Radio & TV Journalism-Ii: Notes ON

RADIO & TV JOURNALISM-II BY “TEAM AAMA PRAYAS”
NOTES
ON
RADIO & TV JOURNALISM-II
For
4TH SEM
JOURNALISM & MASS
COMMUNICATION
OF
RAVENSHAW UNIVERSITY
Developed By:
“TEAM AAMA PRAYAS”
EDITED BY:
GANESWAR PRUSTY
COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
BIJU PATTNAIK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
ODISHA
0
TABLE OF CONTENT
PAGE NO.
RADIO STATION 2
FUNCTIONARIES OF A RADIO STATION 5
RADIO BROADCASTING SYSTEM IN INDIA 6
MICROPHONES 8
FORMATS OF RADIO PROGRAMMES 10
TYPES OF RADIO FORMATS 11
RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION 17
ELEMENTS OF RADIO PRODUCTION 19
RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION 22
WRITING FOR RADIO 23
NEWS PRESENTER OR NEWS READER 26
RADIO JOCKEY 28
COLD OPEN OR TEASER 29
PROMO IN TV PROGRAM 33
MONTAGE (FILMMAKING) 34
ELECTRONIC NEWS-GATHERING(ENG) 38
OUTSIDE BROADCASTS 41
SINGLE-CAMERA SETUP 44
MULTIPLE-CAMERA SETUP 47
DISSOLVE(FILMMAKING) 50
DIGITAL EFFECTS (STUDIO) 51
SOUND MIXING OR AUDIO MIXING 52
POST-PRODUCTION 54
MUSIC FOR RADIO 56
STRUCTURING TV COMMERCIAL 69
1
RADIO STATION
In a radio station, there are basically three different wings. They are (i)
Programme Wing (ii) Engineering Wing and (iii) Administration Wing. While
the first two wings are responsible for running a radio station’s broadcasts,
the administrative wing provides all the support that is required for the
functioning of the station.
Let us learn about the working of a radio station.
Radio studio
The moment one mentions the words ‘radio studio’ you may think of good
sound. You may also think of the photo studio with which most of you are
familiar or a film studio, which you imagine to be a special area for
shooting. A photo studio is a room which is made exclusively for taking
pictures. It has certain conditions suitable for taking photographs. The
room generally is dark; has plenty of artificial lights, which are powerful. It
is suitable for the purpose of taking photographs. There may be curtains
and pictures or scenery as background. If you want to take a photograph
for a passport or for any formal purpose, you go to a photo studio. In a
studio, the visual scenery is appropriate.
But how does a radio studio look like? Let us see. There is a table and a
microphone. The room has just one door, which is not very easy to open,
as it is very heavy. Before one enters this room, there is a small enclosed
place, which has another heavy door. This empty space is called a sound
lock, which prevents unnecessary outside sounds from entering the studio.
Note that we have used the term ‘unnecessary outside sounds’. Suppose
we record sound in an ordinary classroom, office room or in a drawing
room. What would be the result? You would hear the traffic noise from
outside or the sounds of the old fans on the ceiling. You would also hear
birds chirping or dogs barking. Suppose you tune into your favourite radio
programme and you listen to all that noise. That will be terrible.
You would expect what you listen to on radio to be clear.
A studio is so designed without any interference to ensure that outside
noises are not recorded and you hear the voice of the speakers clearly. For
this, besides the sound lock and heavy doors, you will find the ceiling and
walls with perforated woollen panels. Of course the studio is nice and cool
with proper air-conditioning.
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Fig. 10.1: Radio studio

There will at least be two studios in a station. You have just learnt about
one of them. Now you will learn about the second one. This may be smaller
in size with the same type of doors, walls and ceilings. Here you will find
the announcer or the anchor person sitting on a revolving chair with a
microphone in front of the table. There will be a computer, CD players,
tape decks and a mixer .This is the actual broadcast studio from where
presenters make announcements. This may be called an announcer’s
booth or a transmission studio.
Control Room (CR)
Now let us move to the main technical area of the radio station which is
often called a control room. Whatever is spoken in the studio or played
from a CD player or computer is sent to this control room. All the
programmes are sent from here to the transmitter.
• The control room occupies an important place in the radio broadcast. It is
the place, connected with all the other segments of broadcast.
• Whatever the speaker/announcer speaks from the studio, it reaches the
control room. From here they are sent to the transmitter for its onward
transmission to the listeners. A lot of changes take place when one speaks
through a microphone. You may have noticed that your voice sounds
different when it is recorded.
• In the control room, technical people control the whole process and
immediately send these waves to the transmitter.
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• The transmitter sends these sound waves to the listeners’ radio sets
which convert them into sounds. There is no time gap in the whole
process.
Studio …..Control Room (CR) …………..Transmitter (XTR) …………….Listener
• Transmitters are generally located outside the city boundaries.
• The transmitters are of different capacities such as 1 KW to 100 KW, 200
KW or 250 KW or above.
• Their locations are decided according to their capacity.
• A 1 KW transmitter is normally installed in the vicinity of the
studio/control room whereas the high power transmitters are installed
outside the city.
Transmitter
You have learnt about the studio and the control room. It is essential to
know about the transmitter also.
– A transmitter is the equipment through which we receive the radio
broadcast on our sets.
– This is big equipment in comparison to other equipment installed in the
studio or control room.
– The strength and type of the transmitter determines the coverage area of
broadcast.
– There are two types of transmitters.
 Low Power Transmitter (LPT) and
 High Power Transmitter (HPT)
– Likewise, there are:
 Medium Wave (MW) radio broadcast transmitters and
 Short Wave (SW) radio broadcast transmitters
Fig. 10.2: Transmitter
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FUNCTIONARIES OF A RADIO STATION

Station Director
The Station Director is in charge of the radio station and also the head of
the programme wing. In some stations they are called managers.
Station Engineer
The Station Engineer heads the engineering wing and is responsible for all
the technical work at the radio station.
In addition there is a group of technicians and engineers, working quietly
behind the scene. They operate and maintain broadcast equipment and
oversee the control room. They are responsible for the technical quality of
the broadcasts.
Programme personnel
These are persons who are engaged in planning, production , preparation
and presentation of radio programmes. They are known as progamme
executives or producers. They are part of the pogramme broadcast
process.
Transmission staff
Persons who are responsible for a smooth and trouble free transmission
process are known as transmission executives.
Radio Announcer
The radio announcer presents the programmes and is responsible for
making them interesting. The announcer has to convey feelings through his
voice only. If the announcer is dull, his description will also be dull.
DID YOU KNOW ?
There was a time when listeners used to wait for the familiar voice
presenting the ‘Binaca Geet mala programme of film songs on radio. The
voice was that of Amin Sayani.
Artists
In addition to the above staff, there are also music artists such as vocalists
and instrumentalists who form part of the programme staff. They are all
eminent performers in their own fields and graded according to their
experience.
5
RADIO BROADCASTING SYSTEM IN INDIA

Even before we discuss about the radio broadcasting system in India, you
must know about All India Radio commonly referred to as AIR , which is the
main radio broadcaster of India.
Officially known as Akashwani, AIR is a division of Prasar Bharati or the
Broadcasting Corporation of India, an autonomous corporation of the
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting , Government of India.
Fig. 10.3
DID YOU KNOW?

AIR is the one of the largest radio networks in the world.
The headquarters of AIR is at Akashwani Bhawan, New Delhi.
AIR has different services each catering to different regions/ languages
across India.
One of the most famous services is Vividh Bharati (All India Variety
Programme) which offers programmes such as news, film music, comedy
shows etc. in several cities of India.
Now, let us find out how AIR operates.
AIR has a three-tier system of broadcasting, namely, national,regional and
local. The National channel of All India Radio started functioning on May
18, 1988. It caters to the information, education and entertainment needs
of the people, through its transmitters at Nagpur, Mogra and Delhi
beaming from dusk to dawn. It transmits centrally originated news
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bulletins in Hindi and English, plays, sports, music, newsreel, spoken word
and other topical programmes, to nearly 76% of the country’s population
fully reflecting the broad spectrum of national life. The languages of
broadcast are Hindi, English and Urdu apart from some music from other
Indian languages.
The Regional Stations in different States form the middle tier of
broadcasting.
This also includes the North-eastern service at Shillong which disseminates
the vibrant and radiant cultural heritage of the north-eastern region of the
country.
Local Radio is comparatively a new concept of broadcasting in India.
Each of these local radio stations serving a small area provides utility
services and reaches right into the heart of the community, What
distinguishes local radio from the regional network is its down to earth,
intimate and uninhibited approach.
The programmes of the local radio are area specific.
They are flexible and spontaneous enough to enable the station to function
as the mouth piece of the local community.
FM Channels
What do you understand by FM?
FM stands for Frequency Modulation which is a broadcasting technology
or method in radio.
You may have all listened to one or more FM channels.
The FM service of AIR has two channels .

FM Rainbow and FM Gold.
There are 12 FM Rainbow channels and 4 FM Gold Channels.
The programme content of these channels is mainly popular Indian and
Western music, presented in a style which is highly popular with the urban
youth.
News bulletins and current affairs programmes are also broadcast from
these channels.
There are also other AIR stations on the F.M. mode. There are several
private FM channels which can be heard all over the country.
Let us learn about them.
Private radio stations ( FM channels)
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Radio Mirchi, Radio Mango, Big FM, Times FM ……The list is becoming
longer.
You must have heard about one or more of them. But have you wondered
what they are ?
These are private or commercial radio stations which have been given a
license to broadcast programmes on radio.
Most of them cater to the younger generation by providing a mix of music
and fun.
Community Radio is a type of radio service that caters to the interests of a

limited area or a community which is homogenous.
It broadcasts programmes that are popular and relevant to the local
audience.
A community radio license is required to operate a community radio
station.
These stations are expected to produce programmes as far as possible in
the local language or dialect.
Although the stress is on developmental programmes, entertainment is not
banned on these radio stations.
Anna FM is India’s first campus community radio operating from Anna
University in Chennai, Tamilnadu. This was launched on 1 February 2004.
MICROPHONES:
Microphones: For our voice to be recorded in a studio, we use a
microphone. You might have used or at least seen microphones. They
amplify or in other words ,increase the volume of your voice. When you
speak before a microphone, you don’t have to shout. You speak normally
and it will be made louder if you use a loudspeaker to listen to. When we
think of radio, the microphone is the most important element using which
you present your programme.
There are basically three types of microphones and they are known by
their directivity. As you go through the following text, you will understand
the term ‘directivity’.
(a) Uni-directional microphone : As the name suggests, this microphone
picks up sound from one direction. As you speak in front of it, your voice is
picked up. If you speak from the other side of the microphone, your voice
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will not be picked up properly. In a radio studio, the announcers,

presenters and newsreaders use this type of a microphone.
A microphone is very sensitive and you need to use it carefully. You should
be at the right distance from it when you speak. Otherwise, your voice will
not sound good. Even if you turn a paper or breathe heavily, the
microphone will pick up that sound and your programme or your voice will
be affected.
(b) Bi-directional microphone:- Here again as the name (bi) suggests, the
voice or sound is picked up from two directions. If you are recording an
interviewin a radio studio, you may use this type of a microphone.
(c) Omni-directional microphone: You may be familiar with the word omni.
We say god is omnipresent, which means ‘present everywhere’. In the case
of an omni-directional microphone, it picks up sound from all directions.
This type of microphone is used when a number of voices are used in a
single programme like a radio discussion or a radio drama.
There are many other types of microphones which come in different sizes
and lengths. If you watch television programmes, you may find a small
microphone clipped on the collar. This is called a lapel microphone which is
actually a uni-directional microphone. These microphones are not normally
used in radio.
Then there are long microphones called gun microphones used in sports
production. These microphones are often omni directional ones. There are
also cordless microphones. You might have seen them being used in stage
shows. They do not have any cables or wires attached to them. They have a
small transmitter in them which can send the sounds to an amplifier.
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FORMATS OF RADIO PROGRAMMES

FACTORS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT FOR
MAKING A RADIO PROGRAMME
Think of the village or town in which you live. You find people belonging to
all communities men and women, rich and poor. Radio plays a very
important role in the lives of the people of India. Though there are plenty
of rich people and highly developed cities, a majority of our people are
poor and a large number of them cannot read or write. So the only
medium that can really reach them to inform, educate and entertain is the
radio. Radio stations especially those run by the government perform a
public service duty.
The requirements of listeners of radio stations are not the same. To serve
them, we need to know many facts about them. Let us make a list of what
we should know about the audience:
(a) Number of people — i.e. the total population of the area.
(b) Number of men and women — Sex ratio
(c) Literate people/Illiterate people
(d) The languages spoken in the area.
(e) Schools/Colleges
(f) Children going to school
(g) Health facilities — availability of doctors, primary health centre, clinics,
hospitals.
(h) Any major diseases
(i) Religions in the area-population wise
(j) Power supply
(k) Nearest radio stations/Television stations
(l) Climate of the place
(m) Main occupation of the people
(n) Income per head/people below poverty line
(o) Roads/transport facilities
(p) Irrigation facilities
(q) Number of people engaged in agriculture/other occupations.
(r) Types of crops.
You can add many more issues to this list. We need to know these facts to
decide the language, the type of broadcast, timing of programmes etc.
Radio formats therefore are decided on the basis of the needs of the
audience.
10
TYPES OF RADIO FORMATS

