Communication Module New

“Today is the tomorrow you worried about yesterday”
“Think like a wise man but communicate in the language of the people”
1. INTRODUCTION
Communication is best viewed as a basic skill in industry. Whether you are
concerned with the institution of Government, non-governmental, profit or
non-profit-making, nothing can possibly be done in a coordinated way without
communication. Someone has to say something to someone else, face to face
or through an instrument, or else has to write something to someone else and
communicate the order for transmission. Yet despite its basic importance,
communication is a skill frequently lacking even in quite senior managers.
Fundamentally, communication involves the passing of information from one

person to another, and as such is apparently very simple. It is vital in any
organisation because there will be division of labor of some sort and co-
operation must take place between superior and subordinate, planners and
doers, staff specialists and line personnel etc. One of the most obvious needs
is for communication between the two sides of industry. Perhaps if
communication were better there would not be two sides. The aim of
communication is to obtain a response from someone by passing information
to him. It is often said that the art of good communication lies not in talking
but in being heard i.e. the important thing is not so much what you say but
what is understood.
Communication is the way management gets its job done and good managers
are usually good communicators. Repeatedly, business disasters are attributed
to failure in communications. Our need to communicate is universal and good
communication is the hallmark of good morale.
Effective communication is, thus, vital if an organisation is to survive. Effective

communication leads to high morale throughout an enterprise. One of the
results of effective consultation between management and workers is the
raising of the level of morale by fostering self development and responsibility
which in turn raises the standard of discipline.
In communication; thoughts and ideas are transferred from one mind to

another either by speech or the recorded written word. Both the spoken word
and written word may be assisted or replaced by pictorial matter but all basic
communication involves the use of the words. One of the riches of the English
Language is the variety of words which may be put together so as to say the
same thing in many different ways.
However, particularly in written communications, words have meanings which

are not always identical for different people. So we must attempt to be
precise, otherwise our message may be misunderstood by others.
2. DEFINITION(S)
The word communication is derived from the Latin word communicare
meaning to share and from the French word communis meaning common.
Thus, when we communicate with others we need to have something in
common to share. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines the word
communicate as to impart, transmit or share. In its simplest form
communication can thus be defined at the transmission of messages from a
sender to a receiver.
Communication may also be defined as the process of transmitting or

exchanging of information and instructions. Ideas, orders, reports,
explanations are all examples of the kind of materials that flows through the
communication system of an organisation.
Theodorson & Theordoson (1969), as quoted in McQuail & Windal (1993 :4)
defines communication as, “the transmission of information, ideas, attitudes
or emotions from one person or group to another (or others) primarily through
symbols
In, ‘The manager and the organisation’, Eric Moonman defines communication
the activity whereby an individual or group conveys, consciously or
unconsciously, information to another individual or group and, where
necessary, evokes a response. The information may be facts, feelings or ideas.
Meanwhile James Storner and Freeman defines communication as a process by

which people attempt to share meaning via the transfer of symbolic message
while Stephen Robins defines it as the transferring of understanding of
meaning
Communication can also be defined as the transfer of information from one
person to another with the information being understood by both the sender
and the receiver (Kroontz).
Finally Michael Fielding in ‘Effective Communication in organisations,’ defines

communication as a transaction. He says this transaction involves two or more
people who construct meaning together through the exchange of ideas.
Fielding’s definition stresses four major points:

 Communication as a transaction – a transaction involves people who have
to take one another into account, and have to work together according to a
set of rules.
 People working together- people have to pay attention to each other at the
same time. They have to learn to develop mutual expressions. If mutual
awareness exists then mutual influence becomes possible
 The creation of meaning – people need to ensure that others understand
what they are saying. Words do not have meaning in themselves. People
give meaning to words. The same words may, therefore, have different
meanings fro different people. Effective communication demands that
people work together to ensure that the meaning created is the same for
all. There must be a sharing of meaning
 The exchange of symbols – exchanging symbols enables people to create
meanings. Symbols may take many forms. They may be verbal, non-verbal
or graphic.
It is clear from the above definitions of the many more not provided here that
whatever words may be used communication is a process which two parties,
the sender who sends a message through a channel to a receiver the aim being
to be understood.
3. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
There is little doubt that, because of the lack of a proper understanding of the
principles and processes of communication, many a good idea has never
travelled beyond the mind of its creator.
When we talk of communicating we talk of the transmission of information in

its widest sense. We consider messages, facts, ideas, and opinions as well as
feelings and emotions, some of which we indicate without even realizing we
are doing so. Words happen to be our main tools in communicating, though
they are fragile verbal tools often dulled by wrong usage and for many of us
not always readily at hand!
Our main in communicating is to be understood, yet too many a people

communicate to impress. Asi chii nhayi? In order for us to communicate
effectively and to understand the problems facing communication systems in
organisations, we need to study what actually takes place in the
communication process. This process is concerned with transmitting and
receiving messages. These messages may be in the form of language, written
or spoken, or of symbols; but in all cases the objective is to transfer the ideas
of the sender accurately to the receiver.
In its simplest form communication consists of a sender transmitting a message

through a media to a receiver who responds. This is represented by the
following simple linear model.
Sender Message Receiver

This model indicates that there are three essential elements of
communication; which if one is missing no communication can take place. For
example, you can send a message but if it is not heard or received by someone,
no communication has occurred
The model below shows, in detail, what happens in the communication

process
Channel
- Initiates a -Receives symbols,
message, - Decodes them
- Encodes it - Responds
- Selects channel
- Transmits it Message
SENDER RECEIVER
FEEDBACK
The above model shows that before communication can take place the sender
must initiate a message. He must decide what to communicate. The message
is then encoded into a form that the receiver can understand. It then has to be
sent through a specific format via a channel. The receiver upon receipt of the
message must decode it He decodes the message according to his or her own
knowledge of the subject, ability to use and interpret the language and past
experience. He will generally make an immediate decision on how to react to
the message. Finally the receiver must respond to the sender’s message
(feedback). However, it is possible that the message received by the receiver
may not be identical to the one sent by the sender (or vice versa). If that
happens it shows that no communication has taken place.
In other words, before communication can take place, a purpose expressed as
a message to be conveyed must exist. It passes between a source (the sender)
and a receiver. The message is converted to symbolic form (encoding) and
passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who translates the
sender’s message (decoding). The result is the transfer of meaning from one
person to another.
SENDER encoding RECIPIENT decoding
(Message in (Putting into (Message (Words

heard
sender’s mind) words or action) Interpreted) read or action
seen)
FEEDBACK
In addition the entire communication process is susceptible to noise – that is
disturbances that interfere with the transmission of the message. Typical
examples of noise include illegible print, telephone static, inattention by the
receiver, or the background sounds of machinery on the production floor.
Anything that interferes with understanding, whether internal (e.g. Low
speaking voices of the speaker) or external (e.g. Loud voices of co-workers
talking at an adjoining desk) – represents noise. Noise can create distortion at
any point in the communication process.
Terms used in the Communication Process

1. Sender: The initiator/source a message. A sender is a person, group or
organisation that starts off with a message.
2. Encoding: Refers to the translation of information into a series of symbols

for communication. Translating thoughts and feelings into messages.
The sender must use symbols he believes to have the same meaning for the
receiver. There must be mutuality of meaning. Use of symbols with
different meanings may lead to misunderstandings for example, In Bulgaria
and some part of India, ‘Yes’ is indicated with a side-to-side shake of head
while, ‘No’ is indicated with a nod. A visiting foreigner who do not share
these symbols can quickly experience or cause bewilderment when they
talk with citizens of these areas.
3. Message: Is the encoded information sent by the sender to a receiver. A

message can also be defined as any structured of unstructured information
that passes from the sender to the receiver. A structured message such as a
report will be aimed at a specific receiver. An unstructured message, such
as Non-Verbal Communication (NVC) will not be necessarily aimed at a
specific receiver.
4. Channel – A medium by which a message travels. A channel is nay pathway

by which messages are sent. It refers to the medium of communication
between sender and receiver. For example Telephone and Radio messages
pass along specific wave bands. A speaker might depend on NVC channels
of communication. The channels in this case would be a sense of hearing,
sight and touch.
5. Receiver: Is any person, group or organisation that receives a message from

a sender. This message will generally take the needs of the receivers into
account.
6. Decoding: The process by which the receiver interprets the message and
translates it into meaningful information. Decoding is affected by the
receivers past experiences, personal assessments of symbols, and mutuality
of meaning with the sender, intelligence, personality, cultural background,
and expectations about the sender.
7. Feedback – Reaction to sender’s message by the receiver
Role of the Sender in the communication process

The sender has certain functions to perform if the communication process is to
work smoothly.
1. He must clarify his ideas, that is, he must get clear in his own mind just
what it he means to say.
2. Next he must code his ideas into the language or symbols he intends to use,
bearing in mind that his main objective is to transmit the ideas clearly to the
receiver. In order to succeed, the sender must have good appreciation of
the receiver and his circumstances. When a sender codes a message he
needs to pitch it at the level of understanding of the receiver; he should not
pitch it so high that the receiver fails to grasp its meaning, nor should he
insult the receiver by pitching it at low level of comprehension.
3. The sender must decide which symbols he is going to use for his message.
In communication the most frequently used symbols are words and figures,
or bodily movements and signs. In close contacts, tone of voice or facial
expressions can also convey certain attitudes of the sender of the message.
4. Having decided on appropriate symbols, the sender has to decide which
medium to use. The medium is the means of transmission, for example,
telephone, memorandum or face to face conversation
5. The sender must also decide on the channel he will use to send his
message. The channel is the route which the message will take to reach the
receiver, for example a written memorandum may be delivered by hand to
be absolutely sure that it is received (the channel selected is hand delivery)
6. The sender has a responsibility for the quality of transmission of the
message, for example, has he spoken clearly if the medium or oral, or has
written clearly if the medium is in written form?
Message
Having been coded from the ideas of the sender into symbols (words, figures
etc) the message is taken up by the medium and passed along its selected
route. The route of a message involves a particular environment, for example,
the oral message follows the route of sound waves through an environment of
noise from other quarters, or the written memo goes through the physical
environment of the organisation as it moves from one office to another.
Role of the receiver in the communication process

This is the person that the sender wishes to reach with his message. He
receives the message and decodes the symbols back into ideas. If the message
has been correctly sent, clearly received and is pitched at the correct level of
understanding, the idea or image in the receiver’s mind should be very like the
one in the sender’s mind.
Normally the receiver will send back a message to the sender to confirm
receipt of the sender’s communication. From this the sender’s feedback will
usually be able to tell how his message has been understood. If understanding
is poor he will have to re-transmit, possibly altering the level of understanding
(for example explaining in a simpler way) or changing the medium ( for
example putting it in writing instead of saying it) or changing the route if there
have been problems with a given channel. Only when the sender receives
positive feedback can it be assumed that the transmission of the message has
been effective. THE RECEIVER MUST BE AN LISTEN ACTIVELY!!
4. ACTIVE LISTENING
The words ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ are often used as though they had the same
meaning. Hearing is a passive process in which we receive the sounds in a
conversation. Active listening, on the other hand, is a process whereby we are
deeply involved with the speaker. We pay attention to both the facts and
opinions expressed, as well as to the speaker’s feelings. We remain alert and
offer helpful feedback, the feedback takes the form of:
1. Summaries and paraphrases of what is being said.
2. statements about what we think the speaker feels
3. Questions to clarify what is being said.
4. Non-verbal signs that we are listening.
Importance of Active listening

Active listening is very important in interpersonal communication because…….
1. People are more easily persuaded by spoken communication, than by
written communication.
2. In spoken communication we have less time to evaluate what is being said.
3. We are less inclined to be critical of spoken communication.
4. Poor listening stops the flow of conversation because speakers quickly
become aware that they are not being listened to.
5. Poor listening results in poor understanding both of the facts and of the
speaker’s attitudes and emotions
Barriers to effective listening

The following barriers stop effective listening. Speakers and listeners should
analyse their bad listening habits and eliminate them. The following factors can
cause poor listening unless people become aware of them.
1. cultural differences
2. the speakers’ and listeners’ roles in the organisation
3. the perceived credibility of the speaker or listener
4. stereotyping
5. insensitive language
6. effects of non-verbal behavior
7. selective perception
8. the place where listening occurs
9. the emotions of the speaker and listener
10.The type of technical language used.
In addition to the above, the following poor listening habits can destroy
interaction:
1. Jumping to conclusions based on your own points of view before the
speaker has finished.
2. Pretending that you are paying attention and allowing your mind to
wander.
3. Trying to listen for all the facts, rather than concentrating on the key issues.
4. Listening for the facts only, and ignoring the speaker’s attitudes and
emotions.
5. Refusing to listen when you perceive the listening task to be too difficult or
uninteresting.
6. Refusing to listen to people whom you feel are inferior in status or
knowledge.
7. mentally criticizing the speaker’s delivery and appearance
8. Being easily distracted by the surroundings.
Techniques for effective Listening

The following techniques should help you become an active listener.
1. Decide exactly why you are listening.
2. motivate yourself to listen actively
3. regard listening as a physical and mental process
4. Show that you are listening by leaning forward and giving verbal and non-
verbal feedback.
5. Listen until you have heard the full message. Then respond. Do not jump to
conclusion before the full the message is over.
6. Ensure that you evaluate the whole message.
7. Try to see the message from the speaker’s point of view. This is called
empathic listening
8. Check the meanings of words with the speaker to ensure that you share the
same meanings.
9. be alert for the incorrect use of joining words such as ‘because’, ‘since’,
‘for’, ‘as’ etc
10. we can think faster than we can speak. Use this time to summarize the key
points.
11.try to find out what the speaker’s feelings are. Respect those feelings.
12.be aware of your own biases and prejudices. Try to overcome them as you
listen.
13.ask questions to clarify points
14.ask yourself whether the speaker’s opinions are sound
15.reflect the message back to the speaker to check that you have listened
accurately.
16.provide clear and unambiguous feedback.
17.strive to analyse your listening errors and to correct them.
What can speakers do to ensure that they are listened to?

