneously soluble with
these biopolyesters hydrophilic system.
may easily
Biopolymers are also important for their application
find industrial in tissue specific delivery systems.
l Casein: It is a milk-derived protein. It is easily
applications.
Classification of Biopolymers
Biobased polymers may be divided into three main
categories based on their origin and production:
Class-I:
Polymers directly extracted/ removed from biomass.
Examples are polysaccharides such as starch,
cellulose and proteins like casein and gluten.
l Gluten: It is the main storage protein in
l Starch: It is the storage polysaccharide of
cereals, legumes and tubers, is a renewable
and widely available raw material suitable for
a variety of industrial uses. Corn is the primary
source of starch, although considerable amount
of starch are produced from potato, wheat
and rice in Europe, Asia and the United
States. Starch is economically competitive
with petroleum and has been used in several
l Soy Proteins: These are commercially
methods for preparing compostable plastics.
l Cellulose: It is the most abundantly occurring
natural polymer on earth and is an almost
linear polymer of anhydroglucose. On account
of its regular structure and array of hydroxyl
groups, it tends to form strong hydrogen bonded
crystalline microfibrils and fibres and is most
familiar in the form of paper or cardboard in
the packaging context. Cellulose is a cheap
raw material, but difficult to use because of its
hydrophilic nature, insolubility and crystalline
structure.
l Chitin: It is a naturally occurring
l Keratin: It is by far the cheapest protein. It
macromolecule present in the exoskeleton
of invertebrates and represents the second
most abundant polysaccharide resource after
cellulose. In general, chitosan has numerous
uses, as flocculants, clarifier, thickener, gas
selective membrane, plant disease resistance
28 Packaging India  October - November, 2010
promoter, wound healing promoting agent and
antimicrobial agent.
from plant origin (e.g. gluten, soy, pea and
potato) and proteins from animal origin (e.g.
casein, whey, collagen and keratin). Protein is
considered to be a random copolymer of amino
acids and the side chains are highly suitable
for chemical modification which is helpful
to the material engineer when tailoring the
required properties of the packaging material.
Due to their excellent gas barrier properties,
materials based on proteins are highly suitable
for packaging purposes.
processable due to its random coil structure.
Upon processing with suitable plasticisers at
temperatures of 80–100°C, materials can be
made with mechanical performance varying
from stiff and brittle to flexible and tough
performance. Casein melts are highly stretchable
making them suitable for film blowing.
wheat and corn. Wheat is an important cereal
crop because of its ability to form viscoelastic
dough. Mechanical treatment of gluten leads
to disulphide bridge formation formed by
the amino acid cysteine which is relatively
abundant in gluten. Processing temperatures
depend on the plasticiser contents, in the range
of 70–100°C.
available as soy flour, soy concentrate and
soy isolate, all differing in protein content.
Soy protein consists of two major protein
fractions referred to as the 7S (conglycinin,
35%) and 11S (glycinin, 52%) fraction.
Both, 7S and 11S contain cysteine residues
leading to disulphide bridge formation and
processing is, therefore, similar to gluten
with similar mechanical properties. The
most successful applications of soy proteins
were the use in adhesives, inks and paper
coatings.
can be extracted from waste streams such as
hair, nails and feathers. Due to its structure
and a high content of cysteine groups, keratin
is also the most difficult protein to process.
After processing, a fully biodegradable, water-
insoluble plastic is obtained.
l Collagen: It is a fibrous structural protein in
animal tissue, particularly in skin, bones and
tissues with a common repeating unit, glycine,
praline and hydroproline. It is a flexible polymer
but due to its complex helical and fibrous
structure, it is very difficult to process4,11.
Class-II:
Polymers produced by classical chemical
synthesis using renewable biobased monomers.
A good example is polylactic acid, a biopolyester
polymerised from lactic acid monomers. The
monomers themselves may be produced via
fermentation of carbohydrate feedstock.
l Polylactic Acid: Lactic acid, the monomer
of polylactic acid (PLA), may easily be
produced by fermentation of carbohydrate
feedstock. The carbohydrate feedstock may
be agricultural products such as maize, wheat
or alternatively may consist of waste products
from agriculture or the food industry, such as
molasses, whey, green juice etc. Recent results
point out that a cost-effective production of
PLA can be based on the use of green juice,
a waste product from the production of animal
feeds. PLA is polyester with a high potential
for packaging applications. The properties of
the PLA material are highly related to the
ratio between the two mesoforms (L or D) of
the lactic acid monomer. Using 100% L-PLA
results in a material with a very high melting
point and high crystallinity. If a mixture of
D- and L- PLA is used instead of just the
The greatest
L-isomer, an amorphous polymer is obtained
with a Tg of 60°C, which will be too low for advantage of
some packaging purposes. these degradable
Class-III polymers is
Polymers produced by microorganisms or that they are
genetically modified bacteria. To date, this broken down
group of biobased polymers consists mainly of into biologically
the polyhydroxyalkonoates, but developments
with bacterial cellulose are in progress. The three
acceptable
molecules that
categories are presented in schematic form in
Table 1. are metabolized
l Po l y - h y d r o x y b u t y r a t e - c o - and removed
hydroxyvalerate (PHBV): It is a from the body via
copolymer of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and normal metabolic
3-hydroxypentanoic acid, in which the monomer pathways.
units are connected by ester linkages. The
properties of PHBV vary according to the
ratio of both the acids, 3-hydroxybutanoic acid