Do you remember the programmes you have heard on radio. Try and recall
some of them. You may have heard the names of radio stations, from
where the programmes are broadcast. Many of you would remember
Vividh Bharati, AIR FM Gold or some private commercial station.You may
also remember the time being mentioned and what programme you are
going to listen to. These are called announcements. Announcements have
been traditionally made by people who are known as announcers. The
commercial radio channels may call them Radio Jockeys (RJs) or anchor
persons. Before you learn about the different radio formats, you must
know the ingredients of a radio format.
As you know most of what is spoken on radio is written down. As you have
already learnt that what is written for radio is heard and is referred to as
‘spoken word’ as against the ‘written word’. But the spoken words on radio
is written down or what is generally called ‘scripted’. A Radio format can be
split into three parts: They are:-
(a) Spoken Word or Human Voice
(b) Music
(c) Sound Effects
All radio formats have the above three ingredients. So let us first classify
the spoken word format.
SPOKEN WORD
1. Announcements : These are specifically written clear messages to
inform. They can be of different types. For example station/programme
identification. These mention the station you are tuned into, the
frequency, the time and the programme/song you are going to listen to. As
mentioned already you find in today’s commercial radio channels, these
announcements have become informal and resemble ordinary
conversation. There can be more than one presenter in some programmes
like magazines.
2. Radio talk : The radio talk probably is the oldest format on radio. There
has been a tradition in India and Britain to invite experts or prominent
persons to speak for 10 or 15 minutes on a specific topic. These talks have
to go through a process of being changed into radio’s spoken word style.
Over the years, these long radio talks have become unpopular. Instead,
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today, shorter duration talks are broadcast. Of course, you can listen to
these talks only on public service broadcasting stations.
3. Radio interviews: Have you ever interviewed anyone? Probably yes. In
the media, be it the newspaper, magazine, radio or television, journalists
use this technique of asking questions to get information. There can be
different types of interviews in terms of their duration, content and
purpose.
Firstly, there are full fledged interview programmes. The duration of these
may vary from 10 minutes to 30 minutes or even 60 minutes depending up
on the topic, and the person being interviewed. Most of such interviews
are personality based. You might have heard of long interviews with well
known people in the field of public life, literature, science, sports, films etc.
Secondly, there are interviews which are used in various radio programmes
like documentaries. Here the interviews are short, questions specific and
not many. The purpose is to get a very brief, to the point answer.
Thirdly there are a lot of interviews or interview based programmes in
news and current affairs programmes. Have you heard such interviews on
radio? With phone-in-programmes becoming popular, you might have
heard live interviews with listeners. These interviews have been made
interactive.
There is another type of interview based programme. Here generally just
one or two questions are put across to ordinary people or people with
knowledge on some current topic to measure public opinion. For example
when the general budget or the railway budget is presented in the
parliament, people representing radio go out and ask the general public
about their opinion. Their names and identity may not be asked. Such
programmes are called ‘vox pop’ which is a Latin phrase meaning‘ voice of
people’.
You have to be very inquisitive and hard working to be a radio interviewer
with good general awareness and communication skills.
4. Radio discussions :- When you have a problem in your family or with
your friends, don’t you say “let us discuss?” Yes we do. Through a
discussion we can find out a solution to problems. In any discussion there
are more than 2 or 3 people and then ideas can be pooled to come to some
conclusion. In radio, this technique is used to let people have different
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points of view on matters of public concern. Radio discussions are

produced when there are social or economic issues which may be
controversial. So when different experts meet and discuss such issues,
people understand various points of view. Generally, these discussions on
radio are of longer duration-say 15 to 30 minutes. Two or three people
who are known for their views and a well informed senior person or
journalist who acts as a moderator take part and discuss a particular topic
for about 30 minutes. The moderator conducts the discussion, introduces
the topic and the participants and ensures that every one gets enough time
to speak and all issues are discussed.
5. Radio documentaries/features: If you see a film in a movie hall, it is
generally a feature film, which is story based and not real. But there are
also documentary films which are based on real people and issues. A lot of
programmes you see on television are educational and public service
documentaries. Radio also has this format. Unlike documentary films, radio
documentaries have only sound – i.e. the human voice, music and sound
effects. So a radio documentary is a programme based on real sounds and
real people and their views and experiences. Radio documentaries are
based on facts presented in an attractive manner or dramatically. Radio
documentaries are radio’s own creative format.
The producer of a documentary needs to be very creative to use human
voice, script, music and sound effects very effectively. Radio documentaries
are also called radio features.
6. Radio drama: A Radio drama or a radio play is like any other play staged
in a theatre or a hall. The only difference is that while a stage play has
actors, stage, sets, curtains, properties movement and live action, a radio
play has only 3 components. They are the human voice, music and sound
effects. Radio of course uses its greatest strength for producing radio plays
and that is the power of imagination and suggestivity. For example, if you
want to have a scene in a radio play of a north Indian marriage, you don’t
have all physical arrangements made. All that you have to do is to use a
bright tune on the shehnai and excited voices of people to create in a
listeners’ imagination, a wedding scene. The voice of the actors, music and
sound effects can create any situation in a radio play.
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7. Running commentaries : If you can’t go to see a football or cricket

match in a stadium, you may watch it on television. But for that you have
to be at home or at some place where there is a television. But if you are
travelling or outside, then you may listen to radio for a running
commentary of the match.
A commentator would give you all the details of the match such as the
number of players, the score, position of the players in the field etc. So by
listening to the running commentary, you get a feeling of being in the
stadium and watching the match. The commentator needs good
communication skills, a good voice and knowledge about what is going on.
Running commentaries on radio can be on various sports events or on
ceremonial occasions like the Republic Day Parade or events like festivals,
melas, rath yatras, swearing in ceremony of ministers, last journey (funeral
procession) of national leaders etc. Today radio running commentaries
especially of cricket and other sports can be heard on your mobile phones.
8. Magazine programmes : You are familiar with magazines which are a
form of print media. They are published weekly, bi-weekly, fortnightly or
monthly. There are general magazines and magazines for specific readers.
These magazines could be for children, women, youth or on health, sports,
science or music. If you open any one of these magazines, you will find
articles, reviews, features, photo features etc. Radio also has magazine
programmes like those in the print media.
A radio magazine is broadcast at a particular time on a particular day of a
week or a month. That means it has periodicity. Similarly it has plenty of
variety in contents. Some or many formats of radio are included in a radio
magazine. These may be talks, discussions, interviews, reviews, music etc.
Likewise, the duration of each programme or item in a magazine
programme also vary. Another characteristic of a radio magazine is that it
has a signature tune. A signature tune is an attractive piece of music which
is specific to a programme. It can be like the masthead (title) of a
magazine. A magazine programme also has a name and one or two
presenters or anchor persons who link the whole programme. In the
beginning, the titles of the day’s programme will be given by the
presenters after the signature tune. They also give continuity and link the
whole magazine.
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Magazine programmes are generally broadcast for a special or specific

audience. As the name suggests, a specific audience refers to listeners with
specific needs as mentioned in the beginning.
9. NEWS: Among all the spoken word formats on radio, news is the most
popular. News bulletins and news programmes are broadcast every hour
by radio stations. In India, only All India Radio is allowed to broadcast
news. Duration of news bulletins vary from 5 minute to 30 minutes. The
longer news bulletins have interviews, features, reviews and comments
from experts.
MUSIC : When we say radio, the first thing that comes to our mind is
music. So music is the main stay in radio. There is no radio without music.
Music is used in different ways on radio. There are programmes of music
and music is also used in different programmes. These include signature
tunes, music used as effects in radio plays and features. India has a great
heritage of music and radio in India reflects that. Let us understand the
different types of music.
Classical Music
There are 3 types of classical music in India. They are:-
 Hindustani classical
 Carnatic classical
 Western classical
There are also vocal and instrumental music forms. There are also light
classical music forms like, Thumri and Dadra. Insturmental music forms
include string (sitar, sarod etc.) wind (like flutes, shehnai) and percussion
(drum) instruments.You might have heard such music on radio.
You may know of a large variety of devotional and folk music in your area
and across the country. Which are broadcast on radio.
But which is the most popular form of music? You would most probably say
‘film music.’ While there are film songs in different languages, the one with
a national appeal and popularity is Hindi film songs. On most radio stations,
be it public service or commercial, Hindi films songs are heard every where.
Light western and pop music are also popular among some groups of
listeners and there is a large section of young people listening to western
pop music.
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SOUND EFFECTS
Let us see how sound can be used in radio formats.
 Sound can play a major role in evoking interest.
 Sound can be used for comic effects to evoke laughter
 Sound can be used to create certain moods or enhance them.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY BASED FORMATS
India has taken giant leaps in the field of information technology and radio
as a medium, has taken a lead in applying information technology in its
broadcasts. Let us discuss some of these formats:
1. Phone in programme – In this age of technological development, phone-
in is the most important format. This is called interactive programming
where the listener and the presenter talk to each other. Their talk goes on
air instantly. The listener has the satisfaction that his voice is being listened
to and replied immediately. Other listeners also listen to him. Such
presentations need advance publicity so that the listeners get ready to air
their grievances/queries or requests. They dial up the announced
telephone number at a stipulated time and get their problems discussed
with experts in the studio. Initially this format was introduced for playing
the listeners’ request based film songs. Now it is being used for health
related programmes, rural broadcasts, complaints against the government
administrative machinery etc.
Fig. 11.1: Phone-in programme

2. Radio bridge : Radio bridge means connecting different stations
throughout the length and breadth of the country. In this technique, for
example, an expert sitting at Chennai can interact with the common man in
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the studio in Delhi. This format was first used by All India Radio during
elections.
3. Radio on internet : Radio on internet is a growing phenomenon with
thousands of radio stations operating through computer modems. It is
altogether a new format that removes the restrictions of frequency or
license. It is relatively cheap to set up. It has certain advantages as well as
disadvantages. Now all the national and international radio stations like
BBC, Voice of America, and All India Radio are available on internet. It is
now possible to listen to the programmes from a radio station while
working on the computer.
Fig. 11.2
All India Radio started its services on internet on 1st May 1998. With this, it
was possible to extend the coverage of programmes to all parts of the
world including USA and Canada.
RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION
12.1 QUALITIES OF A RADIO PRODUCER
You may have observed that anybody can be a cook, but only the food
prepared by some turnout to be very tasty. Similarly all people who
produce radio programmes may not come out with good and interesting
programmes. You need certain qualities or skills to be a radio producer.
The qualities you need include the following:-
(a) ability to see and hear what is happening around you. This would
mean a keen desire to know more about things. We may call this
inquisitiveness. Unless a person is inquisitive, he or she cannot be a good
radio producer.
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This is because you need ideas to produce interesting programmes. How

do you get ideas? Let us think. Firstly, we need to observe things to get
ideas. Remember the story of Isaac Newton who observed an apple falling?
This observation led him to wonder why the apple fell down from the tree
and why it did not go up. The result was Newton’s gravitational theory.
Let’s take another example. James Watson was boiling water in a kettle.
When the steam gushed out with force, he realized that force or power
could be used. The result of this paved the way for the invention of the
steam engine.
So you can get ideas by:
(i) observing things as discussed above.
(ii) drawing from experiences : We have good and bad experiences in life.
People who have written stories, novels, poems and plays draw their ideas
mostly from their experiences. The great poet Kalidasa saw the dying bird
and its pair which was sad and took to writing poems. The English poet
Wordsworth observed flowers (daffodils) dancing in the air and wrote one
of the best pieces of poetry. So from our own experiences or going through
the experiences of others, we get ideas.
(iii) You have just read about the experiences of others. How do you come
to know about them. Well, you need to talk to others to find out and
understand their experiences.
(b) Ability to conceptualise ideas: You may get any number of ideas, but
you need to turn them into concepts and then in to radio scripts.
(c) Creativity : What is creativity ? Are you creative? This is a quality which
is found in almost everyone. But you need to be creative in putting
together an idea in a manner which can attract people .Creativity would
mean, doing something new or different. The same idea can be made into
a radio programme differently by different people. If everyone does it in
the same way, they will all be the same and not interesting.
(d) A good user of words. You need the ability to use the right word at the
right time in the right manner. Radio programmes depend on a good script
and that depends on your ability to write well. For this you need a very
good knowledge or stock of words or a good vocabulary. You have to be
using words in the appropriate manner. We shall deal with this aspect
later.
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ELEMENTS OF RADIO PRODUCTION

You have already studied about the ingredients of a radio format. Can you
recall them? They are:
(a) Human voice or spoken word.
(b) Music
(c) Sound effects
The various elements of radio production flow from the above ingredients
of a radio format.
So let us look at the main elements of radio production.
(i) Studio : In the previous lesson, you have learnt that the radio studio is a
room where radio programmes are recorded. For producing a radio
programme, you need a ‘sound proof’ studio where human voice can be
recorded or broadcast in the best manner.
(ii) Microphones: For our voice to be recorded in a studio, we use a
microphone. You might have used or at least seen microphones. They
amplify or in other words ,increase the volume of your voice. When you
speak before a microphone, you don’t have to shout. You speak normally
and it will be made louder if you use a loudspeaker to listen to. When we
think of radio, the microphone is the most important element using which
you present your programme.
There are basically three types of microphones and they are known by
their directivity.
As you go through the following text, you will understand the term
‘directivity’.
(a) Uni-directional microphone : As the name suggests, this microphone
picks up sound from one direction. As you speak in front of it, your voice is
picked up. If you speak from the other side of the microphone, your voice
will not be picked up properly. In a radio studio, the announcers,
presenters and newsreaders use this type of a microphone.
A microphone is very sensitive and you need to use it carefully. You should
be at the right distance from it when you speak. Otherwise, your voice will
not sound good. Even if you turn a paper or breathe heavily, the
microphone will pick up that sound and your programme or your voice will
be affected.
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(b) Bi-directional microphone:- Here again as the name (bi) suggests, the
voice or sound is picked up from two directions. If you are recording an
interview in a radio studio, you may use this type of a microphone.
(c) Omni-directional microphone: You may be familiar with the word omni.
We say god is omnipresent, which means ‘present everywhere’. In the case
of an omni-directional microphone, it picks up sound from all directions.
This type of microphone is used when a number of voices are used in a
single programme like a radio discussion or a radio drama.
There are many other types of microphones which come in different sizes
and lengths. If you watch television programmes, you may find a small
microphone clipped on the collar. This is called a lapel microphone which is
actually a uni-directional microphone. These microphones are not normally
used in radio.
Then there are long microphones called gun microphones used in sports
production. These microphones are often omni directional ones. There are
also cordless microphones. You might have seen them being used in stage
shows. They do not have any cables or wires attached to them. They have a
small transmitter in them which can send the sounds to an amplifier.
Fig. 12.1: Microphones