In two-way communication, both the sender and receiver are responsible for
the negotiation. As speakers, you could do some of the following things to
help the listener.
1. prepare the listener for your message
2. time the message properly. Ask yourself how long the listener will take to
absorb the strange material
3. use the beginnings and ends of messages effectively, because they have the
greatest impact
4. make the plan for your message clear
5. always give the facts. Try no to be vague. Your listener should not be left
to guess what your message is.
6. do not move through the message too quickly, or too slowly.
7. Attract and re-attract the listener’s attention.
5. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
A barrier is an obstacle or anything that hinders information from flowing
smoothly around an organisation
The barriers to effective communication between the mind and will of sender
and the will and mind of recipient arise; in the mind of the sender, during the
transmission of message and in the recipient’s own mind. In this module I shall
firstly discuss barriers to communication at network level then at process level.
In an attempt to make you understand this area of study, I shall also discuss
barriers to communication under Human relations, organisational and
semantic blocks. As you go through these you will find that they are more or
less the same but the aim is to make you understand this area from different
perspectives since it is a fertile ground for most examiners.
Problems at network level

Even if the most suitable communications network is selected for an
organisation, there is still considerable scope for problems.
1. a network may not be sufficiently comprehensive; some people who should
be receiving information may not be getting it, as a result those individuals
will not be doing their jobs as efficiently as would be the case if they had
been properly included in the network.
2. There are problems with load. The concept of load is related to the speed
and nature of information flow.
Where speed is low and the information is of a simple nature, we may have
the problem of information underload, that is, a situation where the
receiver does not receive enough information to the job. Underload gives
rise to boredom and dissatisfaction in receiver, who feels that their talents
are being underused. Information Overload is where the flow of
information is so great in quantity, complexity or both that the system
cannot cope
3. Further problems arise at work at network level when, for a variety of
reasons certain links in communication systems tend to filter or alter
messages. Individuals tend to take account of the effects of the messages
which they pass on. If it is felt that a message will antagonize a superior, it
may be watered down and problems suppressed. If a message tends to
enhance someone’s position in the eyes of a subordinate, it may be
magnified and developed. Thus, there is a built-in distortion factor in the
communication systems of many organizations.
Likewise horizontal communications, particularly indirect links where a
superior or on department communicates with a subordinate in another,
can give rise to much resentment and conflict
Problems at Process level
At the level of actual communication process, numerous problems arise; many
have their roots at the message sender point, but they become apparent only
in the process
1. Use of symbols- the sender may use symbols which are not clearly
understood by the receiver, for example long words or complex
mathematical formulae can cause a breakdown in communications. The
interpretation of symbols may also be problematic – the receiver may think
he detects more than is actually being said (for example, a factual piece of
information may be interpreted as a criticism by the subordinate because
the mere voicing of bad results may be seen as a reprimand). This is
particularly so when the sender and the receiver do not share a common
cultural background (for example, some remarks by management about

workers are seen as far more derogatory than was intended by the sender)
2. Channels- organisations also experience channel problems. Some channels

may be subject to distortion as messages pass along them. Take the
example of an oral message passing from person to person through a noisy
environment; errors may occur at any stage of the process, and the
message reaching the ultimate receiver at the end of the system may be
quite different from the one which originally set from the sender. In trying
to obtain accuracy in transmission, top people in the organisation may
inhibit feedback from subordinates; for example, a written memorandum
may be a more accurate statement of a message, but does not bring the
same level of feedback as face –to-face conversation. The more levels a
message has to pass through the greater the possibility of distortion, but if
elements of the structure are missed out then they are denied information
as to what is going on.
3. Media - organisations also face media problems. The key decision here is
between oral (spoken) or written media. Oral messages may be given face-to-
face at a person meeting, or at a distance, on tape or telephone. Written
media include letters, memos, reports, manuals of instruction, written sets of
rules, computer printouts, and all the documents which circulate in a modern
organisation. Oral media have the advantage of a direct approach and should
provide speedy feedback and results, but can be misinterpreted (either
accidentally or deliberately). Written media have the advantage or a
permanent record of the message, held in copies or files, but they can be slow
and feedback may not be readily forthcoming.
Human relations blocks

Human Relations Blocks relate to people, their attitudes, perceptions of others
and influence their interrelations and communication. People’s fears, attitudes
and behaviour, if negative will destroy all chances of effective communication.
The factors are
1. Lack of willingness to communicate- willingness to communicate in the first
place may not exist. According to R. Falk there are far too many managers
who are too secretive about their intentions and who feel that there is
some sort of loss of dignity or face or even power – in making sure that, all
down the line, everyone knows what they are about. Subordinates may be
unwilling to communicate upwards from fear of their senior’s attitudes;
fear, perhaps, of his temper, or some supercilious trait of the ‘You are not
paid to think!’.
Unwillingness to communicate happens when:
a. Sender is secretive about his intentions/situation
b. Fear of loss of power, dignity of fact
c. Fear of loss of security (salary, post and status)
d. Wish to withhold information
e. Mistrust of others – e.g. she can not be trusted with anything
2. Preconceptions- preconception on the part of the the transmitter and the
receiver are a common source of misunderstanding.
Semantic Blocks)
Another factor that affects the smooth flow of messages in an organisation
relates to the use of language (semantic blocks). Some people phrase
messages in a style that they feel confers importance on themselves; for
example they use phrases like ‘in view of the fact that…’ instead of ‘because…’
or ‘without further delay’ when ‘at once’ would be more suitable.
Foreign language, dialects, accents, use of technical jargon, plus the

complexity of English, all make the average person experience problems with
proper perception of ideas.
Solutions - Use language that is appropriate to the recipient, select style,

vocabulary and phrases carefully. Design sentences and ideas carefully:
a. Simplify ideas
b. Be specific – speak in measurable terms
c. Summarise any discussions to verify that participants understood.
d. Ask for feedback to your message – to check understanding
Organisational Blocks
These are factors in the way the organisation is structured and restrict or
hinder formal channels. Communication is forced to travel through “troubled
waters”.. The result is apathy, frustration and a general turning to trusting the
use of informal communication, that is, Grapevine. Some of the organisational
blocks have been discussed above
(a)Restriction to formal channels- the notion of channels through which

information must travel can impede communication. The rule commonly is
that one must communicate only with one’s superior or subordinates. Such
restrictions can lead to apathy and frustration, as they ignore the essential
integrated nature of an undertakings’ activities. They will in fact produce
excessive reliance on informal communication such as grapevine. Formal

channels there must be especially as the size of the undertaking increases. But
it is wise that, in addition, a manager should not merely permit but actively
encourage free consultation, subject to one provision – that his subordinate do
note compromise him in their dealings with his superiors.
(b)Inadequacy of upward communication-the first organisational mainly affects

downward and lateral communication. More serious is the probable failure of
the organisation structure to allow for upwards communication. What
machinery exists in the form of consultative committee, suggestions schemes,
and interviews, to allow subordinates to pass their ideas and feelings upwards.
(c)Excessively indirect communication- too slavish adherence to the

organisation structure usually prompts habitual passing of information up and
down through every level. The result is a great deal of indirect communication
that is, flowing through intermediates, when distortion, modification and
misunderstanding of the messages grow in direct proportion to the number of
“message carriers” entailed. “Selection” of what to pass on is a further danger
especially with transmission upwards.
Other barriers to effective communication

1. failure to analyse the needs of the receiver
2. poor listening, and lack of attention to feedback
3. assuming that the receivers know more than they really do
4. insensitive behaviour on the part of sender and receivers
5. different cultural backgrounds
6. too many people to pass on the message from the sender to the receiver
7. poor feedback with filtering, omissions and errors as messages are passed
on
8. insensitive or poor choice of language by sender or receiver
9. the sender’s information may be insufficient or not clear enough
10. poor encoding or decoding of a message, with errors, filling in or imagined
gaps, and unjustified simplification
11. the wrong channel of communication may be used
12. poor planning of information
13. wrong emphasis in the information, so that the receiver does not know
what most important part of the messages are
14. messages that are so packed with information that they are difficult to
interpret and process.
15. messages in which the information is so that the reader becomes bored
16. language that is too technical for the receiver, or technical language that is
not in the receiver’s field
17. written message that have been badly set out
18. irritating mannerisms that stop people listening
19. an unsupportive or defensive climate in an organisation that makes people
unwilling to communicate openly
20. different perceptions of situations and meaning of messages
6. COMMUNICATION MEDIA
1. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Messages are put in writing. There are no gestures, facial expressions, etc
Examples:
1. Informal note -this would be sent to close working colleagues
2. Letter – normally used for externally communication
3. Memorandum - is used for internal communication only
4. Forms – pre-printed forms used internally and externally, eg order forms,
invoices etc
5. Notices – normally used to get information to large numbers of people in
the organisation. Often placed on notice boards for all to read.
6. Reports – these are more formal and give a full and accurate summary of a
particular topic of interest within the organisation
7. Press release - this aims to convey information about the organisation to
the public via the media, print or electronic.
Advantages
1. Provides time for message evaluation, analysis and summarisation.
2. Provides written record and evidence
3. Capable of relaying detailed/complex ideas
4. Disseminates information to dispersed receivers
5. Forms basis of contract and agreement
6. Interpret and clarify oral communication
7. Messages can be received in absence
8. Can be studied to ensure correct interpretation. That is, it leaves
records which may be consulted to refresh the memory
9. Provides time to think things out through careful compilation, with the
chance to amend first thoughts.
Disadvantages
1. Instant feedback is not possible. It does not allow for the exchange of
ideas and opinions except over a period. Therefore it is not so
convenient where there is need for urgency
2. Communication tends to be more formal and distant
3. Can cause interpretation problems
4. Can take time to produce
5. Can be costly and expensive, that is, for labour (especially if a typist is
used), postage and printing
6. Once dispatched – difficult to modify the message
7. Permanency can be a drawback – amending or canceling written
instructions when they become out of date is a formidable task, rarely
done thoroughly.
2. ORAL COMMUNICATION
Refers to direct conversation of direct sources
Main forms of oral communication

1. Planned formal talk – a prepared talk on a given topic
2. Unplanned informal talk – oral communication when we meet people in
their regular activities within the organisation. The grapevine is an example
of an informal talk network.
3. Interviews – these may be arranged for many purposes e.g. disciplinary,
counseling, appointments, promotions, exits etc, meetings – these can take
several forms, for example, groups or sections can hold meetings,
committee meetings etc
4. Telephone calls – a swift and simple way of passing on information both
within the organisation and outside
5. Other example includes public address, conferences, training sessions, oral
briefings, etc.
Advantages
1. Allows for contribution and participation from all parties.
2. Allows for instant interchange of ideas, views, attitudes and opinions.
Feedback is instant. Questions can be raised and answered instantly.
Please note that immediacy is both an advantage and a disadvantage.
Too often you think later of some important questions not asked, or
some aspect of a complicated topic not clarified
3. Facial expression, sound & gestures aids understanding
4. Easier to convince or persuade
Disadvantages
1. Often no written record of what has been said. Therefore disputes are
likely to arise over what has been said
2. Does not provide enough time for evaluation and analysis
3. Messages can not be received in absence
4. Does not disseminate information to dispersed recipients
5. More difficult to control when a number of people participate
6. Lack of time to think things out and consequently quality of decision
making may be inferior
7. More difficult to hold ground in face of opposition – not easy to
communicate with an opponent.
8. Perception of meaning is likely to be less accurate as the receiver has
little time to work over the meaning of words and figures and work out
what the transmitter really means. We can interpret what is
communicated in one particular way, then later realised that there is an
alternative meaning. Few of use can weigh words and phrases as
carefully in oral communication as we do when dictating a letter or
memorandum, nor can a draft of the message be pondered over and
over again to an assistant for his fresh mind to seek possible double
meaning or obscurities. A misleading message is a danger
3. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Major forms of visual communication
1. Visual aids – many organisations make use of graphs and charts, flowcharts,
pie charts diagrams etc. these may be communicated in written form as
part of reports, on wall charts or through the use of overhead projectors,
(for example in a lecture), or meeting or through visual display units.
The advantages of visual aids is their ability to convey complex information

in an understandable, logical form; they can be vital in illustrating statistics.
However, the main disadvantage of visual aids is if their use becomes a
substitute for other more appropriate forms of communication. There is
always a danger of ‘going overboard’ on visual aids and swamping the
organisation with charts and diagrams
2. body language (also known as non-verbal communication)- people

communicate through such visual forms as facial expression, posture and
gesture. Body language can support forms of communication. The

following guidelines will assist personal communication
a. use a firm handshake
b. make proper use of social space, neither standing too close nor too
far away from the person or group with whom you are
communicating
c. show that you are interested and prepared to listen by facing the
people within whom you are interacting
d. sit or stand in a posture that conveys interest and involvement
e. use head movements, for example, nodding your approval as you
listen.
f. Take care with your facial expressions, it is very easy to look bored or
uninterested
g. Make proper use of eye contact, look individuals directly in the face
and look around all the members of a group as you interact with
them
h. Cultivate control of tone and volume of your voice, speak calmly and
clearly
i. When you are speaking try to avoid off-putting body movements and
mannerisms, eg scratching or toying with your pens, spectacles etc
Advantages
1. Reinforces/strengthens oral communication
2. Provides additional visual stimulus and concentration
3. Simplifies written or spoken word
4. Quantifies – provides ideas in number form
5. Provides simulations of situations
6. Illustrates techniques and procedure
7. Provides visual record and a clear interpretation in the mind
8. Instant communication
Disadvantages
1. Requires additional skills of comprehension and interpretation
2. Can be costly to produce store and disseminate
3. Does not allow time for message analysis, evaluation and summarisation
4. Does not form basis of agreement
5. May be difficult to interpret without reinforcing written or spoken word.
When deciding whether to use written, oral or visual methods or a

combination of the three methods, contingency theorists hold there is no
single best way to communicate but the method of communication should be

appropriate for the circumstances. This approach implies taking account of the
objectives of the communication, the nature of the information, the audiences
or receivers, the culture and structure of the organisation
7. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
The major differences between non-verbal & verbal communication
1. in face to face communication it is a continuous process. Communication is
going on even if you say nothing
2. Non-verbal communication is usually to be trusted above what people say.
People have to be very skilled to lie both non-verbally and verbally.
3. non-verbally communication is a more effective way of showing emotions
and attitudes than in spoken communication
Problems with the interpretation of non-verbal communication