Table: 1 Classification of Biopolymers

Biodegradable Polymers

Biomass Product from From petrochemicals

From micro-organism From Biotechnology Products (Conventional
agro resources (obtained by extraction) Synthesis from synthetic
monomers)

Polyhydroxy Alkanoates Polylactides

Polysacccaride Proteins and Lipids Polycaprolactone
(PHA)
(PCL)

Starch, wheat, Animal, Polyhydroxy Butyrate

Polylactic Acid Polyetheramide
Potatoes Casein, whey (PHB)
(PEA)

Plant: zein,
Agro-Cellulosic Aliphatic Co-Polyester
soya gluten
Product: wood, (e.g. PBSA)
straws

Others Pectins,
chitoson and gum Aromatic Co-polyester
(e.g. PBAT)

Packaging India  October - November, 2010 29

 provides stiffness and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid
imparts flexibility to the copolymer. It is used in
speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and
even in controlled drug release. When a drug
is put into a capsule of PHBV, it is released
only after the polymer is degraded. PHBV
also undergoes bacterial degradation in the
environment.
l Poly (hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs): Out
of these poly (hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is the
most common, are accumulated by a large
number of bacteria as energy and carbon
reserves. Due to their biodegradability and
biocompatibility, these biopolyesters may easily
find industrial applications. The monomer
composition of PHAs depends on the nature
of the carbon source and microorganisms used.
The major PHB is a typical highly crystalline thermoplastic
whereas the medium chain lengths PHAs
advantage of
are elastomers with low melting points and a
biodegradable relatively lower degree of crystallinity. A very
packaging is interesting property of PHAs with respect to
that it can be food packaging applications is their low water
composted but the vapour permeability which is close to that of
LDPE. Recent application developments
biodegradability of
based on medium chain length PHAs range
raw materials does from high solid alkyd-like paints to pressure
not necessarily sensitive adhesives, biodegradable cheese
mean that the coatings and biodegradable rubbers.
product or l Bacterial Cellulose: It is rather unexploited,
package made
but it represents a polymeric material with
from them (e.g. major potential. Bacterial strains of Acetobacter
coated paper) Xylinum and A. Pasteurianus are able to
produce an almost pure form of cellulose
is itself (homo-beta-1, 4-glucan). Its chemical and
compostable. physical structure is identical to the cellulose
formed in plants. Bacterial cellulose is
processed under ambient conditions and the
degree of polymerisation is 15000, 15 times
longer than cellulose from wood pulp. It is
highly crystalline. It is 70% in the form of
cellulose I and the rest is amorphous. This
composition results in outstanding material
properties, a modulus as high as 15–30 GPa
was determined across the plane of the film.
Production costs of bacterial cellulose are high
due to the low efficiency of the bacterial process;
approximately 10% of the glucose used in the
process is incorporated in the cellulose. The
high price of bacterial cellulose hampers its
30 Packaging India  October - November, 2010
applicability in low-added-value bulk products.
The material has been used as an artificial
skin, as a food grade non-digestible fibre, as
an acoustic membrane and as a separation
membrane.
Polymers Versus Biopolymers
A major, but defining difference between polymers
and biopolymers can be found in their structures.
Polymers, including biopolymers, are made of
repetitive units called monomers. Biopolymers
often have a well defined structure, though this
is not a defining characteristic (example: ligno-
cellulose). The exact chemical composition and
the sequence in which these units are arranged
are called the primary structure in the case of
proteins. Many biopolymers spontaneously fold
into characteristic compact shapes as well as
secondary structure and tertiary structure, which
determine their biological functions and depend
in a complicated way on their primary structures.
Structural biology is the study of the structural
properties of biopolymers. In contrast, most
synthetic polymers have much simpler and more
random (or stochastic) structures. This fact leads
to a molecular mass distribution that is missing in
biopolymers. In fact, as their synthesis is controlled
by a template directed process in most vivo systems,
all biopolymers of a type (say one specific protein)
are all alike: they all contain the similar sequences
and number of monomers and thus all have the same
mass. This phenomenon is called monodispersity
in contrast to the polydispersity encountered in
synthetic polymers. As a result, biopolymers have