(iii) Sound effects : Sound effects in a radio programme give meaning and
sense of location. It adds realism to a programme and helps a listener to
use imagination.
Think of a crowded market or temple. If you are creating that scene in a
radio programme, you do not have to go to a crowded market or temple to
20
record. Well, you can record those sounds and use them. But in most
cases, you use sound effects which are already recorded. Sound effects can
be used in two ways:
(a) spot effects or effects that are created as we speak and
(b) recorded sound effects.
If you are recording a radio programme in which someone knocks at the
door, you can make a knocking sound either on a door or a wooden
partition.
Or you want to show that someone is pouring water from a bottle into a
glass; here again you can use the actual sounds produced on the spot. But
if you want a lion roaring or a dog barking, you probably cannot bring a lion
or a dog to the studios! Here we use recorded sounds which are kept on
tapes or discs. Almost all sounds are available on CDs which you can try
and use.
There are also certain types of computer software available for this.
You can also create sound effects.
You can use two coconut shells to produce the sound effects of the sounds
of horses’ hooves.
Take a piece of cellophine paper or aluminum wrapper and crush them in
front of a microphone. Record the sound and hear. It will sound as if fire is
raging. You can think and create many such sound effects.
However, there is a word of caution. If you record an actual door opening,
you many not get the real feeling of a door opening when you record it.
What matters is what it sounds like and not what it is.
(iv) Music : Music is the soul of radio. It is used in different ways on radio
as already discussed in the earlier lesson. Film songs and classical music
programmes are independent programmes on radio. Music is also used as
signature tunes or theme music of various radio programmes.
Let us see what music does to any programme.
a. Music adds colour and life to any spoken word programme.
b. Music can break monotony.
c. Music is used to give the desired effect of happy or unhappy situations,
fear or joy.
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d. Music can suggest scenes and locations. For example, you have to create
a bright early morning situation. This can be done by playing a pleasing
note on the flute along with the sound of chirping birds.
(v) Artificial echo:- If you enter an empty building or fort and shout, your
voice will come back to you. This is called on echo. An echo is used in radio
programmes. This is a technical input.
(vi) Filter or distort: If you listen to someone speaking to you on phone,
the voice would not sound normal. This sort of effect called distort is
produced using technology. Some times distort is used along with echo.
Think of someone speaking from a mine 100 feet below the earth. To make
it realisitic, distort and echo are used.
(vii)Human voice: The main stay in any radio programme is the human
voice. Think of the voice of an announcer or newsreader on radio. You
often find them very pleasant and nice to listen to. That is because of the
quality of their voice and the proper use of it. There are two aspects of the
use of human voice in radio production. Firstly, there has to be a well
written script to be spoken and then someone has to speak or read it
before a microphone in a studio.
RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION
Now let us learn about the different stages of radio programme
production. Whatever we do, there has to be a clear plan. In the case of
radio production also, there is a well accepted process of production which
is carried out in three stages.
Let us list them out.
a) Pre-production
b) Production and
c) Post-production
a) Pre-production
As the title suggests, this is the first stage before the actual production.
i) An idea is born : This phase includes how a programme is born as an idea
and its conceptualization. The topic or subject matter is decided.
ii) Plan of action : After the topic is decided, a plan of action is worked out.
Here the format of the progamme is determined i.e whether the
programme is a talk, discussion, interview, drama, documentary etc.Once
that is clear, the right person for writing the script and the performers are
22
decided. The plan of action would also determine the equipment for
outside recordings that are required. The time and venue of the recording
are also worked out.
iii) The script is examined to make it suitable for broadcast. It is examined
according to the principles of writing for radio or in other words ‘for the
ear’. We will discuss this is detail in the next section.
iv) Paper work : If people who are not working in the radio station are
involved for writing or providing voice for the programmes, they have to be
invited with an agreement to accept the job or assignment. This type of
agreement is referred to as a contract. Similarly, permission is often
required to interview certain people if the programme is based on such
interviews. Therefore, as you can see, there is a lot of paper work at the
pre-prodution stage.
v) Rehearsing the voices of speakers is also part of this stage.
b) Production : This is the actual process of recording and editing a radio
programme. Proper studios, microphones and computers are required to
record and edit the programme.
c) Post production : Writing to inform people involved in the production is
a major activity during this phase. The progamme has to be given publicity
both on radio and in other media. This is done to ensure that people know
about the programmes and also listen to them. The announcements for the
presentation of the programme are also written and provided for the
actual broadcast of the programme.
WRITING FOR RADIO
In the previous section you have learnt that the script is examined
according to the principles of ‘writing for radio’. Let us discuss about the
importance of the script in a radio programme.
What happens when you listen to your favourite announcer speak on radio
?
You may say that you would like to continue to listen to the announcer.
But why ?
Well, because you like what they say and the way they say that.
Don’t you ?
What they say is in most cases drawn from a script. The way in which they
say it is
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about the whole idea of using their voice.

We shall now discuss about the language we use in radio.
When we refer to the language used in radio, we are not referring to any
particular language like English or Hindi but the style of any language used
in radio.Here in radio, you find that it is different from the language used in
newspapers and magazines or what is referred to as print media.
In the print media, everything is written down or printed and they exist in
the pages of the newspaper or magazine.You can keep them for as long as
you want. You can take your own time to read them.If you do not
understand them in one reading, you can read them again and understand
. If you do not know the meaning of any word, you can refer to a dictionary
to understand the meaning.
Now think of radio. You hear programmes as they are broadcast. You hear
them only once. Ofcourse, you may say that you can record them and
listen to them.
record it and listen to it later. Well, that generally does not happen. In our
day to day conversations, we speak, someone else listens, or someone
speaks and we listen. It is a momentary experience. You may or may not
remember what you said or heard.
Similarly, what you hear on radio is heard only once and then forgotten in a
majority of cases. Do you remember all that you had spoken yesterday ?
Do you remember all that you heard from others yesterday ? Ofcourse, the
answer is a big ‘no’.
In our day to day conversation, we do not use the words and expressions
found in a newspaper editorial or a feature article. Have you wondered
why this happens? It is because those words and expressions are neither
friendly nor easy to understand. Now compare that with your daily
conversation. You use simple words, sentences and familiar expressions.
You also take into account the person to whom you are speaking. Your
gestures and movements add to what you speak.
Now let us go back to your favourite announcer. You don’t see the person.
But yet you feel that the person is speaking to you. You may not say
anything but you may feel that there is some familiarity with that person.
Interestingly, in most cases, what you hear on radio is written down or
scripted. It is spoken and is heard only once.
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From what you have read so far, we can come to certain conclusions.
 First of all, when it comes to radio, you listen to a person who is not
seen.
 The person speaks from a script written down earlier.
 You feel that the person is talking to you.
 The person sounds friendly and you have no problem in
understanding what is being said.
 You can call the language or the words used in a radio script as the
spoken word as against the written word or the printed word used in
the print media.
 Unlike the printed word which is written for the eye, the spoken
word is written for the ear.
Let us list out the main characteristics of the spoken word.
i) Though it is written, it is spoken
ii) It is written for the ear not the eye.
iii) It is heard only once. The listener normally does not get a second
chance to listen.
iv) It is conversational and should therefore sound like one and have the
following qualities :
a) It should be simply worded without any difficult or unfamiliar words.
b) The sentences should be short and simple and not complex.
c) There should be only one idea in a sentence and not many ideas.
d) Though there are thousands of listeners, what is written should be
meant for just one listener. At the listening end, there are generally only
one or two persons and not a crowd.So it should be speaking to one
person.
e) The words chosen should denote the exact meaning and not be vague or
abstract .
f) The words should make pictures in the minds of the listeners.
g) Abbreviations or short forms should be avoided. If an abbreviation is
used, then its full form should be given.
h) If the script consists of big numbers it can be rounded off to the nearest
whole number.
i) While referring to more than one person, avoid using ‘he’ or ‘she’. It can
confuse the listeners.
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NEWS PRESENTER OR NEWS READER

A news presenter (also known
as newsreader, newscaster, anchorman or anchorwoman, news anchor or
simply anchor) is a person who presents news during a news program in
the format of a television show, on the radio or the Internet.
News presenters can work in a radio studio, television studio and
from remote broadcasts in the field especially weather forecasters.
Newscasters and newsreaders
A newscaster (short for "news broadcaster") is a presenter of news
bulletins. This person may be working in the field of broadcast journalismas
a journalist and electronic news gathering (ENG) as well as a participant in
compiling the script with a television producer to be delivered in a news
bulletin.
Prior to the television era, radio-news broadcasts often mixed news with
opinion and each presenter strove for a distinctive style. These presenters
were referred to as commentators. The last major figure to present
commentary in a news broadcast format in the US was Paul
Harvey.[1] Today, commentary is generally presented in the longer-
form talk show format. The term "newscaster" came into common use to
distinguish presenters of straight news broadcasts from commentators.
In Britain, ITN's news presenters (especially those on ITV News) are
referred to as newscasters (and have been since the 1950s), whilst those
working at the BBC are called newsreaders.
News anchors
In the United States and Canada, news anchors (also known as
"anchorpersons", "anchormen", or "anchorwomen") present material
prepared for a news program and, at times, must improvise commentary
for live presentation. Many anchors are also involved in writing and/or
editing the news for their programs.
The term "anchor man" was used to describe Walter Cronkite's role at
the Democratic and Republican National Conventions. The widespread
North American factoid that news anchors were called cronkiters
in Swedish has been debunked by linguist Ben Zimmer.] Zimmer (and
others) also note that the term "anchor" was in common use in 1952 to
26
describe the most prominent member of a panel of reporters or experts.

For example, in 1948 "anchor man" was used in the game show "Who Said
That?" to refer to John Cameron Swayze, who was a permanent panel
member of the show, in what may be the first usage of this term on
television. In track and field, the anchor position is the (usually fastest)
person running the critical last leg in a relay race. In the original format
of Meet The Press, Lawrence E. Spivak, who served as the only permanent
member of a panel of four reporters, anchored the panel. Later, the term
was applied to hosts of special events coverage and, still later, news
presenters.
RADIO JOCKEY
A Radio Jockey (or RJ) is a person who hosts a radio talk show where the RJ
selects the music to be played, or topic of discussion, by interacting with
the audience; the interaction is often via telephone, but may also
be online, or via email. This term is primarily used by Indians who coined it
from the Western Disc Jockey. The term derives fromdisc jockey, denoting
a person who plays music in discotheques and Westernized radio stations.
Increasingly, radio jockeys are expected to supplement their on-air
personality by posting information online, such as on a blog. This may be
either to generate additional revenue, or to connect with listeners.
History
The radio jockey dates back to 1909 when Ray Newby of California made
his debut for Herrold College of Engineering and Wireless. The debut would
be a significant moment in media because by 1910 there would be radio
jockey's across the United States.
Types of radio jockeys
Radio jockeys may start working for fixed salaries, but their pay increases in
proportion to their experience. Many go on to become voice-over artists,
speaking in commercials or animated shows.
FM/AM radio jockeys
FM/AM radio jockeys are public radio station jockey's whose job is to play
music, talk, or both. These jockeys will play music that is labeled as their
stations genre of music or talk a certain subject they are labeled to discuss.
While on the air the jockey will either play the popular current music,
27
discuss the latest news involving their music or talking subject and
interview the popular acts in their industry.
Examples
 Kidd Kraddick
 Big Boy (radio host)
Talk radio jockeys
Talk radio jockeys are jockeys that will only talk for their entire time on the
air. Each jockey will always discuss a different social and political issues but
from a different point of view. Depending on the station, the jockey will
either be a conservative or liberal host with the intention of reaching an
audience that shares the same views.
Examples
 Rush Limbaugh
 Brian Kilmeade
 Brian Lehrer
 John Gibson
Sports talk radio jockeys

"Sports talk" radio jockeys discuss sports news, the jockey is either a
former athlete, sports writer, or t.v. anchor. The jockey has the
responsibility of discussing the latest sports news and interacting with their
listeners by phone, email, or social media in order to keep the show
entertaining.
Examples
 Dan Patrick
 Tony Kornheiser
Satellite radio jockeys

Satellite radio jockeys have the same responsibilities as a jockey that works
for public radio. The only difference is these jockey's are not regulated by
the FCC and are allowed to play explicit music and talk about any subject
regardless of the sensitivity of the issue.
Examples
 Howard Stern
28
Career opportunities
Due to a jockey's vocal training, there is often opportunity for a jockey to
expand their career. Over time a jockey could be paid to do voice overs for
commercials, television shows, and movies.
COLD OPEN OR TEASER
A cold open (also called a teaser) in a television program or movie is the
technique of jumping directly into a story at the beginning or opening of
the show, before the title sequence or opening credits are shown. On
television this is often done on the theory that involving the audience in
the plot as soon as possible will reduce the likelihood of their switching
away from a show during the opening commercial.
In some movies, the title card does not appear until the end. In such cases,
one cannot refer to the entire movie as the "opening"; the term "cold
open" in these instances refers to the opening moments or scenes.
Likewise, in movies with excessively long pre-credits sequences, the "cold
open" does not necessarily refer to the entire pre-credits sequence. For
example, James Bond films often use pre-credit sequences with little or no
relation to the subsequent plot; these are not considered teasers.
History
Cold opens became widespread on television by the mid-1960s. Their use
was an economical way of setting up a plot without having to introduce the
regular characters, or even the series synopsis, which would typically be
outlined in the title sequence itself. The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1964–68)
and Star Trek (1966–69) are examples in the United States; in the United
Kingdom, it was usually series destined for the American market which
utilised the format, such as The Avengers (1961–69) and The Saint (1962–
69).
In the early 1960s, few American series used cold opens; and half-hour
situation comedies almost never made use of them prior to 1965. But
many American series that ran from the early 1960s through the middle
years of the decade (even sitcoms) adopted cold opens in later seasons.
For example, Gilligan's Island did not use cold opens during its first two
seasons, but did use them in its third and final year (1966–67); they were
used on some seasons of Mission: Impossible, likewise with “Hawaii Five-
29
O”. Many other long-running TV series used cold opens. Similar patterns
can be seen with sitcoms, including Bewitched and The Beverly Hillbillies.
Many cold openings in sitcoms do not set up the plot but usually involve
physical comedy or bantering. Closing credits of a sitcom usually feature a
scene between characters that does not have any relevance to the plot.
British producer Lew Grade's many attempts to break into the American
market meant that various of the shows which he was involved with
incorporated the cold open, such asThe Persuaders! (1971) and Space:
1999 (season one only, 1975). Later, many British action-adventure series
employed the format, such as The New Avengers (1976–77) and The
Professionals (1977–81).
Toying with many television conventions, Monty Python's Flying
Circus (1969–74) played around with the concept of cold opens, sometimes
having an entire episode before the starting credits, and, in two instances
("The Cycling Tour", the first episode to have a full-length story, and "The
Golden Age of Ballooning", the first episode of season four) had no opening
credits at all (the former has a brief title card with the episode's title, and
the latter has no titles because Terry Gilliam had not finished the new
opening sequence).
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, daytime soap operas became the main
user of cold opens, with most American soaps employing the format. While
several soaps experimented with regular opens in the early 2000s, all are
currently using cold opens. Typically, a soap opera cold open begins where
the last scene of the previous episode ended, sometimes replaying the
entire last scene. After several scenes, usually to set up which storylines
will be featured in the episode, the opening credits are shown.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, some shows began with highlights from
the previous episode.
US sitcom and drama episodes often have a traditional cold opening, which
usually sets up the plot using the main cast members. Some sitcoms,
however, use cold opens which have nothing to do with the plot of an
episode (e.g. Malcolm in the Middle). In the US, TV shows will occasionally
forgo a standard cold open at the midway point of a two-part episode, or
during a "special" episode. For example, Buffy the Vampire Slayer's fourth
30
season finale lacked a cold open, as it was an unusual dream-centric