There are, however, three major problems with the interpretation of non-
verbal communication
1. like words, non-verbal communication can be ambiguous.
2. the meaning of any non-verbal message needs to be established from the
total context, rather than from the behaviour on its own.
3. Non-verbal signs have to be interpreted on clusters, rather than
individually. For example, someone with folded arms may not be setting up
a barrier. He may simply be trying to be comfortable.
Because of the problems inherent in NVC there is need for communicators to

be very sensitive to this type of communication. We need to be as sensitive as
possible to no-verbal cues for five major reasons:
1. in new situations, people often rely on first impressions to make up their
minds about strangers. They notice obvious things about them. From
these superficial cues they make all kinds of judgments, often inaccurate.
For example, we might judge a stranger with a high forehead and spectacles
as very intelligent; we could be wrong in this judgment
2. when we meet stranger we judge them in terms of our own beliefs about
appearance and non-verbal behaviour. Even though these beliefs may be
inaccurate, we sue them to fill in gaps about our knowledge of strangers.
3. our first impressions are often hard to change
4. we make up our minds about people from their facial expressions, eye
contact, mouth, voice, gestures, the way they stand and what they wear.
5. we often use non-verbal stereotypes for judging people. We might, for

example, decide that all short men are aggressive. When we meet a short
man, we assume that he will be aggressive. We then start communicating
with that stereotype in the mind and cause unnecessary trouble
Types of Non-Verbal Communication
1. silence
2. paralanguage
3. kinesics or body language
4. facial expressions & eye contact
5. touching
6. proxemics or distance, and territoriality
7. clothing and accessories such as jewellery
8. objects and the environment within which people work
9. people’s view of time
Silence
Silence during interpersonal communication is important. When silence is well
used it helps people engage in genuine two-way communication. Silence
encourages effective turn-taking; and show that the other person is listening.
Silence in the form of pauses is also important in public speaking. It allows the
audience time to absorb what people are saying, particularly if the information
is strange.
People can however, misinterpret others’ silence. They decide why others are
silent, without asking them. They then communicate with them on the basis of
an incorrect judgment. Silence has a range of meaning. It could, for example,
show:
1. Contemplation
2. Fear
3. Shyness
4. Concentration
5. Boredom
6. Anger
7. Embarrassment
8. respect
People might, however, make a mistake and decide that shyness is actually
rudeness, or that fear is actually boredom. A person showing respect through
silence might be misjudged as angry. All these mistakes could lead to
breakdowns in communication. If one person is often silent, the other person
should try to find out why so that they can communicate with understanding
Paralanguage
This word describes the ways we speak, rather than what we say. It covers the
following aspects of our voices.
The intonation, or rise and fall of voice

1. How fast or slowly we talk
2. How loudly or softly we talk
3. How resonant our voices are
4. How harsh our voices are
5. The level of tension in our voices
It also covers clearing of throats, coughs, and even crying
As we listen to paralanguage we make up our minds about people’s

1. age, emotions
2. feelings about themselves and their subject
3. attitudes towards us
4. intelligence
5. level of sophistication
These judgments could be quite wrong. We should, therefore, take great care
to cultivate lively voices that help listen to judge accurately how we feel about
ourselves and our subjects. We should also strive to understand other
people’s language.
Kinesics
This terms describes our body movements as we interact with others. In
particular, the study of kinesics covers
1. the way we walk 2.How we stand in relation to others 3.our arm and hand
movements 3.the ways in which we sit.
All these movements affect and positions affect the ways in which we
communicate. They also affect how people interpret us.
We might for example, walk into a room with our eyes and head down and our
backs bent. People could assume that we have a problem, and are not very
interested in working with them. On the other hand, if we walk boldly into a
room and look at people, they are more likely to communicate positively with
us.
Body movements can, however, be more subtle than this. You might, for
example, find yourself taking up the same body posture as someone that you
like. This is called echo posture. It helps to create harmony between two
people. You might, for example cross your knee towards a person who also
has crossed legs. When we stand to deliver a speech, it is very important that
we do not:
1. fold our arms 2. Twist our back 3. Cross our legs.
All these could be taken as signs that we are setting up barriers, or that we are
uneasy about what we are saying. Our hand movements during conversations
are very important for regulating the ways in which we take turns. Effective
hand movements with open palms also help us to keep the attention of our
audience. Open body positions with our arms spread as to show our sincerity.
When we sit we could be tense or relaxed. We could also be learning forward
to listen or leaning back, these postures show our feelings towards the other
person for active listening. Leaning back could show that we wish to withdraw
from the conversation. We tend to be more relaxed with people of equal or
lower status. We are more tense with people of higher status. All these
postures will affect the way in which we communicate with others.
Facial expressions & eye contact

We constantly judge other people by their facial expressions. We look at their
hair, eyes, foreheads, mouths, chins and the state of their skin. However,
people have learnt to adjust their facial expressions to ones that they judge to
be socially acceptable. We therefore need to observe people’s faces very
carefully, particularly their eyes, if we are to gain a true idea of their feelings.
Eye contact is significant when we work with other people. It is used to

regulate conversation in the same way as hand movements. Good eye-contact
signals that the communication channels are open.
From a Western point of view we tend to suspect people who do not look at
us. We have greater confidence in people who look at us while we are
speaking. They also give us a feeling of worth and authority. People show by
the amount of eye-contact whether they are dominant of submissive. People
who are dominant and confident tend to have greater eye contact than people
who are not very confident.
During speeches, speakers should keep up good eye-contact with an audience,

even if it is a large one. They should try to look at individuals in the audiences
rather than sweeping their eyes over the audiences. We should, however,
note that some cultures value looking down as a sign of respect. If, therefore,
we are working with people from different cultures, we should try to find out
and respect their attitudes to eye-contact.
Touching
Cultures vary a great deal in their attitude to touching. People involved in
intercultural communication need to be aware of this. Some Western cultures
are, for example, classified as not-touch or no-contact cultures. People from
other cultures, however, may value touching during conversations, particularly
to gain attention and to interrupt. If people from these two cultures work
together there may be problems, if they are not aware of these different
customs.
Even in ‘no-touch’ cultures, however, a touch to the elbow or shoulder can be

reassuring. Since it is seen as non-threatening. Such touching is also effective
for gaining a person’s attention. Touching may also encourage people to
disclose more information than they would normally have. Touches to the
cheeks and head are strong signals of affection.
Proxemics, or distance & territoriality

We all carry with us a ‘space bubble’ or comfort zone. If people invade the
zone we feel very uncomfortable. These space bubbles vary a great deal from
culture to culture.
The study of Proxemics covers people’s use of space and how they react to the
space around them. It also covers people’s territoriality or desire to maintain
their own space. Territoriality includes a study of table seating and table
shapes
From a Western point-of-view, we like to keep a distance of at least one-and-

half metres when we meet people for the first time. We also use this distance
when we conduct business at an interpersonal level. People from other
cultures might for example, wish to conduct business within a much smaller
space. This desire could cause tension for people who need more space.
Adjustments would then have to be made on both sides.
When people have to be very close together, as in a Commuter Omnibus, their

intimate zone (actual contact to about 25 centimeters) is being invaded. They
cope with this tension by silence, eyes turned away and rigid seating or
standing position that avoids contact possible. People who know each other
tend to stand closer together when they are talking. They might, for example,
use a personal distance ranging from 50 cm to one and half metre. People in
organizations need, therefore, to study each others’ spatial needs and respect
them in interpersonal communication.
Territoriality
Our ‘comfort zone’ is very important to us. We express out attitudes towards
territory by saying ‘My desk. My Office, My house, etc. People tend to expand
their space by surrounding themselves with books, bags or briefcases. More
space is often given to senior managers in organizations. They have large
offices and larger desks. These desks give managers more space. However,
they can also become barriers to good communication because they can be
used to dominate people by keeping them from the manager. Senior staff also
cause tension if they invade junior staff’ space. They could, for example, walk
into a junior’s office unannounced, go up to him/her, remain standing and
demand instant attention. Junior staff could also cause problems if they invade
senior staff’s space. People in organizations need, therefore, to be sensitive to
other peoples’ territories.
Seating
Seating arrangements affect the ways in which people communicate. A round
table at a staff seminar would be effective, because it encourages eye-contact.
A lecture, on the other hand, where less interaction is needed, could be given
to people in rows of seats.
Seating arrangement at an oblong table will affect the ways inA

which people interact.
People who sit a A or B are given the status of leader. People C

seated at D are likely to be very involved in the meeting.
However, people seated at C and E runs the risk of being ignored,
particularly by people at the ends of the table. People at C and E
need to ensure that they are given a chance to participate. D
In addition, people at the ends of the table need to ensure that they
pay attention to the people on their immediate left and right.
If people have to use a desk for interpersonal communication
they should consider talking across the corner of the desk.
This reduces the distance between them, and the corner of the E
desk if less of a barrier. If they are working on a task where
they need space, they should consider working side-by-side or
across the width of the desk. They should encourage good B
eye-contact and the reduction of barriers
Objects of the environment

Objects such as office furniture, curtains, carpets and pictures on the wall
affect us positively or negatively. All these objects help to provide a good or
bad working environment. We react better in a good working environment
than we do in a bad one. Organisations should, therefore, pay a great deal of
attention to the working environment because it affects peoples’ reactions and
the ways in which they work.
Time
People from different cultures view time differently. Many Western
organisations view time like a river flowing. Once time has gone past, it cannot
be recovered. This view stresses that time is precious and should not be
wasted.
Time is also viewed as an object that should not be lost. This view of time
values punctuality. Lateness, particularly where people of higher status are
involved, is regarded as a negative message.
Other cultures may view time in a different way. They may for example, view
time as renewable or circular. This view night regard lateness as an insult,
because time has not been wasted. Business might then be conducted in a
different way. People in organisations should be assertive to different views of
time and should be prepared to discuss them, however organisations will have
to decide on their time values, because different views of time in one
organization would result in tension, they could also cause difficulties if
organization are competing with others with different time values
Clothing & Accessories

Clothing and accessories such as ties, belts and jewellery satisfy our desire for
attention. They also satisfy our need to be accepted as members of groups
and self-esteem. However, clothing and accessories are important for other
reasons. They are very much part of communication in organisations. How
we dress at work is an important part of the impression that we make on
other people. People build up impressions of what we think about ourselves,
our status, our interests and our personalities. What we wear can influence
our success at work. People in organisations should, therefore, take great care
over what they wear.
8. LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a society-wide process that takes place in various
environments and contexts. For instance, when you hold a conversation with
your friend on your way home from College, the communication process is
definitely different from when you listen to your Lecturer in class, or when you
hold a family lunch or when you watch a television programme. All these
situations and contexts differ.
There are some particular boundaries that typify the communication process
at each of these levels. For example the way you are communicating with this
module, as you read, understand and internalize the information, is not the
same way you communicate with your family, or the way you watch or listen
to a radio programme. Communication scholars have analyzed communication
from the following five levels, that is, (1)Intrapersonal; (2)Interpersonal;
(3)Intra-group; (4)Inter-group & (5)Mass communication.
Intrapersonal Communication
The lowest level of communication is called Intrapersonal communication. It
refers to a communication process that happens within an individual, for
instance when one thinks or recalls past events, previous information or plans
the future. It also takes place when one reads a book, listens to a radio or
watches a television, among other acts. A very good example of intra-personal
communication is your own situation as you read this module at this moment.
Practical situations.
 It’s Sunday morning. You are seated by yourself watching a television
programme say Studio 263. Suddenly the phone rings or someone knocks
the door. You stand up to go and answer it or open the door
 You could be reading a book, while doing so, you develop a headache. How
can you explain these situations in terms of the communication process?
Applying the linear model of communication as shown on page 4 above we can

see that your eyes and ears are the senders or transmitters of electrochemical
impulses (messages) through a medium of communication, which in this case is
your central nervous system. Your brain becomes the receiver of these
impulses which transmits additional feedback in the form of feedback to
muscles, producing such physical activity as changing TV/Radio stations or
answering the telephone or going to open the door. The knock produced
external noise that interfered with the process. Headache is a form of internal
noise as that disturbs the normal flow of electrochemical impulses.
Interpersonal Communication
This is the second level of communication. It refers to a communication
process that happens between two or more people usually in a face-to-face
situation.
If we apply the basic model of communication (as depicted on page 4) to

interpersonal communication, a typical situation might be as follows:-
You (sender) may speak (medium) words (message) to a friend (receiver) across
the room, and the friend replies with an approval (feedback). While you are
speaking and your friend is reacting, intrapersonal communication is also
taking place. When the two of you are talking, if a tennis ball (noise) comes
flying through the window it will disrupt both the process of intrapersonal
communication and that of the interpersonal communication. Perhaps you
use a cliché or a phrase that the other person does not understand; then
semantic noise interferes with the communication process.
Intra-Group (small group Communication)