a polydispersity index of 1.
Advantages of Biopolymers
Besides being available on a sustainable
basis, biopolymers have several economic and
environmental advantages. Biopolymers could also
prove an asset to waste processing. For example,
replacing the polyethylene used in coated papers
by a biopolymer could help eliminate plastic scraps
occurring in compost. Consumers have a lively
interest in biopolymers too. Conventional plastics
are often seen as environmentally unfriendly.
Sustainable plastics could, therefore, provide an
image advantage.
The major advantage of biodegradable packaging
is that it can be composted, but the biodegradability
of raw materials does not necessarily mean that the
product or package made from them (e.g. coated
paper) is itself compostable.
Disadvantages of Biopolymers
A disadvantage of chemical modification of
biopolymer is that the biodegradability of the
polymer may be adversely affected; therefore
it is often necessary to seek a compromise
between the desired material properties and
biodegradability2.
Applications of Biopolymers
Biopolymers find applications in nearly every field
of life. They are being used in agriculture, medical,
automotives, packaging etc. A brief outline of the
various biopolymers and their fields of application
are listed below:
Drug Delivery Systems
Controlled drug delivery occurs when a polymer,
whether natural or synthetic, is judiciously combined
with a drug or other active agent in such a way that
the active agent is released from the material in
a predesigned manner. The release of the active
agent may be constant over a long period, it may
be cyclic over a long period or it may be triggered
by the environment or other external events.
In any case, the purpose behind controlling the
drug delivery is to achieve more effective therapies
while eliminating the potential for both, under
and overdosing. A range of materials have been
employed to control the release of drugs and
other active agents. The earliest of these polymers
were originally intended for other, nonbiological
uses and were selected because of their desirable
physical properties, for example:
l Poly (urethanes) for elasticity.
l Poly (siloxanes) or silicones for insulating
ability.
l Poly (methyl methacrylate) for physical strength
and transparency.
l Poly (vinyl alcohol) for hydrophilicity and
strength.
l Poly (ethylene) for toughness and lack of
swelling.
l Poly (vinyl pyrrolidone) for suspension
capabilities.
To be successfully used in controlled drug delivery
formulations, a material must be chemically inert
and free of leachable impurities. It must also have
an appropriate physical structure, with minimal
undesired aging and be readily processable. Some
of the materials that are currently being used
or studied for controlled drug delivery include,
Poly(2-hydroxy ethyl methacrylate), Poly(N-vinyl
pyrrolidone), Poly(methyl methacrylate), Poly(vinyl
alcohol), Poly(acrylic acid), Poly(acrylamide),
Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate), Poly(ethylene
glycol) and Poly(methacrylic acid).
However, in recent years additional polymers
A major but
designed primarily for medical applications have
entered the arena of controlled release. Many of defining difference
these materials are designed to degrade within the between polymers
body, among them include Polylactides (PLA), and biopolymers
Polyglycolides (PGA), Poly(lactide-co-glycolides)
can be found in
(PLGA), Polyanhydrides and Polyorthoesters.
their structures.
Originally, polylactides and polyglycolides were
Polymers,
used as absorbable suture materials and it was
a natural step to work with these polymers in including
controlled drug delivery systems. biopolymers, are
The greatest advantage of these degradable polymers made of repetitive
is that they are broken down into biologically units called
acceptable molecules that are metabolised and monomers.
removed from the body via normal metabolic
pathways.
Diffusion Mechanism
There are three primary mechanisms by which
active agents
can be released
from a delivery
system: diffusion,
degradation and Time
swelling followed
by diffusion.
Any or all these
mechanisms may
occur in a given Figure 1: Drug delivery from a typical matrix drug delivery
system.
release system.
Diffusion occurs when a drug or other active
agent passes through the polymer that forms the
controlled-release device.
The diffusion can occur on a macroscopic scale
through pores in the polymer matrix or on a
molecular level by passing between polymer
chains.
Examples of diffusion-release systems are shown
in Figures 1 and 2. In Figure 1, a polymer
and active agent have been mixed to form a
homogeneous system, also referred to as a matrix
Packaging India  October - November, 2010 31