episode. The cold open has become common if not standard for sitcoms in
the 2000s, while in the 1970s and 1980s many traditional multi-
camera sitcoms usually launched straight into the openingtheme song.
The long-running NBC sketch variety show Saturday Night Live has always
employed a cold open (except for season 7 and other rare exceptions). The
cold open usually ends with someone breaking character and proclaiming
"Live, from New York, it's Saturday Night!"
The current revamped version of The Electric Company features a cold
open introducing the plot, ending with one of the Company members
yelling "Hey, you guys!!"
Documentaries do not use cold openings as frequently as fictional
shows. The World at War is one famous exception, where in a few short
minutes an especially poignant moment is featured. After the title
sequence, the events that explain the episode are outlined more fully.
Modern video games have included cold opens, either beginning with a
lengthy opening sequence or, like the Metal Gear Solid games, including an
entire level before the titles. BothWild Arms and Kingdom Hearts II went as
far as including an entire subplot, often taking upwards of three hours to
play through, before showing the game's logo. Another example
is Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, in which Ezio escapes Monterigionni.
After performing a leap of faith, the camera does not follow him and
the Assassin's Creed logo is shown. The opening sequence in Need for
Speed: Undercover was also an example, with a police chase scene that the
player can take part in, which was followed by a full motion videocinematic
and the game's logo. X-Men 2: Clone Wars is perhaps the best example, as
you are taken directly to the game's first level upon powering the game on,
skipping any title screen or even a character select screen until the first
stage is completed.
Cold opens were also an occasional device in radio. Jack Benny's weekly
program would usually begin with Don Wilson reading standard copy
announcing the name of the program and introducing the stars. Sometimes
however, particularly for a show at the start of a new season, the actors
would launch into material without any announcement and perform a
31
sketch written to give the audience the impression they were

eavesdropping on the stars' off-microphone lives. That would be followed
by the more standard Don Wilson introductions and the show would
proceed as normal after that.
Cold opens are common in crime dramas, such as all Law and
Order variants and the CSI shows, with the crime being committed before
the title sequence. CSI: Miami's version of this cold open style is famous
and widely parodied; generally, Horatio Caine makes a dramatic comment
on the crime (and then puts on or removes his sunglasses while doing so),
immediately followed by the "Yeah!" of "Won't Get Fooled Again", the
show's opening theme. In the comedy show It's Always Sunny In
Philadelphia created by Rob McElhenney, in the opening of every episode
has a cold opening with the time and the day along with the place.
Cold openings did feature in several Australian drama series
including McLeod's Daughters. Popular Australian soap opera Home and
Away used cold opens for several episodes following the recap during its
2006 season.
In the sci-fi reboot to the Planet of the Apes franchise, Rise of the Planet of
the Apes, written by screenwriters Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver, the cold
opening leads to the title shown over a large African jungle where a troop
of chimpanzees is being captured and killed by poachers.
Nomenclature
Cold opens sometimes employ a segment known as a "teaser". The
following memorandum was written on May 2, 1966 as a supplement to
the Writer-Director Information Guide for Star Trek, and was authored
by Gene Roddenberry, describing the format of a typical episode. This
quotation refers to a cold open, commonly known as a teaser:
a. Teaser, preferably three pages or less. Captain Kirk's voice over opens
the show, briefly setting where we are and what's going on. This is usually
followed by a short playing scene which ends with the Teaser "hook."[3]
The "hook" of the teaser was some unexplained plot element that was
alluded to in the teaser, or cold open, which was intended to keep
audiences interested enough in the show to dissuade them from changing
32
stations while the titles and opening commercial roll. Star Trek writer David
Gerrold, to tweak William Shatner on set, once joked he was writing aStar
Trek episode in which Kirk lost his voice in the teaser (the hook), and didn't
get it back until the tag. Gerrold states that Shatner's comment about this
suggested episode was unprintable.[4]
In television series, a similar technique called cliffhanger is often placed
before commercial breaks, to keep the audience from switching channels
during the break. For instance, inLaw & Order this second hook is often the
arrest of the suspected perpetrator of the crime committed in the cold
open.
The teaser is sometimes referred to as the "tease"; the companion closing-
scene at the end of the show is the "tag".
PROMO IN TV PROGRAM
A promo, shorthand for promotion, are a form of commercial advertising
used in broadcast media, either television or radio; promos are generally
used to promote a program airing on a television station, radio station,
television network or radio network. The usage is to try to bring a showing
to a specific set of people.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Promos typically run a standard length of about 30 seconds, though
occasionally some can at times last as short as five seconds or as long as 90
seconds. Most promos commonly consist of select clips of segments from
an upcoming program (television or radio series, film, event, etc.), however
some television promos (particularly for an upcoming television series)
utilize a monologue format in which a star or host of the program breaks
the fourth wall. Most radio promos utilize this format as well, with a host
of the program discussing the show itself, though some feature audio clips
from past editions of the radio broadcast. Television station newscasts
promote (a) select news segments to be featured in an upcoming
newscast, such as an investigative report or special-interest feature piece.
Information is typically provided displaying the airdate and time of the
program's broadcast as well as the name of the station it is set to air; local
broadcast television stations until the mid-1980s, this usually involved
33
simply displaying text showing the date and time, along with the station
logo on the bottom of the screen (this is due to the fact that unlike with
broadcast and cable television, promos for broadcast syndication do not
display airtime information, allowing for television stations to add the day
and time of the broadcast themselves), however, stations have since begun
to utilize posterized graphics that either cover the program logo at the end
of a promo for a syndicated program (and in some cases, promos for
commercial networks such as Fox and The CW) or allow the end of the
promo to be shown in a box surrounded by the graphic.
Premium cable channels and other commercial-free television networks
traditionally do not accept normal commercial advertising, thus allowing
them to broadcast programs uncut and without interruption, breaks
between programs instead primarily use promos to advertise upcoming
series and these promo breaks can, at times, be of a longer duration than a
normal commercial break with traditional advertising included.
MONTAGE (FILMMAKING)
Montage is a technique in film editing in which a series of short shots are
edited into a sequence to condense space, time, and information. The term
has been used in various contexts. It was introduced to cinema primarily
by Eisenstein, and early Russian directors used it as a synonym for creative
editing. In France the word "montage" simply denotes cutting. The term
"montage sequence" has been used primarily by British and American
studios, which refers to the common technique as outlined in this article.
The montage sequence is usually used to suggest the passage of time,
rather than to create symbolic meaning as it does in Soviet montage
theory.
From the 1930s to the 1950s, montage sequences often combined
numerous short shots with special optical effects (fades, dissolves, split
screens, double and triple exposures) dance and music. They were usually
assembled by someone other than the director or the editor of the movie.
Development
Film historian and critic Arthur Knight connects the development of
the Hollywood montage to aspects of Eisenstein's editing:
34
The word montage came to identify . . . specifically the rapid, shock cutting
that Eisenstein employed in his films. Its use survives to this day in the
specially created 'montage sequences' inserted into Hollywood films to
suggest, in a blur of double exposures, the rise to fame of an opera singer
or, in brief model shots, the destruction of an airplane, a city or a planet.[3]
Two common montage sequence devices of the period are a newspaper

one and a railroad one. In the newspaper one, there are multiple shots of
newspapers being printed (multiple layered shots of papers moving
between rollers, papers coming off the end of the press, a pressman
looking at a paper) and headlines zooming on to the screen telling
whatever needs to be told. There are two montages like this in It Happened
One Night. In a typical railroad montage, the shots include engines racing
toward the camera, giant engine wheels moving across the screen, and
long trains racing past the camera as destination signs zoom into the
screen....
Noted directors
Film critic Ezra Goodman discusses the contributions of Slavko Vorkapić,
who worked at MGM and was the best-known montage specialist of the
1930s:
He devised vivid montages for numerous pictures, mainly to get a point
across economically or to bridge a time lapse. In a matter of moments,
with images cascading across the screen, he was able to show Jeanette
MacDonald's rise to fame as an opera star in Maytime (1937), the outbreak
of the revolution in Viva Villa (1934), the famine and exodus in The Good
Earth (1937), and the plague in Romeo and Juliet (1936).
From 1933 to 1942, Don Siegel, later a noted feature film director, was the
head of the montage department at Warner Brothers. He did montage
sequences for hundreds of features, including Confessions of a Nazi
Spy; Knute Rockne, All American; Blues in the Night; Yankee Doodle
Dandy; Casablanca; Action in the North Atlantic; Gentleman Jim; and They
Drive By Night.[5]
Siegel told Peter Bogdanovich how his montages differed from the usual
ones:
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Montages were done then as they're done now, oddly enough—very

sloppily. The director casually shoots a few shots that he presumes will be
used in the montage and the cutter grabs a few stock shots and walks
down with them to the man who's operating the optical printer and tells
him to make some sort of mishmash out of it. He does, and that's what's
labeled montage.
In contrast, Siegel would read the motion picture's script to find out the
story and action, then take the script's one line description of the montage
and write his own five page script. The directors and the studio bosses left
him alone because no one could figure out what he was doing. Left alone
with his own crew, he constantly experimented to find out what he could
do. He also tried to make the montage match the director's style, dull for a
dull director, exciting for an exciting director.
Of course, it was a most marvelous way to learn about films, because I
made endless mistakes just experimenting with no supervision. The result
was that a great many of the montages were enormously effective.[7]
Siegel selected the montages he did for Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942), The
Adventures of Mark Twain (1944), and Confessions of a Nazi Spy, as
especially good ones. "I thought the montages were absolutely
extraordinary in 'The Adventures of Mark Twain'—not a particularly good
picture, by the way."
Analysis of two typical examples
The two montage sequences in Holiday Inn (1942) show the two basic
montage styles. The focus of the movie is an inn that presents elaborate
nightclub shows only on the holidays. The film was in production when the
United States entered World War II.
The first montage occurs during the Independence Day show, as Bing
Crosby sings "Song of Freedom". The 50 second montage combines several
single screen sequences of workers in an aircraft factory and various
military units in motion (troops marching, planes flying, tanks driving) with
multiple split screens, with up to six images in one shot. The penultimate
shot shows a center screen head shot of General Douglas MacArthur in a
large star with military images in the four corners.
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The second montage occurs near the end of the film, showing the passage
of time. Unlike the clarity of the "Song of Freedom" montage, this one
layers multiple images in an indistinct and dream-like fashion. In the film,
the character played by Fred Astaire has taken Crosby's partner, Marjorie
Reynolds, to star in a motion picture based on the idea of the inn. The 60
second montage covers the time from Independence Day to Thanksgiving.
It opens with a split screen showing three shots of Hollywood buildings and
a zoom title, Hollywood. Then comes a zoom into a camera lens where
Astaire and Reynolds are seen dancing to a medley of tunes already
introduced in the film. The rest of the sequence continues to show them
dancing, with multiple images of motion picture cameras, cameramen, a
director, musical instruments, single musical notes, sheet music and
dancers' legs circle around them. Several times six images of themselves
also circle the dancers. Only the opening shot uses a clearly defined split
screen and only the second shot is a single shot.
Both of these styles of montage have fallen out of favor in the last 50
years. Today's montages avoid the use of multiple images in one shot,
either through splits screens as in the first example or layering multiple
images as in the second. Most recent examples use a simpler sequence of
individual short, rapidly paced shots combined with a specially created
background song to enhance the mood or reinforce the message being
conveyed.
Sports training use
The sports training montage is a standard explanatory montage. It
originated in American cinema but has since spread to modern martial arts
films from East Asia. Originally depicting a character engaging in physical or
sports training, the form has been extended to other activities or themes.
Conventions and clichés
The standard elements of a sports training montage include a build-up
where the potential sports hero confronts his failure to train adequately.
The solution is a serious, individual training regimen. The individual is
shown engaging in physical training through a series of short, cut
sequences. An inspirational song (often fast-paced rock music) typically
provides the only sound. At the end of the montage several weeks have
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elapsed in the course of just a few minutes and the hero is now prepared
for the big competition. One of the best-known examples is the training
sequence in the 1976 movie Rocky, which culminates in Rocky's run up the
steps of the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
The simplicity of the technique and its over-use in American
film vocabulary has led to its status as a film cliché. A notable parody of the
sports training montage appears in theSouth Park episode, "Asspen", noted
above. When Stan Marsh must become an expert skier quickly, he begins
training in a montage where the inspirational song explicitly spells out the
techniques and requirements of a successful sports training montage
sequence as they occur on screen. The same song is used in Team America:
World Police in a similar sequence.
In "Once More, with Feeling", an episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Buffy
Summers does an extended workout while Rupert Giles sings one song; this
distortion of time is one of numerous musical conventions made literal by a
spell affecting Sunnydale. Prior to this sequence, Buffy Summers voices her
concern that "this whole session is going to turn into some training
montage from an '80s movie" to which Rupert Giles replies "Well, if we
hear any inspirational power chords we'll just lie down until they go away".
ELECTRONIC NEWS-GATHERING (ENG)