This refers to communication taking place within a group.
A group is a collection of people around defined principles, values and
concerns. For instance a family, social club, a sports team, a church
congregation, a committee eg workers’ committee, a management team, a
class etc. These are people tied together by certain norms, beliefs and values that are shared by the
individuals that make up that group. This group may be a formal group or informal group.
Inter-group Communication
This is a level where communication takes place between groups and among groups. An example of such a
situation could be when a Production Team discusses or meets the teams of Sales Representatives or the
Transport section team to discuss something. Another situation could, say when the IMM Communication
class meets the CIS Communication class say to debate something.
Mass Communication
1. Mass communication can be defined as process whereby (mass) messages are communicated through a
mass medium to a large number of people (mass audience).
One-Way versus Two-Way Communication

One Way Communication – Sender communicate without expecting or getting feedback from the receiver.
Policy statements from top managers are usually examples of one way communication.
Two Way Communication – exists when the receiver provides feedback to the sender making suggestions to a
subordinate and receiving a question or counter-suggestion is an example of two way communication.
ONE-WAY COMMUNICATION TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION

Messages are passed from sender to receiver. Messages are passed from sender to receiver who
Receiver is a passive recipient. Sender is not must react to the message. It makes receiver an
expected to provide feedback (Autocratic) active participant by supplying the feedback.
Sender never takes the role of receiver Sender becomes a listener/receiver when he reacts
to the feedback from receiver.
Receiver is uncertain of his understanding hence it Receiver has opportunity to question/answer to a

is less accurate message and thereby verifies his own perception of
the meaning of the message – highly accurate.
Takes less time as there is no need for feedback Confronts the receiver with need for a response –
receiver may feel attacked – fear.
Less accurate but orderly More accurate but often appears noisy and
disorderly.
PURPOSES PURPOSES
Passing of information orally or in writing from Participatory approach to problem solving (up and
seniors to juniors(downward communication) down) Laterally
Passing of messages top-down- policies and plans Between managers and subordinates – can be oral
or written – meetings and committees; reports etc.
FORMAL COMMUNICATION versus INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Formal Communication
(Follow the hierarchical structure of organisation)
Flow along the formal lines of authority in the organisational hierarchy, horizontally and vertically. Its aim is
the official transmission of data/instructions and information between managers and subordinates or
managers and their counterparts.
Informal Communication
(Is not found in the formal structure. Arise from employees talking. Has no official sanction and frequently
contain a high proportion of misinformation)
Communication is not guided by an official structure or authority but consists of informal communication
networks that overlaps and interest at a number of points throughout the organisation structure. The
grapevine is a fast means of communication between staff in an enterprise and will flourish where there is a
high level of structured communication that fails to pass information rapidly to staff and where there is secrecy
of company information.
9. ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Stephen Robins in his book ‘Management’ defines an organisation as a systematic arrangement of people to
accomplish certain goals, while Michael Fielding says an organisation is a collection of people working
together to reach specific goals. These two definitions emphasise the same thing, that is, that an organisation
is made up of people whose major aim is to accomplish some defined goal. These goals cannot be reached by
people working on their own. In order for people working together to reach these goals, they must
communicate effectively. But how do people in an organisation communicate? Before discussing that, let me
briefly introduce you to the theory of organisations*For more information on organisational theory read management textbooks.
Characteristics of organisations
Tall structures - the taller the structure the more levels there are in the hierarchy, the greater the risk of
message distortion. In this structure lateral communication in not encouraged unless special arrangements
have been made. If managers did communicate laterally this could be described as contracting lines of
communication because the vertical flow of information has been bypassed. Contracting lines of
communication might also refer, for example, to a junior manager who communicates directly with a senior
manager, leaving out his immediate superior
Contracting lines of communication refers to any means of communication that bypasses the normal chain of
command in an organisation
Flat structures – this type of structure simplifies vertical communication by removing some levels in the
hierarchy. Fewer distortions in messages would then result. This type of organisation requires a high level of
communication skills in the field of conflict resolution because of the often conflicting tasks and outlooks of
different sections
Creation of different departments – organisations are generally divided into departments/divisions, which may
be further divided according to their functions or according to products they produce. In order for these
different departments to
effectively and efficiently work together they must communicate effectively
You are strongly advised to read management textbooks for more information on
organisations in general and their characteristics in particular. Your aim in doing so
must be to establish how different characteristics of organisations affect
communication in an organisation. Knowledge about different organisational
structures would be invaluable.
FLOW OF MESSAGES IN ORGANISATIONS
Types of messages in organizations
1. Messages used to maintain good relationships – these messages are not intended to give information or
orders. They take the form of small talk such as greetings, comments about how people feel, expressions
of goodwill or sympathy, etc. all these messages are designed to keep communication going and to pave
way for future communication. They flow in all directions in a company.
2. Messages containing information about tasks – these contain information to enable the business to be
run. This information needs to be as precise as possible so that people can base their decisions on
accurate facts. They normally flow from the top down.
3. Messages instructing people to do things – these messages are the order or guidelines given in a company
to ensure that jobs are done. They may also include standard procedures to be followed when routine
tasks are undertaken.
4. Messages about the goals, philosophy and company ethics – these messages contain certain guidelines on
the company’s goals and philosophy. They also stress ethical approach of the company to guide staff in
their dealings with customers, suppliers and the general public. They normally flow from the top down
Major barriers to effective communication of messages

1. the number of stages through which a messages has to go
2. the amount of time allowed for the message to move thorough the organisation
3. lack of understanding of what the message means
4. shortening of messages because people cannot be bothered to share full information with others
5. filtering of messages at each stage (each person judges what the next person should receive)
6. Deliberate distortion. (People send only what they want others to receive. They leave out information they
perceive as damaging to themselves)
7. Too much information is received at any one time. This is called overloading of information.
8. Not enough information is received at any one time. This is called underloading of information
Conditions necessary for distortion free messages

1. messages should be as accurate and clear as possible
2. messages should give all information essential to decision-makers at each stage
3. the right medium should be chosen for each type of messages on each occasion. Messages could for
example be spoken, written or graphic.
4. the procedures for the giving and receiving of messages should be very clear. These should be rigidly kept
to
5. there should be a clear system of authority and accountability
6. conditions should allow for rapid transmission of messages and feedback
7. Organisations need to test flow of information regularly. This testing will ensure that messages go where
they are needed
Overloading of information
If an person/department receives more information that he can handle at any one time, this is called
overloading. Overloading refers to too much information and too complex information. If overloading
happens, then messages pile up and mistakes are made in sending messages on. People also give inadequate
answers or stock answers.
In order to avoid overloading of information, organisations can:

1. run course to improve the ability of people to handle messages
2. encourage lower sections of the company to reduce the amount of information they send upward.
3. add more communication channels
4. train staff to put messages in order of priority.
Underloading of information
If staff members or departments do not receive enough information to do the job, this is called underloading.
If underloading happens, the results are:
1. mistakes because of inadequate information

2. boredom because people do not have enough responsibility
3. drying up of information in some channels.
In order to avoid underloading of information, organisations can:

1. ensure that all information channels are properly designed and properly used
2. ensure that each section of the company receives all the information necessary for it to operate
successfully
3. ensure that staff members who work quickly and efficiently the right amount of information
LINES OF COMMUNICATION
Refers to a course, channel or route through which information is transferred within an organisation from one
person to another. Information can flow vertically, horizontally and laterally in an organisation
VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
This is the flow of information between levels of authority within an organisation. It consists of
communication up and down the organisation’s chain of command. Vertical communication encompasses
downward and upward communications
Downward Communication
Messages are sent from managers to subordinates
Downward communication is normally one-way, that is it does not normally provide for feedback from those
who receive it. As the locus of authority in an undertaking is the top of the scalar chain, inevitably the main
burden of communication is from the top down. Communication starts with top management and flows
downward through management levels to line workers and supervisory personnel. Transmission is usually
from level to level but a manager must spot the occasions when direct communication is necessary i.e. by-
passing one or more levels and indeed perhaps the entire workforce simultaneously.
Downward communications are usually directive. The main function of downward communication is to supply
information. Its major purposes, include among others, to advise, inform, direct, instruct and evaluate
subordinates and provide organisation members with information about organisational goals and policies.
Downward communication follows the line of command – Decisions made at the top have to be
communicated and explained to the lower levels. Decisions taken at the top of the organisation are broadly
stated policies in line with organisational goals, but as these decisions become translated into action they must
become more detailed and specific. Hence the nature of messages changes as they move down the
organisation – broad policies become converted into specific orders and instructions.
This process can present difficulties for communication systems. If the instructions are too brief they may not
carry the exact meaning of what is required of the subordinates; on the other hand, if they are too detailed
subordinates may be confused. Another problem is the time it takes for instructions to reach the bottom of
the organisation, and the accuracy of the instructions. Each level of the organisation must receive, interpret,
develop in more specific form and then pass on the information, so there is considerable from for error.
Major Purposes of Downward Communication
The main purposes of downward communication are to:
1. describe the company’s goals, philosophy, and mission;
2. describe the company’s ethical standpoint;
3. describe general company policies and procedures;
4. describe employees’ relationships with the company;
5. instruct people on how to do a job
6. give information on how one job is related to others being performed in a company;
7. give people feedback on how successful previous jobs have been;
8. give departments and individuals feedback on their general performance
Types of messages in Downward Communication

1. oral and written instructions
2. policy manuals
3. memoranda, reports and notices
4. in-house magazines or newspapers
5. specifications
6. inserts in pay packets, etc
Possible Topics in Downward Communication

Management should handle topics such as:
1. benefit programmes for employees
2. a list of the company’s products and how they are used
3. careful descriptions of the types of relationships that management wishes to have with employees
4. analyses of strikes
5. records of union – management negotiations
6. information on the company’s dependence on customers
7. existing rumours
8. the company’s viewpoint on issues
9. social news
10. instructions for performing tasks
11. safety programmes
12. contemplated changes in staff and productions
Barriers of effective Downward Communication

The following are the major barriers to effective downward communication:
1. Managers not sure what types of messages to pass to down downward
2. Managers are not sure how much information to pass downward
3. Information pass downward is not always relevant
4. Too much information is sent downward
D
O
W
Top N
mgt W
A
R
U D
P
W
W Middle C
A Management O
R M
D M
U
C
Assistant N
I
O Management C
M A
M T
U I
N O
I Foreman/Supervisors N
C
A
T
I
O
N
Workers
Upward Communication
Messages are sent from subordinates to managers.
Upward communication originates with the subordinates and is passed upwards through first, middle to top-
level management.
Its function is to supply information to the upper levels about what is happening at lower levels. It includes
subordinates making reports, recommendations, and suggestions to their superiors. It is the responsibility of
each subordinate to communicate appropriately about his work to his superior, but it is the superior’s
responsibility to ensure that he knows this and is adequately trained.
Upward communication involves the reverse of the downward process. What starts as detailed specific
information at the lower levels has to be compressed into broad policy terms; the implications of the date
have to be abstracted and passed on upwards. The messages flowing upwards are not orders or instructions;
they are likely to be information on the progress being made at the lower levels, details of requirements of
resources, problems being experienced, etc. Although not orders, these upward-flowing messages may exert
pressures on management and affect policies because they reflect grass-root findings within the organisation,
and management must take account of the attitudes of people and groups at the lower levels.
The upward flow of information also faces problems. At each stage, detailed specific data has to be
compressed, key details abstracted and then the reduced message passed on. There are considerable risks
that something of importance may be filtered out. Sometimes criticisms and problems tend to be watered
down as the information passes along, because those at one level do not wish to antagonize the people above
them in the organisation. The time element is also crucial
Major Purposes of Upward Communication

The main purposes of upward communication are
1. to receive feedback on how well their messages have been received.
2. receive feedback on the progress of tasks
3. receive feedback on employees’ attitudes, motivation and perceptions
4. to receive suggestions from staff

5. to check on individuals performance
6. to receive proposals from staff
Types of messages in Upward Communication

The following are the main types of messages involved in upward communication
1. oral and written reports
2. memoranda
3. proposals
4. spoken and written suggestions
Barriers to effective upward communication