Figure 2: Drug delivery from typical reservoir devices: (a) implantable
or oral systems and (b) transdermal systems.
It is also
possible for a drug
delivery system
to be designed in
such a manner
that it is incapable
of releasing its
agent or agents
until it is placed
in an appropriate
biological
environment.
32 Packaging India  October - November, 2010
system. Diffusion
occurs when the
drug passes from
the polymer matrix
into the external
environment.
As the release
continues, its
rate normally
decreases with
this type of
system, since the
active agent has
a progressively longer distance to travel and
therefore requires a longer diffusion time to
release.
For the reservoir systems shown in Figures 2a
and 2b, the drug delivery rate can remain fairly
constant. In this design, a reservoir whether solid
drug, dilute solution or highly concentrated drug
solution within a polymer matrix is surrounded by
a film or membrane of a rate-controlling material.
The only structure effectively limiting the release
of the drug is the polymer layer surrounding the
reservoir.
Since this polymer coating is essentially uniform
and of a nonchanging thickness, the diffusion
rate of the active agent can be kept fairly stable
throughout the lifetime of the delivery system.
The system shown in Figure 2a is representative
of an implantable or oral reservoir delivery system,
whereas the system shown in Figure 2b illustrates
a transdermal drug delivery system, in which only
one side of the device will actually be delivering
the drug.
Once the active agent has been released into
the external environment, for transdermal drug
delivery, the penetration of the drug through
the skin constitutes an additional series of
diffusion and active transport steps, as shown
schematically in
Figure 3.
For the diffusion-
controlled systems
described thus
far, the drug
delivery device
is fundamentally
stable in the
biological
environment and does not change its size either
through swelling or degradation.
In these systems, the combinations of polymer
matrices and bioactive agents chosen must allow
for the drug to diffuse through the pores or
macromolecular structure of the polymer upon
introduction of the delivery system into the biological
environment without inducing any change in the
polymer itself14-15.
Controlled and targeted drug release is one of
the most important areas for research with broad
implications in many areas of medicine and
biopolymers. Biopolymers play an important
role for drug delivery as it can be design as
per their solubility with respect to pH,
temperature and other stimulus. Many drugs
are difficult to control as they must be delivered
over a prolonged period to have a beneficial
effect.
Hydrophobic drugs are very difficult to control
as they are not soluble in water. So, they do not
transport to the different parts of the body and
require more attention towards the drug delivery
system namely,
l Controlled drug release
l Targeted drug delivery
l Hydrophobic drug delivery
l Tissue specific delivery system
Controlled Drug Release
Controlled-release is a perfectly zero-order release,
that is, the drug releases over time irrespective of
concentration.
Stiff gels are an example of reduced diffusion
rates; as a consequence, drugs dissolved within
a gel network tend to be released slowly. Ma Y
et al have studied the drug release behaviour of
DPA-MPC-DPA triblock copolymer gel loaded
with dipyridamole which can be tuned by changing
either the copolymer concentration or the solution
pH[1].
Targeted Drug Delivery
Hydrophobic Drug Delivery
Hydrophobic drugs are very difficult to control as
they are not soluble in water. Due to this they are
not transported to different parts of the body and
thus require more attention.
To overcome this problem, the drugs are hidden
within the larger host biopolymer matrix, which
is soluble in water or has stimulus responsive
behaviour. Such type of drugs can be a host within
the hyperbranched polymers or in dendrimers,
a variety of small hydrophobic molecules, such
as drugs, within their hydrophobic interior.
Flow microcalorimetry analysis (using an
antifungal agent/dendrimer complex) against
a suspension of Saccharomycees sp have
further demonstrated that the drug is released
upon contact between the dendrimer and the
biological cell.
Tissue Specific Delivery System
Synthetic water-soluble polymeric delivery
systems have been developed to allow selective
delivery of therapeutic and imaging agents to
musculoskeletal tissues. For mineralised tissues,
bone-targeting agents such as aspartic acid
octapeptide could concentrate the polymer
conjugates to bone surfaces including resorption
sites, which was demonstrated with routine bone
histomorphometry2.
Environmentally Responsive Systems
It is also possible for a drug delivery system to be
designed in such a manner that it is incapable of
releasing its agent or agents until it is placed in an
appropriate biological environment.
Swelling-controlled release systems are
initially dry and when placed in the body, will
absorb water or other body fluids and swell.
The swelling increases the aqueous solvent