Electronic news-gathering (ENG) is a broadcast news industry description
of television producers, reporters and editors making use
of electronic video and audio technologies for gathering and presenting
news. The term was commonly used in the television news industry in the
1980s and 1990s, but it has since been less frequently used as the
technology has become ubiquitous.
Electronic news-gathering can involve anything from a lone broadcast
journalist reporter taking a singleprofessional video camera out to shoot a
story, to an entire television crew taking a production truck or satellite
truck on location to do a live television news report for an outside
broadcast newscast.
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Beginnings
Shortcomings of film
The term ENG was created as television news departments moved
from film based news gathering to electronic field productiontechnology in
the 1970s. Since film requires chemical processing before it can be viewed
and edited, it generally took at least an hour from the time the film arrived
back at the television station until it was ready to be broadcast. Film was
also difficult to handle, subject to easy scratching and other damage. Film
editing was done by hand on what was known as "color reversal" film,
meaning there was no negative film. Since editing required cutting the film
into segments then spliced together, a common problem was film breaking
during the newscast. News stories were often transferred to bulky two inch
video tape for distribution and playback, which made the content
cumbersome to access.
Film remained important in daily news operations until the late 1960s
when news outlets adopted portable professional video cameras, portable
recorders, wireless microphones and joined those with various microwave
and satellite truck linked delivery systems. By the mid 1980s film had all
but disappeared from use in television journalism.
Transition to ENG
Since ENG reduces the delay between capture of the footage and
broadcast, it meant that the news gathering and the reporting process
became one continuous cycle, with little pause between arriving at a news
site and putting the story on the air. Coupled with
livemicrowave and/or satellite trucks, reporters were able to show live
what was happening, bringing the audience into news events as they
happened.
CNN began its news transmissions in 1980, as ENG technologies were
emerging. The technology was still developing and was yet to be integrated
with satellites and microwave, which caused some problems in early CNN
transmissions. However, ENG proved to be a crucial development for all
television news. Television news recorded usingvideocassette
recorders was easier to edit, duplicate and distribute. Over time, video
production processes passed from broadcast engineers to television
39
producers andtelevision writers. This made the process quicker and more
reliable.
However, initially the ENG cameras and recorders were heavier and bulkier
than their film equivalents. This restricted camera operators ability to
escape danger or hurry toward a news event. Editing equipment was
expensive and each scene had to be searched out on the master recording.
Technology developments
The development of half-inch cassette formats (such as Betacam), removed
the need for a separate recorder to be carried. These "camcorders" no
longer a needed an "umbilical cord" between the camera and recorder,
which reduced health and safety risks for crews.
Digital video and audio formats, which emerged in the 1990s and early
2000s, meant that various new forms of recording devices could be used,
including hard disc drives, solid state media and smaller video tape
formats, such as DVCPro.
Point-to-point terrestrial microwave signals to backhaul the remote signal
to the studio became increasingly used. More recently, satellite and digital
satellites are used to transmit audio and video.
Improvements in video encoding for IP have provided lower-cost and more
compact alternatives to microwave transmission. Using technology such
as multicast or RTP over UDP, these systems achieve similar performance
to high end-microwave. Since the video stream is already encoded for IP,
the video can be used for traditional TV broadcast or Internet distribution
without modification (live to air).
As mobile broadband has developed, broadcast devices using this
technology have appeared. These devices are often more compact than
previous technology and can aggregate multiple mobile data lines to
deliver a HD quality content live.
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OUTSIDE BROADCASTS
Outside broadcasts (also known as "remote broadcasts" and "field
operations") are when the editing and transmission of the news story are
done outside of the station's headquarters. Use of ENG has made possible
the greater use of outside broadcasts.
Microwave spectrum channels
In the U.S. there are ten ENG video channels set aside in each area for
terrestrial microwave communications. Use of these channels is restricted
by Federal regulations to those holding broadcast licenses in the given
market. Channels 1 to 7 are in the 2 GHz band and channels 8,9 and 10 are
in the 2½ GHz band. In Atlanta for example, there are two channels each
for the four news TV stations (WSB-TV, WAGA, WXIA-TV, WGCL-TV), one
for CNN, and another open for other users on request, such asGPB.
Traditionally, the FCC has assigned microwave spectrum based on historic
patterns of need and through the application/request process. With the
other uses of radio spectrum growing in the 1990s, the FCC made available
some bands of spectrum as unlicensed channels. This included spectrum
for cordless phones and wi-fi. As a result, some of these channels have
been used for news gathering by websites and more informal news outlets.
One major disadvantage of unlicensed use is that there is no frequency
coordination, which can result in interference or blocking of signals.
Audio journalism
A common set-up for journalists is a battery operated cassette recorder
with a dynamic microphone and optional telephone interface. With this
set-up, the reporter can record interviews and natural sound and then
transmit these over the phone line to the studio or for live broadcast.
Electronic formats used by journalists have
included DAT, minidisc, CD and DVD. Minidisc has digital indexing and is re-
recordable, reusable medium; while DAT has SMPTE time code and
other synchronization features.
In recent years more and more journalists use their smartphones or i-pod
like devices for recording short interviews. The other alternative is using
small field recorders with two condenser microphones.
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Field recording
Field recording is the term used for an audio recording produced outside of
a recording studio.
Field recordings can be either of two varieties. Field recording of natural
sounds, also called phonography (a term chosen to illustrate its similarities
to photography), was originally developed as a documentary adjunct to
research work in the field and foleywork for film. With the introduction of
high-quality portable recording equipment, it has subsequently become an
evocative artform in itself. In the 1970s both processed and natural
phonographic recordings (pioneered by the Environments series) became
popular.
"Field recordings" may also refer to simple monaural or stereo recordings
taken of musicians in familiar and casual surroundings, such as
the ethnomusicology recordings pioneered by John Lomax, Nonesuch
Records and Vanguard Records.
Techniques
Field recording often involves the capture of ambient noises that are low
level and complex, in response the requirement from the field recordist
has often pushed the technical limits of recording equipment, that is,
demanding low noise and extended frequency response in a portable,
battery powered unit. For this reason field recordists have favoured high
quality, usually professional, recorders, microphones and microphone pre-
amplifiers. The history of the equipment used in this area closely tracks the
development of professional portable audio recording technology.
Field recording is typically recorded in the same channel format as the
desired result, for instance, stereo recording equipment will yield a stereo
product. This is in contrast to amultitrack remote recording which captures
many microphones on multiple channels to be creatively modified,
augmented and mixed down to a specific consumer format.
Field recording experienced a rapid increase in popularity during the early
1960s with the introduction of high quality portable recording equipment
(such the Uher and Nagra portable reel-to-reel decks). The arrival of
the DAT (Digital Audio Tape) in the 1980s introduced a new level of audio
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recording fidelity with extended frequency response and low self noise.
Amongst these technologies, other popular means for field recording have
included the analog cassette (CAC), the DCC (Digital Compact Cassette),
and the MiniDisc. The latest generation of recorders in use are completely
digital (hard disk/Flash) based. In addition, many are using
a Smartphone such as the Apple iPhone 4, along with software such as
Hindenburg Field Recorder app to do high quality field recording and
editing.
Techniques have developed to include creative placement of microphones
(including contact microphones & hydrophones for example), diffusion of
captured sounds and highly individual approaches from recordists.
Research
Ethnomusicology
Field recording was originally a way to document oral presentations
and ethnomusicology projects (pioneered by Charles Seeger and John
Lomax).
Bioacoustics
Field recording is an important tool in bioacoustics and biomusicology,
most commonly in research on bird song. Animals in the wild can display
very different vocalizations from those in captivity.
Art
Music
The use of field recordings in avant-garde, musique
concrète, experimental, and more recently ambient was evident almost
from the birth of recording technology. Most noteworthy for pioneering
the conceptual and theoretical framework with art music that most openly
embraced the use of raw sound material and field recordings was Pierre
Schaeffer who was developing musique concrète as early as 1940. Further
impetus was provided by the World Soundscape Project initiated by
Canadian composer R. Murray Schafer in the 1970s; this work involved
studying the acoustic ecology of a particular location by use of field
recordings. Field recordings are now common source material for a range
of musical results from contemporary musique concrète compositions to
film soundtracks, video game soundtracks, and effects. Chris Watson,
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formerly of Cabaret Voltaire, is now perhaps the world's leading exponent

of this art, with his recordings used for David Attenborough's series for the
BBC, programmes for BBC Radio and many other outlets.
Radio documentary
Radio documentaries often use recordings from the field e.g. a locomotive
engine running, for evocative effect. This type of sound functions as the
non-fictional counterpart to thesound effect.
Politics
During the early years of commercial recordings, the speeches of
politicians sold well, since few people had radios. The HMV catalogue for
1914–1918 lists over a dozen such records, by Lloyd George and other
politicians. Probably the last time such records sold well was in 1965, when
the LP "The Voice of Churchill" reached number 7 in the UK album charts.
This was immediately after his death.
SINGLE-CAMERA SETUP
The single-camera setup, or single-camera mode of production, is a
method of filmmaking and video production. A single camera—
either motion picture camera or professional video camera—is employed
on the set, and each shot to make up a scene is taken individually. An
alternative production method, which is more widely used is still called a
"single-camera," but in actuality two cameras are employed - one to
capture a medium shot of the scene while the other to capture a close-up
during the same take, which saves time as there are half as many set-ups
for each scene. Action films will use three or more cameras to capture
multiple angles as action scenes take a great deal of time for only seconds
to a few minutes of footage. With this method multiple set-ups for the
same sequences can be largely avoided.
Analysis
As its name suggests, a production using the single-camera setup generally
employs just one camera. Each of the various shots and camera angles is
taken using the same camera, which is moved and reset to get each shot or
new angle. The lighting setup is typically reconfigured for each camera
setup.
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In contrast, a multi-camera setup consists of multiple cameras arranged to

capture all of the different shots (camera angles) of the scene
simultaneously, and the set must be lit to accommodate all camera setups
concurrently. Multi-camera production generally results in faster but less
versatile photography.
In single-camera, if a scene cuts back and forth between actor A and actor
B, the director will first point the camera towards A and shoot shots
number 1, 3, 5, 7, and so on. Then they will point the camera toward B and
do shots number 2, 4, 6, 8, and so on. In the post-production editing
process, the shots will be assembled sequentially to fit the script.
The single-camera setup gives the director more control over each shot,
but is more time consuming and expensive than multiple-camera. The
choice of single-camera or multiple-camera setups is made separately from
the choice of film or video (that is, either setup can be shot in either film or
video). Multiple-camera setups shot on video can be switched "live-to-
tape" during the performance, while setups shot on film still require that
the various camera angles be edited together later.
The single-camera setup originally developed during the birth of
the classical Hollywood cinema in the 1910s and has remained the
standard mode of production in the cinema. In television, both single
camera and multiple-camera productions are common.
Single-camera television
Television producers make a distinct decision to shoot in single-camera or
multiple-camera modes—unlike film producers who almost always opt for
single-camera shooting. In television, single-camera is mostly reserved
for prime-time dramas, made-for-TV movies, music videos and commercial
advertisements. Soap operas, talk shows, some sitcoms and the like more
frequently use the multiple-camera setup. Multiple-camera shooting is the
only way that an ensemble of actors presenting a single performance
before a live audience may be recorded from multiple perspectives. In the
case of situation comedies, which may potentially be shot in either
multiple- or single-camera modes, it may be deemed preferable to use the
single-camera technique especially if specific camera angles and camera
movements for a feature film-like visual style are considered crucial to the
45
success of the production, and if visual effects are to be frequently used.

For more standard, dialogue-driven domestic situation comedies, the
multi-camera technique, which is cheaper and takes less production time,
may be deemed more feasible.
Though multi-camera was the norm for sitcoms during the 1950s
(beginning with I Love Lucy), the 1960s saw increased technical standards
in situation comedies which came to have larger casts and utilized a
greater number of different locations in episodes. Several comedy series of
the era also presented feature film techniques. To this end many comedies
of this period, including The Addams Family, The Munsters, Get
Smart, Bewitched, I Dream of Jeannie, Gilligan's Island, Hogan's
Heroes, The Andy Griffith Show and The Brady Bunch, used the single-
camera technique. Apart from giving a feature film style, this was more
suited to the visual effects frequently used in these shows such as magical
appearances and disappearances, and lookalike doubles where the regular
actors played a dual role. These were created using editing and optical
printing techniques, and would not have been possible had the shows been
shot using a multi-camera setup. In the case of Get Smart, the single-
camera technique also allowed the series to present fast-paced and tightly
edited fight and action sequences reminiscent of the spy dramas it
parodied. Single-camera comedies were also prevalent into the early
1970s. With its large cast and varied locations, the TV series M*A*S*H was
shot using single camera style. Happy Days began in 1974 as a single-
camera series, before switching to the multi-camera setup in its second
season. However, the success of All in the Family (which was taped with
multiple cameras live in front of a studio audience, very much like a stage
play) and Norman Lear's subsequent sitcom productions led to a renewed
interest by sitcom producers in the multi-camera technique; by the latter
part of the '70s, most sitcoms again employed the multi-camera format.
By the mid-1970s, with domestic situation comedies in vogue, the multi-
camera shooting style for sitcoms came to dominate and would continue
to do so through the 1980s and 1990s, although the single-camera format
was still seen in television series classified as comedy-drama or "dramedy".
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MULTIPLE-CAMERA SETUP
The multiple-camera setup, multiple-camera mode of production, multi-
camera or simply multicam is a method of filmmaking andvideo
production. Several cameras—either film or professional video cameras—
are employed on the set and simultaneously record or broadcast a scene. It
is often contrasted with single-camera setup, which uses one camera.
Generally, the two outer cameras shoot close-up shots or "crosses" of the
two most active characters on the set at any given time, while the central
camera or cameras shoot a wider master shot to capture the overall action
and establish the geography of the room. In this way, multiple shots are
obtained in a single take without having to start and stop the action. This is
more efficient for programs that are to be shown a short time after being
shot as it reduces the time spent film editing or video editing the footage.
It is also a virtual necessity for regular, high-output shows like daily soap
operas. Apart from saving editing time, scenes may be shot far more
quickly as there is no need for re-lighting and the set-up of alternate
camera angles for the scene to be shot again from the different angle. It
also reduces the complexity of tracking continuity issues that crop up when
the scene is reshot from the different angles. It is an essential part of live
television.
Drawbacks include a less optimized lighting which needs to provide a
compromise for all camera angles and less flexibility in putting the
necessary equipment on scene, such as microphone booms and lighting
rigs. These can be efficiently hidden from just one camera but can be more
complicated to set up and their placement may be inferior in a multiple-
camera setup.
While shooting, the director and assistant director create a line cut by
instructing the technical director (or vision mixer in UK coinage) to switch
between the feed from the individual cameras. In the case of sitcoms
with studio audiences, this line cut is typically displayed to them on studio
monitors. The line cut might be refined later in editing, as often the output
from all cameras is recorded, both separately and as a combined reference
display called the q split. The camera currently being recorded to the line
47
cut is indicated by a tally light controlled by a camera control unit(CCU) on