The following are the most serious barriers to effective upward communication:
1. senders of messages fear that they will be seen as incompetent
2. senders fear the response of ‘you raised the problem, you solve it’
3. messages are distorted as they move up the hierarchy. People leave out parts of the messages that they
think will harm them. They then send the rest of the message upward. People also accept parts of the
messages that pleases them, and ignore the rest.
4. managers are more likely to use and pass on messages that are positive, are appropriate to the situation
and support present policy. They also accept and pass on message that they feel are right.
5. employees keep quiet and do not pass on messages because they fear for their jobs
HORIZONTAL/LATERAL COMMUNICATION
When two managers or departments at the same level in a company communicate, this is called Horizontal or
Lateral Communication. Horizontal Communication implies communication between equals such as
department heads, or between similar departments
If lateral communication is to be encouraged, management needs to decide
 who is to be informed of which department’s activities
 the amount of detail to be reported
 the medium to be used for this type of communication
Much of this communication will take place through face to face discussions. In addition reports and
memoranda are used.
In some organisations it is difficult to communicate laterally without sending messages upward to let people
know what is going on. This might lead to overloading higher up.
Lateral Communication follows the pattern of work flow in an organisation, occurring between
members/between one work group and another, between members of different departments and between
line and staff personnel. The main purpose of Lateral Communication is to provide a direct channel of
organisational coordination and problem solving. In this way, it avoids the much slower procedure of directing
communication through a common purpose superior. An added benefit of Lateral Communication is that it
enables organisation members to form relationships with their peers. These relationships are an important
part of employee satisfaction.
A significant amount of Lateral Communication takes place out of the Chain of Command. Such Lateral
Communication often occurs with the knowledge, approval and encouragement of superiors who understand
that Lateral Communication often relieves their communication burden and also reduces inaccuracy by putting
relevant people in direct contact with each other.
Department A Department B
Top
mgt
Top
mgt
Middle
Management Middle
Management
Assistant Direct Horizontal Communication Assistant

Management Management
Foreman/Supervisors Foreman/Supervisors
Workers Workers
Lateral communication could lead to rivalry and reluctance to communicate. Departments use specialist
vocabularies. These could make communication difficult. All these differences could also lead to conflict.
Managers therefore need to be sensitive in their choice of technical vocabulary when they communicate
laterally. In addition, they need to have knowledge of conflict –resolution skills.
As shown in above horizontal communication may cut across the levels of authority, thus there is direct
horizontal communication and indirect horizontal communication.
Direct Horizontal Communication-refers to the flow of information between individuals of similar rank or
position in different departments. In the example above it is shown between middle management levels in
two departments, but it could be between any level in Department A and the similar level in Department B.
Indirect Horizontal Communication -refers to communications between one level in one department and a
different level in another. In the example above, it is between management in Department A or supervisors in
Department B
Types of messages in Horizontal Communication

a. Face-to-face discussions
b. reports
c. memorandums
Major Purposes of Upward Communication

The main purpose of Lateral Communication is to provide a direct channel of organisational coordination and
problem solving. In this way, it avoids the much slower procedure of directing communication through a
common purpose superior. An added benefit of Lateral Communication is that it enables organisation
members to form relationships with their peers. These relationships are an important part of employee
satisfaction.
Barriers to effective Horizontal Communication

The following are the major barrier to effective horizontal communication:
1. rivalry between departments means that they withhold information from each other
2. Departments can become very specialized (for example, a computer department). People from other
departments cannot understand their technical terms.
3. Departments become isolated and are not motivated to communicate with other departments. Staff are
not rewarded for good horizontal communication
4. Departments build their own small empires. They are reluctant to share their knowledge and resources
with other departments.
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION (GRAPEVINE)

Whereas vertical and horizontal patterns of communication are the formal paths along which information can
flow, there is, in every organisation, an informal flow of information and opinion, the popular term for which is
the grapevine. Individuals concerned with the formal passing on of information may also pass at least part of it
to people they know formally within the organisation, in the form of gossip. Possession of information that is
not yet known to other people can make an individual socially important in the eyes of fellow workers.
Grapevine thrives when staff in an organisation finds that the prescribed patterns of communication do not
give them the information that they want. The grapevine thus normally conveys information about people,
their attitudes and relationships. It also carries interpretations of events, predictions about company moves,
people’s values and needs. The grapevine feels the information void. It gives meaning to activities within an
organisation.
Major Purposes of Grapevine Communication

1. It serves as a barometer regarding the organisation. It gives vital feedback to management regarding the
organisation.
2. It serves as an important message sources. The grapevine is most active when there are great changes in
an organisation. It is also active when information is new and when face-to-face communication is easy.
3. It helps members of an organisation to make sense of what is going on. As messages travels through the
grapevine, management’s messages are translated into words that make sense to workers
The grapevine can function to speed up or spread information widely within the organisation. It can be useful
for the organisation if it wishes to spread information informally to test the reaction of workers without
making an official announcement.
However, it can also be dysfunctional (that is, act against the best interests of the organisation) by making
known information which should have been kept confidential, or which is incomplete or distorted.
Contrary to general opinion, the grapevine can serve a positive role in an organisation. It serves as an
important message source, and helps staff understand what is going on. It can boost staff morale by uniting
staff.
However, at its worst grapevine, can spread rumors. Rumours often convey prejudices emotions and half
truths. They are normally based on unverified information with very little supporting evidence. The rumors, if
acted upon can be dangerous.
OUTWARD COMMUNICATION
Outward communication occurs when a business organisation communicates with customers, the general
public and its suppliers. Business organisations have to serve customers to survive. In addition, they have to
communicate with the general public and with suppliers.
Much of this communication takes place in the form of: face-to-face discussion, telephone calls, letters, etc.
Companies have to ensure that they analyse the needs of their audience, and their style of communication
should stress the great importance of customers. Members of the organisation involved in face-to-face work,
meetings or telephone calls need to cultivate effective speech and non-verbal behaviour. Letters should stress
service to the customer and should be written in a friendly or neutral tone. A great deal of attention should be
paid to the organisation of messages
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
A communication network is a set of channels within an organisation through which communication travels.
Networks are the interconnecting lines of communication used to pass information from one person or section
to another. Organisations design their communication networks in a variety of ways.
Networks may be classified as centralized or decentralized. Centralized networks generally depend on one
person at the centre. They are successful for simple tasks. Centralized networks tend to very rigid because
employees are discouraged from talking to anyone except their own immediate supervisor. Such networks are
usually intended both to keep higher level managers from becoming overburdened with unnecessary
information and to maintain the higher level manager’s power and status.
Decentralised networks, on the other hand, do not depend on one person at the centre. Everybody
communicates freely with everyone else without having to go through a central person. These network are
more successful when complex have to be solved. These networks are more loosely designed as individuals
are encouraged to communicate with anyone at any level. Such networks are used wherever a free flow of
information is highly desirable such as in a research department.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
Wheel Structure
In this structure the central element at the centre communicates with and receive feedback information from
each of the other elements, but they do not have communication links with each other. This structure confers
great power and responsibility on the individual in the central control position.
A B
E
E
E
C D
D
As can be seen above this structure allows messages to be sent from the centre to each person on the outside.
Each person communicates with the centre, but is unable to communicate with the other people. The wheel is
similar to the Chain structure except that the people at the ends can communicate with only one other person.
The circle allows messages to be sent to the left or right but not to other members of the circle.
In the diagram above ‘E’ can communicate directly with ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘D’ and ‘C’ though these subjects cannot
communicate directly with each other. This might represent four salespeople reporting to a district manager
‘E’.
Advantages
A strong central controller can issue instructions to the other elements and can then monitor and co-ordinate
their efforts. The other elements cannot confuse each other or spread problems or discontent from on to
another. All problems come back to central to be solved.
Disadvantages
1. If the problems facing a group or organisation are complex, the lack of cross-fertilisation of ideas between
all the elements may make it difficult to find appropriate solutions. Furthermore, the crucial importance
of the central position demands a very high quality of individuals to run this element of the organisation.
2. The wheel pattern may work well so long as it is no controlling too may departments or sections, but
when the number of elements under control becomes large the channels of communication may become
so may that central control becomes overloaded
Circle Structure
Every section communicates with the one on either side of it. No one position is more important or dominate
than any other. Thus ‘B’ would communicate with ‘A’ and ‘C’. to communicate with ‘E’, ‘B’ would have to go
through subject ‘A’ or through subject ‘C’ and ‘D’.
B E
A
E
C
D
D
Advantages
It is a democratic arrangement, suitable where there is no clear leader.
Disadvantages
Communication is restricted to the section on either side, so that problem-solving can be impaired because of
lack of communications with other sections. The lack of a clear leadership position can delay decisions and is
not suitable for situations where a leader is called upon to wield authority.
Chain Structure
Can be divided into two sub-groups namely, multiple chain and single chain. In the multiple chain structure the
top person has communication flow to two subordinates, each of whom controls sections which interact with
other section. The top position has the advantage of this double flow of information.
Multiple Chain Structure

Top Position
C
B D
E
A E
The single chain structure might represent two subordinates ‘A’ and ‘E’ reporting to supervisor ‘B’D
and ‘D’
respectively who in turn report to the same supervisor ‘C’
Single Chain Structure

A
Advantages
Some positions (depending on the type of the chain) have
B
the advantage of two communication flows. Also, by restriction
the number o f channels that can be used for communication, the
dangers of overload are avoided. B
Disadvantages A
1. This is a slow type of information flow
2. There is considerable risk of messages becoming
distorted as they pass along the various links of the chain.
All Channel Structure C

A
E
B F
E
D E
D
In the all channel structure every section has two-2way communication with every other section . All elements
in the organisation are connected into single column networks.
Advantages
1. This pattern provides the maximum flow of information;
2. It is very useful for committee or conferences
3. Every element in the structure can contribute information, ask question s and put forward possible
solution to problems, ask question and put forward possible solutions to problems.
Disadvantages
1. The absence of a clear leadership position can be a drawback; even in one position is nominated to lead,
the sheer flow of communication can cause confusion and make it difficult to come to swift decisions.
2. With such vast flow of information a certain amount of repletion and circulation of useless information
may take place
COMMUNICATION & ORGANISATION GOALS

All communication patterns and networks have advantages and disadvantages. Organisations are trying to
achieve two goals and they use a communication structure – to produce utilities (goods and services) and to
provide job satisfaction for their workers.
Communication can assist with both:

 Production will be more efficient where there is a clear flow of instruction and clear decision making
 Job satisfaction will be increased where workers have information and can participate in the
communication network to put forward their own observations and ideas.
Unfortunately, the type of structure which assists the production of utilities is different from that which
facilitates the increasing of job satisfaction. The wheel & chain tend to work best for increasing productive
performance, whereas the circle and the all channel patterns assist job satisfaction because of their more
democratic structure.
We can relate the type of communication network to the organisational structure. Where the organisation is
authoritarian (eg the army) then we find the wheel or the chain. Decisions are swift and there is little
consultation with subordinates. In a more democratic organisation we are likely to finds the circle or the all-
channel structure
Additional Notes
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10. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Intercultural or cross cultural communication is a special type of communication in which people from
different cultures have to communicate one with another. These people from different cultures may have
different ways of seeing the world. This type of communication can make people very tense and anxious.
They find it very difficulty to understand other people’s ways of thinking.
Intercultural communication involves a high risk. This is because we may have to give up strongly held ideas.
We may also have to change attitudes which we regard very important. People involved in intercultural
communication may be using different verbal and non-verbal codes. Even if they use the same codes, they
may attach different meanings to them.
People will, therefore have to negotiate meanings much more carefully. The results of any communication are
less predictable. People could also find it much more difficult to plan accurately for other people’s responses.
Key Definitions
Culture - This term refers to systems of beliefs, assumptions and values that people share. The system acts as
a set of rules that keep a group of people together. These people will share a view of themselves and of the
world. They will use shared symbolic codes such as language.
Culture as applied to an organisation - the word culture as it is used in organisations refers to the sharing of a
set of ideas, values and attitudes. These values and attitudes develop slowly over time. Members of an
organisation understand the cultural values of their organisation once they have worked there for some time.
These values hold the organisation together
Cultural relativity – this term refers to people’s classification of other cultures in terms of the way in which
they view their own culture. Such people are unable to understand the true natures of other cultures because
they have a fixed way of describing another culture. This fixed way may be totally inaccurate, but they do not
understand this. They judge other cultures as good or bad, from the point of view of their own culture.
Cultural mores – this term describes the customs and habits that cultural groups accept as high. These
customs and habits will vary from culture to culture.
Climate in an organisation – this term describes the day-to-day atmosphere in an organisation. It refers to the
ways in which people behave towards one another. A climate in an organisation may change fairly rapidly.
The climate in an organisation is determined by the ways in which employees work together in their formal
and informal encounters.
The climate will be created according to who speaks to whom, and by people’s perceptions of the interactions.
The climate will be affected by perceived differences in power between people. These perceived differences in
power are especially important in intercultural communications. If people of one perceive themselves to be in
an inferior position, they are likely to be defensive. Good intercultural communication has a far greater
change of success between people who perceive themselves to be of equal status.
Affirmative action – is a process whereby organisations take special steps to help train, and employ people of a
specific cultural group or cultural groups. These people may have been seriously disadvantaged because they
were discriminated against or may have been disadvantaged because:
 They were not allowed access to good education
 They were prevented from having certain jobs
 They were denied access to post-school training and education because they did not have enough
money
Affirmative action could take the following forms:
 Bursaries for education and training given to specify cultural groups
 Posts in organisation given to people from specific cultural groups
 Specific on-the-job training given to people from specific cultural groups
Cultural stereotyping - this term refers to what people do when they describe people of a specific culture or
ethnic group in a particular way. They will classify every member of a culture or ethnic group in the same way.
They do not allow for individual differences within the culture that they are stereotyping. People from one
culture who describes another culture in this fixed way will behave as though their stereotyping is true. They
may, however, have no confidence.
Such people will label every individual from the other culture in the same way. They may, for example, classify
another cultural group as lazy or dishonest. Any person they meet from this group will then be classified as
lazy or dishonest even if they have no evidence to prove these classifications.
Ethnocentrism – this term refers to people’s unconscious belief in the superiority of their own culture. They
believe that other cultures are inferior, even though they have no evidence or proof. They place their culture
at the centre of their world. They then measure all other cultures in relation to their own and view them as
inferior.
Racism - This describes the belief in the biological superior of a group over another. A cultural group having
racist views may regard other cultures as inferior. They will communicate with them using language and non
verbal communication that make their feelings of superiority clear to the other group. Racism is based on
ethnocentrism, prejudice and feelings of superiority. A racialist view may highlight differences between
cultures. This approach may lead to conflict
World View – a world view is central in any culture. The term refers to any culture’s philosophical view of God,
man, nature and the universe. This world view is taken for granted in any culture. It runs through all aspects of
cultural life.
The African, Asian and European world views are examples. If good intercultural communication is to be
achieved, then the world view of each culture needs to be acknowledged and accepted.
The African world view may, for example, value the concept of Ubuntu (Hunhu). This concept refers to the
achievement of personhood through participation in the community. This view stresses that an individual has
no value unless s/he has strong connections with other people sharing the same culture. The Western World
View, on the other hand, may value individual enterprise. People are expected to take initiative and make
their own way of life
Acculturation – this term refers to a person’s ability to adapt to another culture. In an organisation,
acculturation means adapting to the corporate culture.
The Convergence Model