content within the formulation as well as the
polymer mesh size, enabling the drug to diffuse
through the swollen network into the external
environment. Examples of these types of devices
are shown in Figure 4 (a and b) for reservoir
and matrix systems, respectively. Most of the
Figure 4: Drug Delivery from a) Matrix b) Swelling –controlled
release systems.
materials used in swelling-controlled release
systems are based on hydrogels, which are
polymers that will swell without dissolving
when placed in water or other biological fluids.
These hydrogels can absorb a great deal of
fluid and at equilibrium, typically comprise
60–90% fluid and only 10–30% polymer.
The polymer swelling can be triggered by a
change in the environment surrounding the
delivery system. Depending upon the polymer,
the environmental change can involve pH,
temperature or ionic strength and the system
can either shrink or swell upon a change in any
of these environmental factors.
Such materials are ideal for systems such as oral
delivery, in which the drug is not released at low
pH values in the stomach, but rather at high pH
values in the upper small intestine.
Biodegradable Systems
Most biodegradable polymers are designed
to degrade as a result of hydrolysis of the
polymer chains into biologically acceptable and
progressively smaller compounds for example,
polylactides and polyglycolides. Degradation
may take place through bulk hydrolysis, in which
Controlled
the polymer degrades in a fairly uniform manner
and Targeted
throughout the matrix. For some degradable
polymers, most notably the polyanhydrides and drug release is
polyorthoesters, the degradation occurs only at one of the most
the surface of the polymer, resulting in a release
important areas
rate that is proportional to the surface area of
the drug delivery system. The most common for research with
formulation for these biodegradable materials broad implications
is that of microparticles, which have been in many areas
used in oral delivery systems and even more of medicine and
often, in subcutaneously injected delivery
biopolymers.
systems.
Biopolymers in Packaging
Three main biopolymers constitute less than
90% of the biopolymer market of packaging
(2008). Starch/ starch blends, PLA, cellulose
starch based biopolymers dominate the market
(75-80%) because they are economical and
competitive to petrochemical materials. The
properties of starch that make it preferable
in this market are hydrophilic, brittle,
relatively easy to process and vulnerable to
degradation.
The other polymer PLA is also dominating
Packaging India  October - November, 2010 33
 the packaging field because it has high l Synthetic polymers such as PLA, PGA, PLGA,
transparency, high gloss and low haze, low PCL, Polyorthoesters, Poly (dioxanone), Poly
heat deflection temperature (HDT) and high (anhydrides), Poly (trimethylene carbonate)
heat seal strength (good performance in film and Polyphosphazenes.
sealing).
Containers The medical applications of biopolymers can be
Cellulose, on other hand, is hydrophilic/ water summarised as:
such as vapour sensitive film. It has good mechanical
biodegradable properties (in dry state), not thermoplastic
l Wound management such as sutures, staples,
clips, adhesives and surgical meshes.
plant pots and or sealable and also has good oxygen barrier (in
disposable dry state). l Orthopaedic devices such as pins, rods, screws,
tacks, ligaments etc.
composting A graphical comparison of OTR and WVTR
containers and properties of polymers and biopolymers is given l Dental applications guided tissue regeneration
in figure 5. membrane, void filler following tooth
bags are made of
Biopolymers in Medical Field extraction.
biopolymers.
Biodegradable polymers generally being used for l Cardiovascular applications stents.
medical applications include: l Intestinal applications anastomosis rings.
l Natural polymers such a Fibrin, Collagen, l Drug delivery system.
Chitosan, Gelatin and Hyaluronan.
l Tissue engineering.
EVOH
Chitosan/glycerol
Biopolymers in Agriculture Field
PVDC Agricultural applications for biopolymers are
PARAGON not limited to film covers. Containers such
Amylopectin/glycerol (10:4) as biodegradable plant pots and disposable
Whey/glycerol composting containers and bags are made of
Amylose/glycerol (10:4) biopolymers. Fertilizer and chemical storage
PA6 bags which are biodegradable are also
Wheat gluten/glycerol made of biopolymers. Young plants which
PHA are particularly susceptible to frost may be
PLA covered with a thin Ecoflex film. At the
Ecoflex end of the growing season, this film can
LDPE be worked back into the soil, where it will
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 be broken down by the appropriate micro
Log OTR (cm µm/m d bar)
3 2
organisms.
Therefore, plastic films that begin to degrade
Log WVT (g/m2/d)
in average soil conditions after approximately
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -0
one month are ideal candidates as crop
PVDC mulches1.
LDPE
PHA
PLA
PA6
Tendon
Ecoflex
Ricestarch/PE blend (20/80)
Wheat gluten/glycerol Nucleus of
fibroblast
Whey/glycerol
Chitosan/glycerol Collagen
fibres
PARAGON
EVOH