the camera as a reference both for the actors and the camera operators.
History and use
The use of multiple video cameras to cover a scene goes back to the
earliest days of television; three cameras were used to broadcastThe
Queen's Messenger in 1928, the first drama performed for television.
The BBC routinely used multiple cameras for their live television shows
from 1936 onward.
Although it is often claimed that the film version of the multiple-camera
setup was pioneered for television by Desi Arnaz and cinematographer Karl
Freund on I Love Lucy in 1951, other filmed television shows had already
used it, including another comedy onCBS, The Amos 'n Andy Show, which
was filmed at the Hal Roach Studios and was on the air four months earlier.
The technique was developed for television by Hollywood short-subject
veteran Jerry Fairbanks, assisted by producer-director Frank Telford, and
first seen on the anthology series The Silver Theater, another CBS program,
in February 1950. Desilu's innovation was to use 35mm film instead of
16mm, and to film with a multiple-camera setup before a live studio
audience.
In the late 1970s Garry Marshall was credited with adding the fourth
camera (known then as the "X" Camera, and occasionally today known as
the "D" Camera) to the multi-camera set-up for his series Mork & Mindy.
Actor Robin Williams could not stay on his marks due to his physically
active improvisations during shooting, so Marshall had them add the fourth
camera just to stay on Williams so they would have more than just the
master shot of the actor. Soon after, many productions followed suit and
now having four cameras (A, B, C and X or D) is the norm for multi-camera
situation comedies.
The multiple-camera method gives the director less control over each shot,
but is faster and less expensive than a single-camera setup. In television,
multiple-camera is commonly used for sports programs, news
programs, soap operas, talk shows, game shows, and some sitcoms. Before
the pre-filmed continuing series became the dominant dramatic form on
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American television, the earliest anthology programs (see the Golden Age
of Television) utilized multiple camera methods.
Multiple cameras can take different shots of a live situation as the action
unfolds chronologically and is suitable for shows which require a live
audience. For this reason multiple camera productions can be filmed or
taped much faster than single camera. Single camera productions are shot
in takes and various setups with components of the action repeated
several times and out of sequence; the action is not enacted
chronologically so is unsuitable for viewing by a live audience.
The majority of British sitcoms and dramas from the 1950s to the early
1990s were made using four cameras and initially broadcast live. Unlike the
United States, the development of completed filmed programming, using
the single camera method, was limited for several decades. Instead, a
'hybrid' form emerged using (single camera) filmed inserts, generally
location work, mixed with interior scenes shot in the multi-camera
electronic studio. It was the most common type of domestic production
screened by the BBC and ITV. As technology developed though, some
drama productions were mounted on location using multiple electronic
cameras. Meanwhile, the most prestigious productions, like Brideshead
Revisited (1981), began to use film alone. By the later 1990s, soap
operas were left as the only TV drama being made in the UK using multiple
cameras. Television prime-time dramas are usually shot using a single-
camera setup.
Most films also use the single-camera setup. In recent decades
larger Hollywood films have begun to use more than one camera on-set,
usually with two cameras simultaneously filming the same setup, however
this is not a true multicamera setup in the television sense. Sometimes
feature films will run multiple cameras, perhaps four or five, for large,
expensive and difficult-to-repeat special effects shots, such as large
explosions. Again, this is not a true multicamera setup in the television
sense as the resultant footage will not always be arranged sequentially in
editing, and multiple shots of the same explosion may be repeated in the
final film—either for artistic effect or because the different shots are taken
from different angles they can appear to be different explosions to the
audience.
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DISSOLVE(FILMMAKING)
In the post-production process of film editing and video editing,
a dissolve is a gradual transition from one image to another. The
terms fade-out and fade-in are used to describe a transition to and from a
blank image. This is in contrast to a cut where there is no such transition. A
dissolve overlaps two shots for the duration of the effect, usually at the
end of one scene and the beginning of the next, but may be used
in montage sequences also. Generally, but not always, the use of a dissolve
is held to indicate that a period of time has passed between the two
scenes.
Creation of effect
In film, this effect is usually created with an optical printer by controlled
double exposure from frame to frame. In linear video editing or a live
television production, the same effect is created by interpolating voltages
of the video signal. In non-linear video editing, a dissolve is done using
software, by interpolating gradually between the RGB values of each pixel
of the image. The audio track optionally cross-fades between the
soundtracks.
Use
Cuts and dissolves are used differently. A camera cut changes the
perspective from which a scene is portrayed. It is as if the viewer suddenly
and instantly moved to a different place, and could see the scene from
another angle.
Fades and dissolves typically have a duration of 1 to 2 seconds (24-48
frames), though this may vary according to the preference of the director
and editor. Short dissolves (6-12 frames) may be used to soften obvious
hard cuts which may startle the viewer, or jump cuts.
In narrative terms, the length of the dissolve is dictated by the mood or
pacing the director or editor wishes to create. For instance, in the opening
sequence of Citizen Kane, the dissolves between the master shots are slow
because of the pervading sense of morbidity Welles and his collaborators
wished to create. In the "News on the March" (montage) sequence shortly
afterwards, however, the dissolves are much shorter as the intention is to
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create a sense of vitality in the life of the still mysterious lead character
and speed in the (supposedly) newsreel sequence.
Dissolves are most common in classic cinema (see continuity editing), but
are now less often used. The device began to fall into disuse as film makers
fell under the influence of the French New Wave directors and their
innovative use of the jump cut and as the absence of a linear narrative
became more common. It is also sometimes held that the effect was best
utilised in monochrome cinematography, where gradations of gray are
mixed rather than possibly incompatible color tones. The impact of
television news reporting may also have resulted in the device losing any
pretense of having a contemporary feel.
Dissolves are usually kept to a minimum in most films. One reason for this
is economic, since a dissolve is more time-consuming (and therefore more
expensive to shoot, and far more expensive to develop in the lab
afterwards) than a simple cut. Another more compelling reason is artistic:
dissolves tend to be more effective when they are used only occasionally
rather than employed throughout a film. For both of these reasons, it is
very rare to see a shot which both begins and ends with a dissolve. A very
rare (and effective) example of this is seen in A Place in the Sun, directed
by George Stevens, shortly after the climactic sequence when Montgomery
Clift's protagonist has drowned Shelley Winters and is now fleeing.
DIGITAL EFFECTS (STUDIO)

Digital Effects Inc. was an early and innovative computer animation studio
at 321 West 44th street in New York City. It was the first computer graphics
house in New York City when it opened in 1978, and operated until 1986. It
was founded by Judson Rosebush, Jeff Kleiser, Don Leich, David Cox, Bob
Hoffman, Jan Prins, and others. Many of the original group came from
Syracuse University, where Rosebush taught computer graphics. Rosebush
developed the animation software APL Visions and FORTRAN Visions.
Kleiser later went on to found Kleiser-Walczak Construction Company,
which experimented with creating synthespians and made the animation
forMonsters of Grace.
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The company's original animation system consisted of a Tektronix display

with a 1200 baud modem connection to a remote Amdahl V6 in Bethesda,
Maryland, with rendering done on an IBM System 370, recording on an
Information International Inc. (III) film recorder in Los Angeles, and final
processing and optical printing completed back in New York. The V6
ran APL, and could render at a rate of one polygon per second. The
company later built one of the first frame buffers and video paint systems
(the Video Palette), acquired a Harris mini-mainframe computer, and a
Dicomed 35mm color film recorder.
Digital Effects was one of the first companies in the world to produce
"flying logos" for television and advertising, but they aggressively and
rapidly expanded their capabilities to include motion capture, form
morphing, raster effects, and so forth. Among their early works were
historic animated sequences of Times Square, commercials for Scientific
American, and a set of MTV-style demonstration reels. But they are
perhaps best remembered for their contribution to the computer graphics
in the movie Tron — among other things, they were responsible for
creating the main title, and for the animation of the Bits, including one that
accompanies Kevin Flynn in his reconstructed Recognizer.
The name of the company has entered the popular language as a noun
which refers to visual effects which are both synthetic as well as image-
altering and which occur in the realm of both 2D and 3D graphics and
animation. Besides pure 3D computer modeling and animation, digital
effects include scene-to-scene transition devices, deformations such as
morphing, and color manipulation.
SOUND MIXING OR AUDIO MIXING

Audio mixing is the process by which multiple sounds are combined into
one or more channels. In the process, the source signals' level, frequency
content, dynamics, andpanoramic position are manipulated and effects
such as reverb may be added. This practical, aesthetic, or otherwise
creative treatment is done in order to produce a mix that is more appealing
to listeners.
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Audio mixing is practiced for music, film, television and live sound. The
process is generally carried out by a mixing engineer operating a mixing
console or digital audio workstation.
Recorded Music
Before the introduction of multitrack recording, all the sounds and effects
that were to be part of a recording were mixed together at one time during
a live performance. If the mix wasn't satisfactory, or if one musician made a
mistake, the selection had to be performed over until the desired balance
and performance was obtained. However, with the introduction of
multitrack recording, the production phase of a modern recording has
radically changed into one that generally involves three stages:
recording, overdubbing, and mixdown.
Film and Television
Audio mixing for film and television is a process during the post-
production stage of a moving image program by which a multitude of
recorded sounds are combined into one or more channels. In the process,
the source signals' level, frequency
content, dynamics andpanoramic position are commonly manipulated and
effects such as reverberation might be added.
The process takes place on a mix stage, typically in a studio or theater,
once the picture elements are edited into a final version. Normally the
engineer will mix four main audio elements: speech (dialogue, ADR, voice-
overs, etc.), ambience (or atmosphere), sound effects, and music.
Live Sound
Live sound mixing is the process of electrically blending together multiple

sound sources at a live event using a mixing console. Sounds used include
those from instruments, voices, and pre-recorded material. Individual
sources may be equalised and routed to effect processors to ultimately
be amplified and reproduced via loudspeakers. The live sound engineer
balances the various audio sources in a way that best suits the needs of the
event.
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POST-PRODUCTION
Post-production is part of filmmaking, video
production and photography process. It occurs in the making of motion
pictures, television programs, radio programs, advertising, audio
recordings, photography, and digital art. It is a term for all stages of
production occurring after the actual end of shooting and/or recording the
completed work.
Processes
Post-production is, in fact, many different processes grouped under one

name. These typically include:
 Video editing the picture of a television program using an edit decision

list (EDL)
 Writing, (re)recording, and editing the soundtrack.
 Adding visual special effects - mainly computer-generated imagery (CGI)
and digital copy from which release prints will be made (although this
may be made obsolete by digital-cinema technologies).
 Sound design, Sound effects, ADR, Foley and Music, culminating in a
process known as sound re-recording or mixing with professional
audio equipment.
 Transfer of Color motion picture film to Video or DPX with
a telecine and color grading (correction) in a color suite.
Typically, the post-production phase of creating a film takes longer than
the actual shooting of the film, and can take several months to complete
because it includes the complete editing, color correction and the addition
of music and sound. The process of editing a movie is also seen as the
second directing because through the post production it is possible to
change the intention of the movie. Furthermore through the use of color
correcting tools and the addition of music and sound, the atmosphere of
the movie can be heavily influenced. For instance a blue-tinted movie is
associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound
increases the effect of the shown scenes to the audience.
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Post-production was named the one of the 'Dying Industries' by

IBISWorld.[1] The once exclusive service offered by high end post
houses or boutique facilities have been eroded away by video editing
software that operates on a non-linear editing system (NLE). However,
traditional (analogue) post-production services are being surpassed by
digital, leading to sales of over $6 billion annually.[2]
The digital revolution has made the video editing workflow process
immeasurably quicker, as practitioners moved from time-consuming (tape
to tape) linear video editing online editing suites, to computer hardware
and video editing software such as Adobe Premiere, Final Cut
Pro, Avid, Sony Vegas, Cinelerra, and Lightworks.
Television
In television, the phases of post production include: editing, video editing,

sound editing, animation and visual effects insertions, viewing and the start
of the airing process. It is imperative that post production executes and
oversees the preparation until the final product is completely ready.
Image
Professional post-producers usually use RAW images (Raw image format)

provided by the photographers or image-bank when the client is on a
budget or needs something quicker. In advertising it usually requires
assembling several images together in a photo-composition.
The first stage of post-production usually requires revealing the RAW
images in Adobe Photoshop Lightroom or Camera Raw. If it's more than
one image, and they belong to a set, ideally post-producers try to equalize
the images before loading them into Photoshop, After that, if necessary,
the next step would be to cut the objects in the images with the Pen Tool
for a perfect and clean cut. The next stage would be cleaning the image
using tools such as the healing tool, clone tool and patch tool.
The next stages depend on what the client ordered. If it's a photo-
montage, the post-producers would usually start assembling the different
images into the final document, and start to integrate the images with the
background.
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Types of work usually done:
 Advertising that requires one background (as one or more images to

assemble) and one or more models. (Usually the most time consuming
as a lot of times these are image bank images which don't have much
quality, and they all have different light and color as they were not
controlled by only one photographer in one set location)
 Product-photography that usually requires several images of the same
object with different lights, and assembled together, to control light
and unwanted reflections, and/or to assemble parts that would be
difficult to get in one shot, such as a beer glass for a beer advertising.
(Sometimes to composite one image of a beer glass it requires 4 or 5
images: one for the base, one for the beer, one for the label, one for
the foam, and one or more for splashing beer if that is desired)
 Fashion photography that usually requires a really heavy post-
production for editorial and/or advertising.
Music
Techniques used in music post-production include comping (compiling the

best portions of multiple takes into one superior take), timing and pitch
correction (perhaps through beat quantization), and adding effects. This
process is typically referred to a mixing and can also
involve equalization and adjusting the levels of each individual track to
provide an optimal sound experience. Contrary to the name, post-
production may occur at any point during recording and production
process and is non-linear and nonveridic.
MUSIC FOR RADIO