The Convergence Model of communication is used as a tool of understanding Intercultural Communication.
This model stresses the transactional and continuing process of communication.
In this model the sender and receiver are shown constantly exchanging messages until they reach and
understanding. The arrow shows that communication does not stop there. It continues for as long as the
sender and receiver have anything to do with each other.
The convergence model shows the sender and receiver as both encoders and decoders of messages. As they
send messages back and forth they are constantly changing roles. As they continue the transactions, they
arrive at an understanding. However, the communication is still not perfect. This is shown in the model by the
partially overlapping shapes. The sender and receiver do not share all their experiences and meanings. If that
particular transaction had not been perfect, the shapes would have overlapped fully. Had the shapes not met
at all, no communication would have taken place.
The convergence model is very useful for helping people to understand intercultural communication. It
supports the view that good communication is a negotiation of meaning. This negotiation of meaning is
especially important when people from different cultures are communicating face-to-face.
The Convergence Model
Encode
RECEIVE
R
Decode
Encode
SENDE
R
Decode
Encode
SENDE
R
Sender Receiver Decode
Understanding
Encode
RECEIVE
R Decode
The sender from one culture encodes a message and speaks to a receiver from another culture. The receiver
decodes the message but is not quite sure about the meaning. He then encodes a message to clarify the
original sender’s message. In this way the two people exchange messages. They keep negotiating until they
reach some understanding. This situation assumes that both people are willing to communicate and have a
positive attitude one towards each other. Problems arise, however, when their attitudes are negative.
Problems may arise if they do not understand each other’s language. There are many barriers to effective
intercultural communication some of which have already been identified above.
The need for shared experiences and meanings for successful communication is particularly important in
intercultural communication. People from different cultures will find it particularly difficult to communicate.
They would need to take special care to establish common ground for communication. In particular, they
would need to cultivate caring attitudes that would remove any suggestion of superiority or inferiority.
Cultural values would need to be acknowledged, and both groups would need to listen actively to ensure they
understand both the facts, opinions and the emotions communicated.
People should avoid negative generalisations about each other’s culture. For example, a person from one
cultural group should be careful not to take the attitude that everyone from the other group is dishonest or
lazy. From this general statement, that person might then think that a particular person from that group is
dishonest and lazy. This attitude is called cultural stereotyping. Communicators should be careful not to see
things only from their own cultural point of view. This is called ethnocentrism. Each group should strive to
understand the cultural background of the other group. If this were achieved, they would understand why
each communicated in a particular way
Barriers to intercultural communication

Barriers refer to the way in which communication is stopped or made difficult. The major barriers to effective
intercultural communication are as follows:
1. Cultural stereotyping
2. Ethnocentrism
3. Defensiveness - People are not open to new possibilities. They are reluctant to listen to new ideas. They
refuse change from past attitudes and styles
4. Different languages
5. Different ways of using and interpreting the non-verbal code
6. Different ways of interacting - Some cultures place high value on being direct and getting to the point.
Other cultures value a less direct approach.
7. Different values and beliefs - People do not see the world the same way.
8. Prejudices - People may, for example, have strong negative beliefs about another culture. They will,
however, have no proof to support their prejudices.
9. Assumptions - People assume that certain things are true, even though they may not be.
10. Different ways of thinking - People from different cultures may think differently. One culture may, for
example, value facts as proof. Another may value intuition as a way of arriving at a solution.
11. Unequal power – if people from different cultures have different levels of power in an organisation, they
may not communicate very well. A manager from one culture may perceive her/himself as superior to
workers from another.
12. Failure to allow individual differences within a culture – people from one cultural group may view all
people from another cultural group as the same. They do not accept that people are different. This
attitude is the same as stereotyping.
13. Different word views. People holding different world views will find it difficult to communicate one with
another.
Ways of improving Intercultural communication

The following are some of the things which organisations can do to improve intercultural communication
1. Organisations should strive to create an atmosphere of trust. Trust should be created by helping all
cultural groups to understand each others’ world view and specific hopes and fears. Fears of another
cultural group may generate dislike. Where there is dislike, people have greater difficulty acknowledging
similarities with other cultures.
Organisations need to encourage staff to respect other cultures’ ways of experiencing life. They need to
encourage staff to have a realistic approach to intercultural communication. Both differences and
similarities need to be accepted and confirmed. Each cultural group should empower the other.
Organisations should stress that people do not have to give up their own ideas if they appreciate and
accept other people’s ideas. All cultural groups in an organisation should feel secure in their cultural
identities. They should feel acknowledged.
2. Organisations should help people to accept differences between cultures in an open and honest way.
They should stress that this acceptance will improve relationships and therefore improve the success of
the organisation.
3. Organisations should help staff to understand the transactional nature of intercultural communication.
Staff should be encouraged to treat communication as a creation of meaning, or a negotiation. This
approach will help staff to understand that communication may not be perfect the first time. They need
to understand the barriers to effective intercultural communication
4. Organisations should encourage staff to work at the individual, one-to-one level. People should be
considered as individuals, rather than as members of a group. If only groups are recognised, then
people seem to classify them as in-groups or out-groups. This approach is likely to encourage
stereotyping and to keep prejudices alive.
5. Organisations should help people to learn about other cultures through the personal experience of
individual relationships. It is difficult to gain an accurate idea of other cultures. This is why people rely
on stereotyping, which may be inaccurate. If people work together as individuals, they rely less on
information that they have gained at the general level about the other cultures. Instead, they gain more
genuine knowledge of the other person’s nature, values and attitudes. Organisations therefore need to
encourage informal socializing.
6. Organisations should help people understand other people’s values. People should become aware of
the difficulties, hopes and fears that other people have.
7. Organisations need to stress that there is a great deal of variation within different cultural groups.
People should be made aware of the dangers of making generalisations about other cultures.
8. Organisations should make staff aware that in intercultural communication members of different
cultures are seen as representatives of the whole group. An unfair burden would then be placed on one
person to represent the group’s point of view.
9. Organisations should, if possible, ensure that there are enough members of each cultural group present.
In this way, people will begin to understand that there are individual differences within the group. They
will then begin concentrating on the person, rather than at the group level. People should be helped to
understand that there are very many differences within one culture. It is virtually impossible to make
general statements about a culture that are totally accurate.
10. Organisations should approach intercultural communication problems directly. These problems should
be discussed openly and honestly.
11. Organisations should make staff aware that differences in social class have significant effects on the
ways in which people perceive intercultural communication. People should be helped to understand
that the same classes from different cultures may share a large number of values.
12. Organisations should make their staff aware that being rich or poor will have a great effect on how
people view intercultural communication. Rich people (or those who claim to be) will see things very
differently from poor people.
13. Organisations should help staff to be aware that different occupations and age-groups will have an effect
on intercultural communication.
14. Organisations need to make staff aware of the dangers of stereotyping when they interact with people
of different cultures. Stereotyping should be openly and honestly discussed.
15. Organisations should encourage a positive attitude to intercultural communication. This attitude will
stress that cultural differences are normal. A negative attitude, on the other hand, will stress the
difficulties of intercultural communication. It will also stress the dangers of cultural differences. This
attitude should be avoided. Organisations should strive to reduce defensiveness.
16. Organisations should do their utmost to change attitudes of superiority and inferiority. Equality in
communications should be stressed.
17. Organisations should encourage people to build a sense of identity. Once people are confident of their
identities they are more likely to accept others from different cultures. Organisations should strive to
reduce fear of one culture for another.
18. Organisations should strive to overcome ethnocentrism. People should be helped to face the challenge
of communication with other cultures. People should be encouraged to interact with other groups.
They should encourage the following types of contact.
– equal status contact
– friendly person-to-person contact
– contact in which all present strive to achieve the organisation’s goals. These goals are placed
above cultural and individuals and individual goals.
– Organisations should provide the administrative support that enables the above contacts to take
place.
19. Organisations should have affirmative action programmes. These programmers should go hand-in-hand
with changes in attitude. If they do not their affirmative action could become window-dressing.
20. Organisations should help people to understand that various cultures have different world views. These
world views need to be understood and acknowledged in a non-judgmental way.
21. Organisations should help staff in very specific ways to understand different ways of communicating. In
particular, staff should understand the following:
a. different languages
b. different approaches towards constructing messages (The Western approach values getting
to the point immediately whereas in African traditional societies the approach differs.
Imagine someone your aunt coming to announce the death of your father or husband. Does
she get to the message immediately?
c. different interpretations of non-verbal communication. In particular the following differ
from culture to culture
- attitudes towards touching
- attitudes towards eye-contact
- attitudes towards the amount of personal space one needs
- attitudes towards the ways in which one’s hands are used in conversation
- attitudes towards dress and levels of smartness
- attitudes towards time

22. Organisations should strive to have a fair language policy. If possible, staff should be encouraged to
learn other people’s languages. In practice, this is not always possible because of the wide variety of
languages spoken. An international trend is to use English as the language of communication.
11. ADDITIONAL NOTES
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION TO AN ENTERPRISE

1. Misunderstandings between members of management and between management and employees are
reduced or eliminated. – Also misinterpretation of instructions is minimized. The creation and
maintenance of good understanding management and employees avoids misunderstandings as well
as hasty reactions to rumours and speculations and gossip which could lead to resentment and
disputes
2. Employees become more loyal to the enterprise if they are kept fully aware of the activities and
affairs.
3. If employees have a quick access to management to make known their complaints, the chances for
junior irritation becoming major complaints, are nullified. Major disputes are time wasting and costly
and should be prevented through effective communication.
4. Employees feel more secure and satisfied if they can obtain solutions to their problems, complaints,
grievances and advice and assistance is quickly made available
5. Employees who know that managers recognises and welcomes new ideas may help the firm by
passing to management new effective suggestions for improving output.
6. Instructions can be passed quickly from management to lower levels and reports to the top. No
bottlenecks leading to delays encouraged.
7. Training of new and existing staff can be more quickly undertaken where necessary.
8. Smooth vertical and horizontal communication leads to smooth operations and coordination of
departments easier.
9. Regular and accurate reports from all quarters to management enables coordination of departments
and their effective control. Decisions based on up to date information are reached quickly and
changes implemented without costly delays.
Communication plays a vital role in part of the manager’s job in terms of the three classes of roles as described
by Henry Mintzberg. In short managers do not manage in isolation, they carry out their management function
by communicating with each other. A large proportion of the manager’s time is spent communicating with
others. Managers rarely spend time thinking alone at their desk. A manager’s day is typically devoted to face
to face communication with superiors, peers and subordinates.
When not communicating directly with others, managers may be writing reports, memos, letters or talking on
the phone. Communication is of vital importance to every manager in the execution of each managerial role.
In their interpersonal roles managers acts as the figurehead to the leader of their organisational unit,
interacting with subordinates supplies and peers in the organisation. In their informational roles managers
seek information from peers, subordinates and other personal contacts about anything that may affect their
job and responsibilities.
They also disseminate interesting or important information in return. In addition they provide supplies and
supply peers and relevant groups outside the organisation with information about their unit as a whole. In
their decisional roles managers implement new projects, handle disturbances and allocate resources to their
unit members and departments. Some of the decisions that managers make are reached in private, but even
these are based on information that has been communicated to them. Managers in turn have to communicate
those decisions to others.
Communication is also important to managers in that it is a process by which managers accomplish the
functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling.
It is an activity to which managers devote an overwhelming proportion of their time.
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. In addition to a sender (the originator i.e. speaker in oral & writer in written communication) there
must be a receiver that clearly understand the message otherwise there is no reason for
communication.
2. There must be adequate method/channel of transmitting (passing) the communication. Should there
be more than one channel available, the sender must rationally select the most appropriate in the
circumstances.
3. The sender must be sure that the receiver understands the language (terms/symbols/figures etc) used
and that the same interpretation will be put on the language at a receiving end as was intended by
the sender.
4. The sender must ensure that there is a provision for feedback to ensure understanding and accurate
reaction to messages.
5. The sender must be prepared to become a receiver when there is a response (the feedback) to the
communication
6. Obstructions (noise, barriers and blocks) or interferences with the smooth or clear flow of
communications must be reduced or eliminated.
TEN COMMANDMENTS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating (plan adequately)
2. Examine the true purpose of each communication (what do you want to accomplish) – identify your
goal. Use appropriate language tone and approach.
3. Consider the total physical and human setting whenever you communicate e.g. ……………..,
circumstances under which you make an announcement, customs and practice social climate
4. Consult with others where appropriate in planning communication.
5. Be mindful of the overtones as well as the basic content of your message – avoid casual statements.
6. Take the opportunity when it arises to convey something of help or value to the receiver
7. Follow-up your communication by asking questions, checking or reviewing performance.
8. Communicate for tomorrow as well as today.
9. Be sure your actions support your action – what you do is more important than what you say.
10. Seek not to be understood but to understand.
11. CASE STUDIES