34 Packaging India  October - November, 2010

Nan Biomaterials
Collagens
They are natural biopolymers and make up
~25% of total protein mass in mammals.
Collagen comprises of 25 isoforms and exist in
large quantity in extracellular matrix of skin, bone,
tendon, cartilage and other connective tissues for
support and protection. Collagen fibres withstand
high pulling forces. Elastic modulus is ~1 GPa. It
takes 10 kg to rupture a fibre of 1 mm.
Elastins
Elastic fibres permit long-range deformability and
passive recoil. Elastic modulus is ~0.1 MPa.
Their functioning is crucial for arteries, lung, skin
and other dynamic connective tissues that undergo
cycles of extension and recoil.
The major component of elastic fibres is the thread-
like protein elastin. Fibrillins provide an outer
structure for amorphous, cross-linked elastin.
During ageing, elastin is degraded and becomes
inflexible.
Proteoglycans
They are a diverse group of proteins with multiple
polysaccharide chains and found in connective
tissues and extracellular matrix. They are also
attached to the surface of many cells and constitute
a major portion of extracellular matrix. They are
highly hydrated.
Alginic acid
Alginic acid, also called algin or alginate, is
an anionic polysaccharide distributed widely in
the cell walls of brown algae, where it, through
binding water, forms a viscous gum. In extracted
form, it absorbs water quickly; it is capable of
absorbing 200-300 times its own weight in water.
Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown.
It is sold in filamentous, granular or powdered
form. Its molecular formula is (C6H8O6)n and its
density is 1.601 g/cm3. It is used as an additive
in dehydrated products such as slimming aids
and in the manufacture of paper and textiles
as well as in waterproofing and fireproofing
fabrics, as a gelling agent, for thickening drinks,
ice cream and cosmetics and as a detoxifier that
can absorb poisonous metals from the blood.
It is used extensively as an impression-making
material in dentistry, prosthetics, life casting and
occasionally for creating positives for small-scale
casting5.
Conclusion
Today, biobased polymers are gaining importance
because conventional resources. In the days to
come, more and more stress will be exerted
on such ecofriendly sources so as to save our
environment.
References
1. Biodegradable Polymers: Past, Present and Future
M. Kolybaba, L.G. Tabil, S. Panigrahi, W.J. Crerar,
T. Powel, B. Wang, Department of Agricultural and
Bioresource Engineering University of Saskatchewan,
57Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, CANADA S7N
5A9.
2. Biodegradable Plastics: Amanda Libbie Kelebit
Technology Park Malaysia College.
3. Innovating Packaging Solutions for Fresh Fish: Marit
Kvalvåg Pettersen, Anlaug Ådland Hansen, Nofima
Food, Matforsk, Norway.
4. Biobased packaging materials for the food industry : Types
of Biobased Packaging Materials : Dr. Semih Ötles –
Serkan Ötles.
5. Extracellular Matrix: 01/07, Boris Hinz, PhD.
6. Molecules of Life: Biopolymers, Dr. Dale Hancock,D.
Hancock@mmb.usyd.edu.au.
7. Rebirth of Bio-based Polymer Development : Dr. Shelby
F. Thames The University of Southern Mississippi.
8. Green Chemistry Education, Application and Latest
Development : Michael H. W. Lam Department of
Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong
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