Music radio is a radio format in which music is the main broadcast content.
After television replaced old time radio's dramatic content, music formats
became dominant in many countries. Radio drama and comedy continue,
often on public radio.
Music drives radio technology, including wide-band FM and modern digital
radio systems such as Digital Radio Mondiale.
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How it works
The radio station provides programming to attract listeners, and profits by

selling advertising. Young people are targeted by advertisers because their
product preferences can be changed more easily. Therefore, the most
commercially successful stations target young audiences.
The programming usually cycles from the least attractive item, to most
attractive, followed by commercials. The purpose of this plan is to build
listener interest during the programming.
Because dead air does not attract listeners, the station tries to fill its
broadcast day with sound. Audiences will only tolerate a certain number of
commercials before tuning away. In some regions, government regulators
specify how many commercials can be played in a given hour.
Music is the main program item. There are several standard ways of
selecting the music, such as free-form, top-40, album-oriented rock, and
Jack. These can be applied to all types of music.
Jingles are radio's equivalent of neon signs. Jingles are brief, bright pieces
of choral music that promote the station's call letters, frequency and
sometimes disc-jockey or program segment. Jingles are produced for radio
stations by commercial specialty services such as JAM, in Texas.
Jingles are often replaced by recorded voice-overs (called "stingers").
In order to build station loyalty, the station announces time, station calls
letters and frequency as often as six times per hour. Jingles and stingers
help to give the station a branded sound in a pleasant, minimal amount of
air-time. The legal requirement for station identification in the U.S. is once
per hour, approximately at the top of the hour, or at the conclusion of a
transmission.
News, time-checks, real-time travel advice and weather reports are often
valuable to listeners. The news headlines and station identification are
therefore given just before a commercial. Time, traffic and weather are
given just after. The engineer typically sets the station clocks to standard
local time each day, by listening to WWV or WWVH (see atomic clock).
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These segments are less valued by the most targeted market, young
people, so many stations shorten or omit these segments in favor of music.
While most music stations that offer news reports simply "tear and read"
news items (from the newswires or the Internet), larger stations (generally
those affiliated with news/talk stations) may employ an editor to rewrite
headlines, and provide summaries of local news. Summaries fit more news
in less air-time. Some stations share news collection with TV or newspapers
in the same media conglomerate. An emerging trend is to use the radio
station's web site to provide in-depth coverage of news and advertisers
headlined on the air. Many stations contract with agencies such as
Smartraveler and AccuWeather for their weather and traffic reports
instead of using in-house staff.
Most radio stations maintain a call-in telephone line for promotions and
gags, or to take record requests. DJs generally answer the phone and edit
the call during music plays. Some stations take requests by e-mail and
online chat.
The value of a station's advertising is set by the number, age and wealth of
its listeners. Arbitron, a commercial statistical service, historically used
listener diaries to statistically measure the number of listeners. Arbitron
diaries were collected on Thursdays, and for this reason, most radio
stations have run special promotions on Thursdays, hoping to persuade
last-minute Arbitron diarists to give them a larger market-share. Arbitron
contractually prevents mention of its name on the air.
Promotions are the on-air equivalent of lotteries for listeners. Promotional
budgets usually run about $1 per listener per year. In a large market, a
successful radio station can pay a full-time director of promotions, and run
several lotteries per month of vacations, automobiles and other prizes.
Lottery items are often bartered from advertisers, allowing both
companies to charge full prices at wholesale costs. For example, cruising
companies often have unused capacity, and when given the choice, prefer
to pay their bills by bartering cruise vacations. Since the ship will sail in any
case, bartered vacations cost the cruise company little or nothing. The
promotion itself advertises the company providing the prize.
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Programming by time
Most music stations have DJs that play music from a playlist determined by
the program director, arranged by blocks of time. Though practices differ
by region and format, what follows is a typical arrangement in a North
American urban commercial radio station.
The first block of the day is the "morning drive time" block in the early
morning. Arbitron defines this block between 6 a.m. and 10 a.m., though it
can begin as early as 5 a.m. (though usually not later than 6), and end as
early as 9 a.m. or as late as 11 a.m. This block usually includes news
bulletins and traffic and weather advisories for commuters, as well as light
comedy from the morning DJ team (many shock jocks started as or still
work on drive-time radio). Some stations emphasize music, and reduce
gags and call-ins in this period.
The midday block (defined by Arbitron as 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., though often
extended later to about 5 p.m.) is mostly music, and in many places is at
least partially voicetracked from another market. For a period around noon
a station may play nonstop music or go to an all-request format for people
eating lunch. This block is often occupied by a "no-repeat workday;"
stations that offer this feature usually target captive audiences such as
retail workers, who have to listen to the station for long periods of time
and can become irritated by repetition.
In the early evening, or "afternoon drive" (defined by Arbitron as 3 to 7
p.m.), the evening rush-hour programming resembles the midday
programming, but adds traffic and weather advisories for commuters.
Some stations insert a short snippet of stand-up comedy ("5 O'Clock
Funnies") around 5 o'clock when commuters leave work, or play
specifically selected "car tunes" ideal for listening while driving.
The evening block (defined by Arbitron as 7 p.m. to midnight), if present,
returns to music. Syndicated programs such as Tom Kent or Delilah are
popular in this shift.
The overnight programming, from midnight to the beginning of drive time,
is generally low-key music with quiet, if any, announcing. Some stations
play documentaries or eveninfomercials, while some others play
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syndicated or voicetracked DJs. Complete automation, with no jock, is very

common in this day part. It is not uncommon to play more adventurous
selections during late night programming blocks, since late night is
generally not considered significant for ratings, and are not subject to
federal restrictions as stringently as during the daytime.
Weekends, especially Sundays, often carry different programming. The
countdown show, ranking the top songs of the previous week, has been a
staple of weekend radio programming since 1970; current hosts of
countdown shows in various formats include Rick Dees, Ryan Seacrest, Jeff
Foxworthy, Kix Brooks, Bob Kingsley, Crook & Chase,Randy Jackson, Walt
Love, Al Gross, Dick Bartley, and (via reruns) Casey Kasem. Other types of
weekend programming include niche programming, retrospective shows
and world music such as the Putumayo World Music Hour. Stations may
carry shows with different genres of music such as blues or
jazz. Community affairs and religious programming is often on Sunday
mornings, generally one of the least listened-to periods of the week. In
addition, weekend evenings are particularly specialized; a dance station
might have a sponsored dance party at a local club, or a classical station
may play an opera. Saturday nights are also similar to this; request shows,
both local and national (e.g. Dick Bartley), are very popular on Saturday
night. The longest running radio program in the country, the Grand Ole
Opry, has aired on Saturday night since its inception in 1925.
Many music stations in the United States perform news and timechecks
only sparingly, preferring to put more music on the air. News is often
restricted to the talk-heavy commuting hours, though weather updates are
still very common throughout the day, even on these stations. ABC FM
News is an example of an American news network that is designed for
music radio stations. The BBC and ABC take a different approach, with all of
its stations giving news updates (BBC Radio 1Xtra produces its own news
segments under the name TX.)
Music Formats
Some well-known music-radio formats are Top 40, Freeform Rock and AOR
(Album Oriented Rock). It turns out that most other stations (such as
Rhythm & Blues) use a variation of one of these formats with a
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different playlist. The way stations advertise themselves is not

standardized. Some critical interpretation is needed to recognize classic
formulas in the midst of the commercial glitz.
See List of music radio formats for further details, and note that there is a
great deal of format evolution (or, to borrow a television term, channel
drift) as music tastes and commercial conditions change. For example,
the Beautiful music format that developed into today's Easy
listening and Soft rock formats is nearly extinct due to a lack of interest
from younger generations, whereas classic rock has become popular over
the last 20 years or so and Jack FM has arisen only since 2000 or so. The
most popular format in the U.S. is country music, but rock music sells the
most.
Top 40
The original formulaic radio format was Top 40 music. In this radio format,
disc-jockeys would select one of a set of the forty best-selling singles
(usually in a rack) as rated by Billboard magazine or from the station's own
chart of the local top selling songs. In general, the more aggressive "Top
40" stations could sometimes be better described as "Top 20" stations.
They would aggressively skirt listener boredom to play only the most
popular singles.
Top 40 radio would punctuate the music with jingles, promotions, gags,
call-ins, and requests, brief news, time and weather announcements and
most importantly, advertising. The distinguishing mark of a traditional top-
40 station was the use of a hyperexcited disc-jockey, and high tempo
jingles. The format was invented in the US and today can be heard world
wide. Todd Storz and Gordon McLendon and invented Top 40 radio. Bill
Drake and Rick Sklar have had a lasting modern influence. This is an
excellent, brief history of the format..
Variants and hybrids include the freeform-like Jack FM (mentioned below
under Freeform Rock) and the "Mix" formats mentioned below under
Oldies. Top 40 music is heavily criticized by some music fans as being
repetitive and of low quality, and is almost exclusively dominated by large
media conglomerates such as Clear Channel Communicationsand CBS
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Corporation. Top 40 tends to be underrepresented on the Internet, being

mostly the domain of commercial broadcasters such as Virgin Radio UK.
Some of the most famous Top 40 stations have been Musicradio
77 WABC/New York City, Boss Radio 93 KHJ/Los Angeles WLS "89
Musicradio WLS"/Chicago, 1050 CHUM/Toronto, Famous
56 WFIL/ Philadelphia, and The Big 68 WRKO/Boston.
Freeform and progressive rock
A later development was freeform radio, later commercially developed
as progressive rock radio, and still later even more commercially developed
as AOR (Album-Oriented Rock), in which selections from an album would
be played together, with an appropriate introduction.
Traditional free-form stations prided themselves on offering their disc
jockeys freedom to play significant music and make significant social
commentary and humor. This approach developed commercial problems
because disc jockeys attracted to this freedom often had tastes
substantially different from the audience, and lost audience share. Also,
freeform stations could lack predictability, and listeners' loyalty could then
be put at risk. Progressive rock radio (not to be confused with
the progressive rock music genre) was freeform in style but constrained so
that some kind of rock music was what was always or almost always
played.
Responsible jocks would realize their responsibility to the audience to
produce a pleasant show, and try to keep the station sound predictable by
listening to other jocks, and repeating some of their music selections.
WNEW-FM (now WWFS) in New York during the 1970s exemplified this
approach to progressive rock radio.
At their best, free-form stations have never been equaled for their degree
of social activism, programmatic freedom, and listener involvement.
However, to succeed, the approach requires genius jocks, totally in-tune
with their audience, who are also committed to the commercial success of
the radio station. This is a rare combination of traits. Even if such people
are available, they often command extremely high salaries. However, this
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may be an effective approach for a new station, if talented jocks can be

recruited and motivated at low salaries.
Freeform radio is particularly popular as a college radio format; offshoots
include the recent (and somewhat controversial, due to its lack of on-air
personalities) eclectic-pop format known as variety hits, which plays a wide
assortment of mostly top-40 music from a span of several decades;
and podcast radio, a mostly talk format pioneered by Infinity
Broadcasting's KYOU station in California and Adam Curry's Podcast show
on Sirius Satellite Radio.
AOR (album-oriented rock)
AOR (album-oriented rock) developed as a commercial compromise
between top-forties-style formulas and progressive rock radio/freeform. A
program director or music consultant would select some set of music
"standards" and require the playlist to be followed, perhaps in an order
selected by the jock. The jock would still introduce each selection, but the
jock would have available a scripted introduction to use if he was not
personally familiar with a particular piece of music and its artist. Obviously
a computer helps a lot in this process.
A useful, relatively safe compromise with the artistic freedom of the jocks
is that a few times each hour, usually in the least commercially valuable
slots of the hour, the disc-jockey can highlight new tracks that he or she
thinks might interest the audience. The audience is encouraged to
comment on the new tracks, allowing the station to track audience tastes.
The freedom to introduce new artists can help a station develop its library.
Significant AOR offshoots include classic rock and adult album alternative.
Oldies, standards, and classic rock
Classic rock or oldies formats have been described as having the weakness
of not playing new artists. This is true in a creative sense, but not a
commercial one. Stations will not get good ratings or revenue if they
frequently play songs unfamiliar to their audience. This is why "Top 40"
stations played only the biggest hits and why oldies and classic rock
formats do the same for the eras they cover. Nevertheless, there seems to
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be a cottage industry of Internet stations specializing in specific forms of