Introduction
A case study is a description of a situation in a company. This description is used to study an aspect of the
company such as management style of its leaders. A case study might also describe an incident in a company.
This incident is then analysed in terms of the communication, for example.
Case studies are useful for studying problem in organisation. They help students, managers and staff to build
up a knowledge of business principles by examining real situations. There are two types if case studies, that is,
general and specific case studies.
Types of Case Studies
General Case Study

This type of case describes a general situation in which participants have to solve a problem. In this case study
the candidate in normally asked questions such as:
‘What should the company do?’ Or ‘What should X and Y do?’
How to Approach a General Case Study
The following problem-solving procedure is recommended for this type of case.
1. Make sure that you understand the background to the case.

Ask your self the following questions
 What are the characteristics of this type of organisation or company?
 How do people work together in this organisation?

 Why do they work in this way?
 What effects do people’s relationships have on the organisation?
2. Decide on the problems that have to be solved. Problems that seem obvious may not be the real
problems. Careful analysis is therefore necessary to find out what the real problems are. For example,
the obvious problem is that the Sales and Product Development Department do not co-operate. The real
problem, however, is that the Managers of these Department have not been trained in effective problem–
solving skills.
3. Once you have established the real problem, then state the objectives necessary to solve these problems.
Objectives answer the question ‘What should the organisation do to solve the problems?’.
An example of an objective is:

“In order to meet the lack of problem-solving skills the Managing Director should ensure that the two
managers are properly trained in these skills.”
4. Once the objectives have been established, decide on possible courses of action to achieve these
objectives. For example, a possible course of action to ensure that the two managers are trained is to
hold regular seminars on problem solving.
5. Each course of action should now be evaluated against the objectives.
6. The final stage is to decide on the course of action that best meets the objectives.
How to Approach Case Study where specific questions of communication are asked
Case studies also cover specific incidents in the filed of interpersonal or small group communication. Often
specific questions are asked at the end.
Approach this type of case as follows:
1. Read through the case and analyse the following

1. The exact situation in which people are working and interacting
2. The personalities of the people involved.
3. The surroundings in which people are working
2. List all the communication breakdowns
3. analyse each breakdown very carefully. Take into account all the factors that affect the communication.
Pay special attention to
 the sender’s and receiver’s goals, needs, perceptions, personality and mood.
 External pressures on sender and receiver
 The messages being sent and received. Are they spoken, written, non-verbal or graphic? What is
their content?
 Any physical or psychological noise distorting messages.
 Any defence put up by the sender or receiver
 Communication skills with the stress on listening and the ability to communicate both information
and emotion
 Layout of the office with the stress on position and sizes of desks. Check whether the position and
sizes of desk are barriers to communication
 Level of tidiness as this might affect people’s perceptions of others
 The way people are dressed, as this will affect communication
 Use of space with he stress on invasion of others’ space
 Telephone techniques with the stress on handling messages and forming a good relationship with the
caller
Example of a case study

Please read the following case and questions. The questions will be answered to give you an idea of how to
approach this type of case.
See next page

THE INTERVIEW
Nomsa Motsepe had been interviewing job applicants for the trainees manager position since 8.30 am. It was
now 4 pm and she was looking forward to a short break before the final interview of the day. She checked her
schedule – Kelvin Stephens, 4.30 pm. She decided to have coffee sent in to her office, as she did not have time
to go to the canteen.
Unfortunately, Kelvin, who had lost his was, was 20 minutes late. As a result the interview began with Nomsa’s
feeling irritable and Kelvin flustered.
Nomsa: Good afternoon, Mr Stephens. Take a seat.
Kelvin: Thanks Mrs er Ms Mots…..er
Nomsa: MOTSPE. Right. Let’s get started straight away. What made you apply
for this particular job, Mr Stephens?
Kelvin shuffled in his seat and Nomsa noticed that he kept adjusting his tie.
Kelvin: Sorry, I am a bit hot after running here. Phew! Um…… well I have done a management
course at Tech and I …………..this ad. Said it was for a trainee manager.
Nomsa: I see. Do you know anything about ABC Ltd?
Kelvin: Ja, don’t you make toys and that sort of stuff?
Nomsa: You could put it that way. Mr Stephens, we are looking for someone who can think creatively
– do you have any hobbies or activities that are creative at all?
Kelvin: Um, not really. I surf in the summer………….But I enjoy working with people.
Nomsa: Can you give me any examples?
Kelvin: What do you mean?
Nomsa: Well, have you worked in a team, or perhaps organised a surfing competition?
Kelving looked around the room for a few seconds. His gaze settled on Nosma’s coffee cup.
Kelvin: I must have – I just can’t remember now. Um………..i led a group pf scouts on a two-day hike.
Oh yes! I was a member of the Debating Society at school. That can be pretty creative!
Nomsa: Right. Mr Stephens, we are hoping to fill this position by the end of October. Would you be
available then?
Kelvin: Yes. I can’t wait to stop delivering pizzas.

Nomsa: Hmm. Well, I think that’s it. Is there anything you would like to ask me about he firm, or the
position?
Kelvin: Er……….is there a bar on the premises? I would not mind something cool to drink.
Unfortunately, Nomsa did not find Kelvin’s attempted joke funny
Kelvin: Right, if that’s all…………….
Nomsa rose briskly and extended her hand, which Kelvin shook firmly.
Kelvin: Thanks. Sorry I was late. Goodbye Mrs Moetspe

Kelvin left hurriedly, leaving Nomsa nursing her crushed hand.
Questions
1. Analyse the factors that led to the poor start to the interview.
2. Analyse Mrs Motsepe’s interview. Did she run the interview properly? Support your answer with
examples fro the case.
3. Analyse Kelvin Stephens’ behaviour during the interview. Was he properly prepared? Pay special
attention to his answers. How should Gavin have prepared?
4. Analyse the types of questions asked.
5. Analyse the non-verbal behaviour of Kelvin Stephens during the interview. How should he have behaved?
6. Write about 200 words on how a good interview should be prepared and conducted
Answers to Questions
1. The interview started badly because Mrs Motsepe had been interviewing people all day. It seems as
though she had not had much of a break all day. The case states that she did not have enough time to go
to the canteen to fetch her coffee. She must have been tired.
Kelvin Stephens then arrived twenty minutes late. He was flustered and Mrs Motsepe was irritated at the
delay. These factors meant that the interview did not start well.
2. Mrs Motsepe should have started by giving Mr Stephens an idea of the objectives of the interview. She
should then have given him some idea of the types of questions she would be asking.
The interview should have been taken through a set of stages:
- setting Kelvin Stephens at ease
- preliminary negotiation
- detailed negotiation
- closure
Mrs Motsepe was not able to move through these stages very well because of Kelvin Stephens’ poor
answers. She did, however, try to negotiate with Kelvin Stephens by asking him:
- why he had applied for the post
- whether he knew about ABC Ltd
- whether he had any creative hobbies
- whether he had worked in a team
However, she said not go into detail at each stage. The questions seem disjointed. At the end she should
have told Kelvin what would happen next. The interview was not well conducted because both people
were ill at ease.
3. Kelvin Stephens behaved poorly during the interview. He was not properly prepared. He was also ill at
ease, and did not pay attention to his interpersonal behaviour. His first answer was vague. He showed
that the had not prepared fully for the interview. He had not studies the job description, and seemed
vague about why he wanted the job. His other answers were vague and unhelpful. His facetious answer
at the end left a bad impression.
Kelvin should have prepared by:
- studying the job description very carefully
- finding out as much as possible about the company
- preparing answers to anticipated questions
- finding out where the company is so that he could arrive on time
-
4. Mrs Motsepe started by asking an open question to encourage Kelvin to start talking. She then asked a
closed question. This would have been better expressed as:
‘What do you know about ABC Ltd?’
She then asked him a closed question about his hobbies. This could have been better expressed as:
‘Please describe your hobbies’
She could then have asked open and closed questions to find out about his creative abilities
She closed by asking whether he had any questions to ask. This is an effective way of finding out whether
the interviewee has thought about the job.
Mrs Motsepe should have asked open questions with some closed questions to find out details.
5. Kelvin Stephens showed signs of nervousness and lack of preparation. Mrs Motsepe would have noticed
these signs and probably formed a negative opinion of him.
Kelvin’s particular behaviour was
- shuffling in his seat
- frequent adjusting of his tie
- his vague voice
- his hesitant answers
- his poor eye-contact as he gazed at Mrs Motsepe’s coffee cup
Kelvin should have answered boldly and fluently. He should have used good eye contact and sat
comfortably without shuffling. He should have avoided fiddling with his tie.
6. Conducting a good interview
A good interview should be well prepared. The interviewer should start with a clear job description. (S)he
should then clarify her objectives of the interview and prepare and interview plan. Once the interview has
been planned, (s)he should prepare a set of open and closed questions based on the topics to be
discussed.
Once the interviewee has arrived (s)he should be made welcome. The interviewer should explain the
purposes of the interview, and give some idea of topics to be covered. (S)he should do her utmost to set
the interviewee at ease.
The detailed negotiations should then begin. The interviewee should encourage the interview to answer
freely and openly. Open questions should be used so that the interviewer can form impressions of the
interviewee and her or his experience and views. The interviewer should use closed questions to get
specific answers.
The interviewer should bring the interview to a close by asking the interviewee if (s)he has any questions.
The interviewer should then close the interview by telling the interviewee what will happen next.
CLASS EXERCISE
Read the following interpersonal case studies. Answer the questions that follow each case.
Question One
A DAY AT THE APRICOT AGENCY