classic rock and oldies, particularly psychedelic rock and progressive rock.
The oldies and classic rock formats have a strong niche market, but as the
audience becomes older the station becomes less attractive to advertisers.
Advertisers perceive older listeners as set in their brand choices and not as
responsive to advertising as younger, more impulsive listeners. Oldies
stations must occasionally change to more youthful music formats; as a
result, the definition of what constitutes an "oldies" station has gradually
changed over the years. This is why many oldies stations, like WCBS-
FM in New York Cityand WJMK in Chicago, have switched over to the
younger-oriented Jack FM format in recent years—although WCBS-FM
reverted to its oldies format on July 12, 2007, and the "Jack FM" format
was moved to its HD2 subchannel.
This preference for younger listeners caused the decline of the "Big Band"
or "Standards" music formats that covered music from the 1930s to the
1950s. As the audience grew too old for advertisers, the radio stations that
carried these formats saw a sharp loss of ratings and revenue. This left
them with no choice but to adopt more youthful formats, though the
Standards format (also known as the Great American Songbook from the
series of albums produced by rocker Rod Stewart) has undergone
something of an off-air revival, with artists such as Stewart, Tony
Bennett and Queen Latifah putting their own interpretation on the music.
Classical, pop, easy-listening, jazz, dance
These formats all have small but very loyal audiences in the largest
markets. Most follow formats similar to the above (Top 40s, Freeform, AOR
and Oldies), except with a different playlist. Public service stations
following these formats tend to be "freeform" stations.
Classical music radio is just as it sounds—radio designed to appeal to the
listener of classical music. Most classical stations specialize primarily in
instrumental classical music and chamber music, though there are more
special interest classical stations (often found through media such
as satellite radio or internet radio) that carry classical pop music or operatic
music.
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Easy listening and Adult Contemporary are related formats that play largely
down-tempo pop music of various styles. The difference is mostly in the
era and styles covered -- Easy Listening is mostly older music done in the
style of standards from the early 20th century (typical artists
include Johnny Mathis and Frank Sinatra) combined with Big Band music
and more modern performers in the same style such as Céline
Dion and Josh Groban, while Adult Contemporary focuses more on newer
pop music from the 1970s on. An ancestor to the easy listening format
is Beautiful Music, a now-rare format (though XM features one channel of
it, called Sunny) focusing mostly on smooth jazz or classical arrangements
of pop music and original compositions in a similar vein. Perhaps the best-
known Adult Contemporary station currently in operation is WLTW in New
York City, better known as 106.7 Lite FM.
Jazz stations generally play either traditional jazz forms or smooth jazz. The
jazz station, more than any other except the college station, is stereotyped
as having a small listenership and a somewhat overly highbrow on-air
personality, and many are college-run stations. California State University
Long Beach sponsors KJAZZ 88.1, which has a fairly significant online
listenership as well. Two very well known smooth jazz stations
are WNUA in Chicago and 94.7 The Wave in Los Angeles, both of which
were introduced in 1987, and still continue to enjoy tremendous success in
the format today. Also, WUCF-FM in Orlando has been playing jazz music
since 1978. Both traditional and smooth jazz stations have been in severe
decline, both on commercial and noncommercial stations, since the 2000s,
in part because of the formats' lower profitability compared to other
formats (adult contemporary for commercial stations, NPR-driven
news/talk for noncommercial ones).
Alternative and modern rock
Rock music has a long and honorable radio tradition going back to DJs
like Wolfman Jack and Alan Freed, and as a result variations on rock radio
are fairly common. The classic rock and oldies formats are discussed above;
in addition to those, however, there are several genres of music radio
devoted to different aspects of modern rock music. Alternative rock grew
out of the grunge scene of the late 1980s and early 1990s and is
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particularly favored by college radio and adult album alternative stations;

there is a strong focus on songwriters and bands with an outsider sound or
a more sophisticated sound than the "three chord wonder" cliché.
Meanwhile, other stations focus on heavy metal, punk rock, or the various
post-punk and pop-influenced sounds known collectively as "modern rock".
Narrow-interest rock stations are particularly common on the Internet and
satellite radio scenes, broken down into genres such as punk, metal, classic
rock, indie music, and the like. There is a general feeling among radio
connoisseurs that rock radio is becoming badly watered down by big
corporate ownership, leading to a considerable do-it-yourself spirit.
Country
While stereotyped as rural music, the Country music format is common
and popular throughout the United States and in some other countries
(particularly Canada and Australia, both of which share much of the same
Anglo-Saxon and Celtic roots as the United States). Country has been a
popular radio format since the early days of music radio, dating back to the
early days of radio itself when barn dance radio programs were widely
popular; however, the format was indeed originally a predominantly rural
phenomenon, especially on AM radio. Decades worth of efforts at
mainstreaming the format eventually paid off when country radio became
widely popular among a large number of FM radio stations that signed on
in the suburban United States in the 1980s and early 1990s.
For most mainstream country stations, the emphasis is generally on
current pop country, following the same process as top 40; the remaining
music in a particular station's library generally uses music from the past
fifteen years (shorter for "hot country" or "new country" stations), with the
exact music used varying depending on the station and the style of music
the listener wants to hear.
An alternative country format is Americana, which eschews the
mainstream pop country songs in favor of classic-era, alt country and cult
musicians. Like the music it plays, these stations can develop strong cult
followings and listener loyalty, but they are also less commercially
successful than pop country stations.
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Urban (hip-hop/R&B)
The explosive rise in popularity during the 1980s of rap music has led to a
large number of radio stations specializing in rap/hip-hop and R&B music
(with the exception of classic R&B such as Motown, which is as often as not
the province of Oldies stations). This format is popular among all ethnic
groups and social classes.
Public radio formats
Some music radio is broadcast by public service organizations, such
as National Public Radio or the BBC. In the United States, public radio is
typically confined to three formats: news/talk, classical music, or jazz, the
last of which is declining rapidly as of the late 2000s. In other countries,
where national broadcasters hold significantly more clout, formats can vary
more widely.
Community Radio
Community radio often relies heavily on the music format because it is
relatively cheap and generally makes for easy listening.
Dance music radio
Dance music radio focuses on live DJ sets and hit singles from genres
of techno, house, electro, drum and bass, UK garage and big beat. While
some stations play all kinds ofelectronic dance music, others (mainly pirate
radio stations) focus on particular genres. This format is popular in
England, Germany, Netherlands and some other countries, but less so in
the United States (where dance is a niche format often exclusive to
internet radio stations).
However, the number of U.S. stations airing such content has grown; five
terrestrial radio stations in the U.S. with a purely dance-oriented format
(one of which airing it part-time during the night and early-morning hours)
report their airplay to the Billboard Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart, while
top 40 and rhythmic stations may also air EDM songs that havecrossed
over onto pop-oriented charts due to the recent growth in mainstream
popularity of dance music,
67
Regional differences
Outside of English-speaking world, several radio formats built around local
musical genres are popular. Examples include Portuguese Fado, Spanish-
speaking reggaeton andtejano, French Cajun (especially in French
Louisiana), and Russian Shanson.
Cost of programming
Stations usually adopt a music format to gain the greatest number of
listeners for the least expense. Since the content has already been
produced, the station merely adds the low-cost on-air programming
between records.
Music radio stations pay music-licensing fees to licensing agencies such
as ASCAP and BMI in the United States or PRS in the UK. These fees or
royalties are generally paid to the songwriters; the musicians themselves
typically do not get a cut of radio royalties, even if they own a share of the
performance rights, unless they wrote the song themselves. (Thus, a song
that is in the public domain is free to play on the radio, regardless of who
performs it or when it was performed.) For example, the industry-wide
fees payable in 2004 to ASCAP was $176 million.[2] Commercial stations
often get their CDs free, but still pay royalties to play it on air. Some small
neighborhood stations play unlisted locally produced music, and avoid
these fees.
Commercial radio
Commercial stations charge advertisers for the estimated number of
listeners. The larger the audience, the higher the stations' rate card can be
for commercial advertising.
Commercial stations program the format of the station to gain as large a
slice of the demographic audience as possible.
A station's value is usually measured as a percentage of market share in a
market of a certain size. The measurement in U.S. markets has historically
been by Arbitron, a commercial statistical service that uses listener diaries.
Arbitron diaries were historically collected on Thursdays, and for this
reason, most radio stations have run special promotions on Thursdays,
hoping to persuade last-minute Arbitron diarists to give them a larger
68
market-share. Stations are contractually prohibited from mentioning

Arbitron on the air.
Market share is not always a consideration, because not all radio stations
are commercial. Public radio is funded by government and private donors.
Since most public broadcasting operations don't have to make a profit, no
commercials are necessary.
Internet and satellite broadcasting are not considered public media, so
treaties and statutes concerning obscenity, transmission of ciphers and
public order do not apply to those formats. So, satellite and internet radio
are free to provide sexually explicit, coarse and political material. Typical
providers include Playboy Radio, uncensored rap and hard rockstations,
and "outlaw" country music stations.
Music radio and culture
Music radio, particularly top 40, has often acted as both a barometer and
an arbiter of musical taste, and radio airplay is one of the defining
measures of success in the mainstream musical world. In fact, the rise
of rock music to popularity is intimately tied to the history of music radio.
Early forms of rock had languished in poor areas of the South. It was
enjoyed mostly by rural blacks, with notable exposure in Memphis,
Tennessee due to the all African American programming of WDIA. Rock
music entered the mainstream during the 1950s because of controversial
white DJs such as Dewey Phillips, Alan Freed, Dick Clark and Wolfman
Jack with an appreciation for black music.
STRUCTURING TV COMMERCIAL
Put People in Your Commercial
People relate to other people. Putting people into your commercial can
help draw your target audience in as opposed to a 30 second shot of your
building's interior, exterior and the parking lot. You don't want your
commercial to look hokey so you do want to be careful about having
people waving at the camera or standing there smiling. Have them doing
something that relates to your business so your commercial doesn't look
like a photo that's come to life.
Plan Out Your Video
69
Using a furniture store as an example, you may have ten different kinds of
recliners, eight living room sets and six bedroom suits you want to feature.
You're going to have to narrow those shots down because you simply can't
get them all into a :30, :45 or even a one minute commercial without
flashing so many different pieces of video on the screen that your potential
customers will feel like they're in a lightning storm. Wide shots of your
showroom are good to get a bunch of your furniture displayed at once and
you can select a few items you want to be featured alone. It's crucial you
not cram a bunch of video into the small amount of time you have for your
commercial. Your video should tell the story about what you're advertising
even if a customer has their volume turned down.
Writing the Script
Make sure your commercial's script times out to 30 seconds (or however
long you have bought air time for). Use short sentences that grab your
potential customer's attention. You've got a very limited time frame to
capture your audience and you need to get your message across quickly.
Don't get wrapped up in long sentences. Keep them short and punchy.
Your audio should also tell the customer what you're advertising even if
the customer is in another room and can't see the TV when your
commercial airs.
Audio and Video Must Match
When writing your commercial, you must make sure your audio and video
match. When you're talking about new car models arriving, you don't want
to see video of the current year's make. When you're talking about your big
showroom of furniture, you don't want to see the building from the street.
You must merge your audio and video to create a powerful sales tool.
Never Forget Your Call to Action
Your call to action gets customers to buy or act now. Don't get to the end
of your commercial and leave off your call to action. You want to tell
customers to visit today and give your complete contact information,
including Web site address, phone number and street address (giving a
quick line about how to find you if possible). For example, "That's Simple
Designs, located next to the old train depot downtown."
70
Stick to Time
You've bought a :30 commercial package. As tempting as it might be to
squeak in an extra few seconds, you just can't do it. Your commercial must
time out to the exact time you've paid for. Going over will only get your all-
to-important call to action clipped because those last few seconds will be
cut off when your commercial airs.
Hiring a Production Company
Of course, you want your commercial to be professional. You can hire a
production company or many television stations have their own production
companies in-house. They can handle all aspects of your commercial,
including writing, shooting and editing your commercial. Shop around for
prices. Some production companies are able to offer you a commercial
package for as low as $100 that will include still pictures shot with a high
quality video camera.
Scheduling Your Commercial
Placement of your commercial is very important. It determines who will
see your commercial and how much you will pay for its air time. Having
your commercial air at 3 a.m. will save you money but if you don't reach
your audience it's not money well spent. The same holds true for the
station you're airing your ad on as well. If you're advertising your maternity
clothing store, you don't want schedule air time on ESPN with your local
cable company.
Frequency
Television is less demanding on frequency than radio but it still deserves
more than a one-shot deal. If you were advertising during the Super Bowl,
that would be a completely different story. But on the local level, you need
to identify the key times your ad should run and buy enough air time for
your commercial to reach your audience at least twice. More times would
be ideal.
Consistency
Use the same announcer, jingle, fonts, colors, etc. to keep your commercial
consistent. This helps people start to get to know your company by all of
these factors. The more you recognize the lady pitching the hair salon
down the street, the more you know exactly what that company's name
and address is before she even speaks in the commercial.
71

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RADIO & TV JOURNALISM-II BY “TEAM AAMA PRAYAS”

Fig. 10.1: Radio studio

Fig. 10.2: Transmitter

FUNCTIONARIES OF A RADIO STATION

RADIO BROADCASTING SYSTEM IN INDIA

DID YOU KNOW?

The FM service of AIR has two channels .

Community Radio is a type of radio service that caters to the interests of a

will not be picked up properly. In a radio studio, the announcers,

FORMATS OF RADIO PROGRAMMES

TYPES OF RADIO FORMATS

points of view on matters of public concern. Radio discussions are

7. Running commentaries : If you can’t go to see a football or cricket

Magazine programmes are generally broadcast for a special or specific

Fig. 11.1: Phone-in programme

This is because you need ideas to produce interesting programmes. How

ELEMENTS OF RADIO PRODUCTION

Fig. 12.1: Microphones

about the whole idea of using their voice.

NEWS PRESENTER OR NEWS READER

describe the most prominent member of a panel of reporters or experts.

Sports talk radio jockeys

Satellite radio jockeys

season finale lacked a cold open, as it was an unusual dream-centric

sketch written to give the audience the impression they were

Two common montage sequence devices of the period are a newspaper

Montages were done then as they're done now, oddly enough—very

ELECTRONIC NEWS-GATHERING (ENG)

formerly of Cabaret Voltaire, is now perhaps the world's leading exponent

In contrast, a multi-camera setup consists of multiple cameras arranged to

success of the production, and if visual effects are to be frequently used.

cut is indicated by a tally light controlled by a camera control unit(CCU) on

DIGITAL EFFECTS (STUDIO)

The company's original animation system consisted of a Tektronix display

SOUND MIXING OR AUDIO MIXING

Film and Television

Live sound mixing is the process of electrically blending together multiple

Post-production is, in fact, many different processes grouped under one

 Video editing the picture of a television program using an edit decision

Post-production was named the one of the 'Dying Industries' by

In television, the phases of post production include: editing, video editing,

Professional post-producers usually use RAW images (Raw image format)

Types of work usually done:

 Advertising that requires one background (as one or more images to

Techniques used in music post-production include comping (compiling the

MUSIC FOR RADIO

The radio station provides programming to attract listeners, and profits by

syndicated or voicetracked DJs. Complete automation, with no jock, is very

different playlist. The way stations advertise themselves is not

Corporation. Top 40 tends to be underrepresented on the Internet, being

may be an effective approach for a new station, if talented jocks can be

be a cottage industry of Internet stations specializing in specific forms of

particularly favored by college radio and adult album alternative stations;

market-share. Stations are contractually prohibited from mentioning

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