Thandiwe woke at 0800 hrs on Monday morning to the sound of the telephone ringing. She groped for the
receiver and answered sleepily: “Hello, 7523579”. “Hello, Thandi? It’s Bob from Apricot. Can you come in
today we have an urgent job to be done.”
Apricot was an advertising agency that Thandiwe, as a freelance instructor, worked for regularly.
“Er………yes that should be fine. When should I come in?” “As soon as you can. Thanks. Bye.”
As she was getting ready, Thandi remembered that she had a business appointment at 1630 hrs. “Oh, well. I’ll
sort it out when I get there”, she thought.
Thandi arrived at the Apricot Advertising Agency at 0900 hrs. she told the receptionist, Anne, why she was
there and waited while Bob was called.
“He says you should go straight to the studio. He’ll brief you as soon as he’s ready,” said Anne.
It was 0945 hrs by the time Bob arrived in the studio, looking distracted.
“Ah, Thandi. Sorry! Things are hectic today; so let me give you the brief quickly so you can get on with it. I
need you to illustrate a new fruit juice box. I want very realistic fruit – strawberries, apples, bananas. Here are
my designs, they should give you an idea.”
Thandiwe looked through her designs.
“Fine, Bob,” she said. “So you’d like individual fruit or perhaps strawberries in a basket, or……………”
“Yes, yes. That sort of thing. I need the illustrations by 1700 hrs to show the client. I’ll check on you later – I
have to get back to the meeting.”
Thandiwe was just about to mention here afternoon appointment, but Bob was already on his way out.
Thandiwe started to work straight away. By 1130 hrs she had nearly finished the first drawing. She was so
absorbed in her work that she did not notice Terry looking over her shoulder.
“Who gave you this brief?” asked Terry sharply.
Thandiwe got rather a fright.
“Er………………………..”
“Never mind,” said Terry. “It’s all wrong. We want fruit TREES. You’ll have to do it again.”
“But Bob said he wanted fruit,” said Thandiwe, “I’d better check with………………”
“Never mind,” interrupted Terry. “We need these by 1630 hrs today. Do the trees. We agreed about that – he
must have forgotten.”
With that, Terry left, sighing heavily.
Thandiwe was feeling confused and slightly irritated. She tried to telephone Bob, but he was not available.
She wasn’t sure whether to re-do the illustrations or wait for Bob. She glanced at her watch – nearly 1200 hrs.
she decided to start on the new illustrations or they would not be completed on time.
By 1400 hrs Thandiwe had finished one illustration and was adding the finishing touches to an apple tree when
Bob came into the studio.
“Why the trees?” I’m sure I said individual fruit,” exclaimed Bob.
“Yes, you did. But a woman came in and changed the brief. I tried to get hold of you, but…………….”
“What was her name?” asked Bob, looking angry.
“I’m not sure,” replied Thandiwe. “She had short blonde hair and………………..”
“Terry!” exclaimed Bob. “That interfering #$%^&@! Sorry. Look Thandi, this is my brief. This is what I
want,” he said, pointing to her earlier illustration. “Can you complete three more before 1630 hrs?”
“I should be able to, Bob” said Thandi “but I …………………” Again, Bob left before she could mention her
appointment.
By the time Bob returned to the studio, Thandiwe had finished the work. She had not done as well as she’d
have liked, but she’d to work very quickly.
“These are fine, Thandi,” said Bob. “If you could just correct the colour on the apples. I would like a brighter
green.”
Thandiwe checked her watch – 1610 hrs.
“I’m sorry, Bob. I have an appointment at 1630 hrs which I can’t cancel.”
“Why didn’t you say so earlier?” asked Bob.
“I tried to, but you…………….”
“Never mind,” signed Bob. I’ll correct it myself.”
“I’m sorry,” murmured Thandiwe.
“It’s okay. You’d better rush off to your important date,” said Bob.
Thandiwe noticed the sarcasm in his voice. She left the agency feeling upset, and wishing she’d been more
assertive. As a result, she arrived at her meeting in a bad mood.
Meanwhile, back at the agency…………………… Bob had finished the drawings by 1700 hrs, which meant that the
client had been kept waiting for half an hour.
Questions
1. Analyse the communication between Thandiwe and Bob. Could Thandiwe have handled the
communication better? Explain how she could have done so.
2. Analyse the communication between Thandiwe and Terry. How cold Thandiwe have improved her
communication?
3. Analyse the communication within the Apricot Agency. How could this could this communication have
been improved?
4. Analyse the quality of listening at the Agency. How could Thandiwe, Bob and Terry improve their
listening?
5. If you were asked to prepare a plan for effective communication with the Apricot Agency what sort of plan
would you draw up? [total marks 50]
Question Two
IN A FIX AT SECURE IT
Selwyn arrived at work early, feeling alert and cheerful. He’d played a morning squash game and had won. He
perched on the edge of a desk in the reception area to have his coffee. He liked to chat to the secretary, Stacey,
and the receptionist, Beverly, before going to his office in the mornings. Selwyn’s outgoing, friendly nature
made him an excellent salesman for the firm SECURE-IT, but his ebullience could be a little over-powering first
thing in the morning.
He was giving Stacey (Beverly had not yet arrived) a blow-by-blow account of his squash game, when the
telephone rang. Before Stacey could get to the telephone, Selwyn picked up the receiver.
Selwyn: Secure-it, good morning.
Caller: Hello, this is Mrs. Musikanth speaking. I have an emergency. Hello?
Selwyn: I’m still here. Mrs. Musika.
Caller: Yes, I have an emergency. My husband has……………..

Just then Beverly walked in and noticed that Selwyn was sitting on an important document on her desk. She
had slept badly and was feeling tired and irritable. As a result she shouted rather too loudly at Selwyn t get off
her desk. Selwyn waved his arm to silence her and knocked his coffee over in the process. He leapt off the desk
and tried to mop up the mess with his handkerchief.
Selwyn: I’m sorry, the…………er…………..line is a bit bad. Could you repeat that Mrs
Musics?
Caller: I HAVE AN EMERGENCY. My husband left for a business trio early this
morning with the security gate keys. I can’t get out of the house! I tried to climb
through the window but I can’t get through the bars. I need to get to work as soon as possible. Can
you send someone round?
Selwyn: Yes, Mrs. Music, we have a locksmith. We’ll send him round straight away.
Don’t worry, we’ll soon have you sorted out.
Caller: Good! Thank you so much. Goodbye.
During this conversation, Beverly had been frantically trying to salvage her document. She’d managed to save
most of it from
the coffee – but it would need re-typing.
“Selwyn, you clumsy idiot,” she exclaimed crossly.
“I’m sorry,” said Selwyn, draping his arm over her shoulder. “But at least I answered the phone for you.”
“You are not supposed to answer the phone!” said Beverly, shrugging his arm away.
“If you were here on TIME,: SAID Selwyn, looking at his watch pointedly, “and if Stacey wasn’t half asleep……..”
“That’s unfair!” exclaimed Stacey, glaring at him. The three of them started to argue heatedly. They were so
busy that they did not notice Mr Green. Their boss, who had come into the room.
“Excuse me.” He said loudly, “I have a very upset lady on the telephone. She has been locked in her house for
an hour……………..”
Questions
1. What were the barriers to good communication that led to the argument between Stacey, Selwyn and
Beverly? Give examples to support your argument
2. analyse the telephone conversation between Selywn and Mrs Musikanth. What did Selwyn do wrong?
Give examples to support your answer.
3. How should Selwyn have handled the telephone call?
4. Mr Green has asked you to set up a two-day course in communication to help his staff improve their
interpersonal communication. What aspects of interpersonal communication would you put into the
course? [Total Marks 50]
12. REFERENCES
1. Michael Fielding (1997), Effective Communication in Organisations , Juta
2. Francis J Bergin (1981), Practical Communication, English Language Business Society (ELBS)
3. John R Bittner (1993), Mass Communication: An Introduction , Prentice Hall

4. Fiske J (1990), Introduction to Communication Studies, Routledge, London
5. Peter Little, (1980), Communication in Business, Pitman
6. Peter Little, 1980), Communication at Work , Pitman
7. Dimbleby & Burton (1992), More than Words: An introduction to Communication, Routledge, London
8. Rapid Results Lectures on Communication & Management

9. Storner & Freeman: Management, Prentice Hall
10. Eric Moonman: The manager and the organisation
11. Adey & Andrew: Getting it Right, Juta
12. Stephen Robins, Management, Prentice Hall
13. A. D. Kwaramba (200),Theories of Communication, Media & New Media Technology, Zimbabwe Open
University
14. McQuail & Windhall, Introduction to Communication

15. Desmond Evans: Communication in Organisations
“Never insult a midwife before the child is born”
“Call a spade a spade because if you call a spade a big

spoon you will confuse your children”
INTRODUCTION
In written communication all messages are in writing. There are no gestures, facial expressions, etc
Examples:
8. Informal note -this would be sent to close working colleagues
9. Letter – normally used for externally communication
10.Memorandum - is used for internal communication only
11.Forms – pre-printed forms used internally and externally, eg order forms, invoices etc
12.Notices – normally used to get information to large numbers of people in the organisation. Often placed
on notice boards for all to read.
13.Reports – these are more formal and give a full and accurate summary of a particular topic of interest
within the organisation
14.Press release - this aims to convey information about the organisation to the public via the media, print or
electronic.
Advantages of written communication
10. Can be studied to ensure correct interpretation (provides time for evaluation/analysis)
11. Capable of relaying detailed complex ideas
12. Disseminates information to dispersed receivers
13. Forms basis of contract and agreement
14. Interpret and clarify/reinforce oral communication
15. Messages can be received in absentia
16. Can be referred to at any time to appoint responsibilities
17. Leave records which may be consulted to refresh the memory (Provides written record and evidence)
Disadvantages
8. Instant feedback is not possible
9. Communication tends to be more formal and distant
10. Can cause interpretation problems & may take time to produce
11. Can be costly and expensive to produce
12. Once dispatched – difficult to modify the message
13. Not so convenient where there is need for urgency
14. Permanency can be a drawback – amending or canceling written instructions when they become out
of date is a formidable task, rarely done thoroughly.
1. BUSINESS LETTERS
A. INTRODUCTION
We all write business letters. Managers write them all the time. They may be in reply to enquiries or
acknowledging orders. We may be making claims or answering claims. Maybe we may be asking for
assistance. We may be making a complaint or answering a complaint. Maybe we are asking about someone’s
creditworthiness. Perhaps we are trying to secure payment of an outstanding account. A letter may be a
reply to a letter received or it may be a letter that calls for a reply. Ask yourself if your letter a specific reply to
the questions asked? Will your reader know from your letter precisely what he must reply to?
It is easily forgotten that a letter conveys to the recipient an impression of the writer’s personality and of his
and his firm’s business aptitude. A letter may be very well be the first contact a business has with either you or
your firm; make it as good as an ambassador as you possibly can. There are five characteristics of a good letter
namely
1. Knowing what to say

2. clarity and precision
3. Style
4. Courtesy and
5. Appearance
You quite obviously cannot write a good letter unless you know exactly what you want to say to your
correspondent. The first essential therefore is to grasp all the necessary facts and arrange them logically and
systematically. Writing is like speaking, the expression of your thoughts, and any confusion of ideas leads
inevitably to confusion of expression. If necessary, jot down your thoughts on a piece of paper or along the
margins of the letter you are answering. Each point in your notes will probably become a paragraph in the
letter itself. If you have to answer a number of questions, deal with them one by one, and in the order given.
Do not try to answer two questions with on sentence and do not go back to a question once you have
answered it. If you yourself are asking questions separate them in the same way. Like any other form of
communication – think out what you have to say very carefully
Clarity & precision

1. Having made up your mind about what to say, say it clearly as possible.
2. Arrange the words and sentences so that they at once convey your exact meaning and nothing else.
3. Choose your words and phrases carefully and use every word in its full and exact sense. This means that
you omit any word or phrase that is at all ambiguous. There should be only one possible meaning, and
this should be easily understood by the reader.
Make sure that your letter does not contain parts which are least needed for clearness of presentation. Strike
out all unnecessary words. Always eliminate the repetition of an idea.
Style
Letters may be written in:
1. The first person singular form
Example: “I thank you for your order for ten suits and am asking that work on these commence
immediately.”
2. The first person plural form
Example: “We thank you for your order for ten suits and we are commencing work on these
commence immediately.”
3. Impersonal passive form
Example: “Your letter of ten suits has been received and work is commencing on these immediately”
The first person singular is used by a senior executive of a company where he has authority to bind it and
where his opinions obviously matter. A junior member of staff should use the plural where as the impersonal
passive would be appropriate where the subject being written is very formal.
 Avoid clumsy expressions
Instead of saying………. Say……………

We are prepared to offer We offer
Considerable period Long time
We are in agreement with. We agree
Owing to unforeseen circumstances Unexpectedly
We have to acknowledge receipt of We have received
Furnish all necessary particulars Give details
Terminate End
Acquaint Tell

 Avoid expressions replete with tautology such as

‘World-recognition by all’. World-wide mean by all
‘Surrounding circumstances’. The word circumstances means things that surround
‘Continue to remain.’ Remain means to continue in place
 Avoid out-moded words such as ‘hereat’, ‘therewith’, ‘hereto’ ‘thereto’,’ herein’ they are pompous
and stilted. You would never use them in ordinary conversation so why use them in written
communication?
Do not say ‘enclosed please find’. ‘We enclose’ or I enclose’ is shorter and simpler. Do not say ‘enclosed
Name of Company
herewith’. If an article is enclosed it must be herewith – and vice versa.
Address
Avoid being flowery. ‘The favour of your immediate reply will oblige’ is a ridiculous way of saying, ‘I shall be
glad to hear you by return.’
Be careful about the use of the word ‘position’. Often it is used as mere padding. Do not say ’The position
regarding the supply of raw materials is deteriorating’ when you mean simply ‘The supply of raw materials is
Website address:
deteriorating’. E-mail: Telephone: Fax:
Such phrases as ‘in relation to’, ‘in respect of’, with regard to’ can nearly always be replaced by the simple
words ‘about’, ‘for’ or ‘of’
Our Ref: PJD/ptc
Your Ref
Punctuation is important in letter writing too, as it can completely change the meaning of a phrase or
sentence. Punctuation is subject to rules and cannot be done in a haphazard way. If you write short crisp
sentences2002
18 November you won’t have to worry so much punctuantion anyhow.
Courtesy
Mrs Ethel
As theWright
saying goes, ‘politeness costs nothing except in a telegram’. While it is essential to guard against
Managing Director
servility in your correspondence a discourteous letter is probably more detrimental than person discourtesy.
Chirango Manufacturers
The stigma Pvtdiscourtesy
of personal LTD attaches to the particular person guilty and my well be forgotten in time. A
25 Willovale Roadletter, however, reflects on the company as whole, and besides all the immediate damage it mint
discourteous
LEEDSinflict the written word always remains and cannot be denied at a later stage.
LS4 8JT
Appearance
A good business letter is clearly worth money. Every business letter should be pleasant to read. In academic
Dear Mrs Wright
circles this should be achieved by a good, clear and neat handwriting. Stationery for a business letters should
be of a quality good enough to indicate that the organisation does not need to stint money without being
extravagant on the other hand. Flashiness should be avoided in the headings.
FULLY BLOCKED LETTER LAYOUT
This letter layout has become firmly established as the recommended way of setting out letters. Its main
feature is that all typing lines begin at the left-hand margin.
When writing a letter always use the fully blocked layout
Open punctuation is usually adopted with this letter layout; that is to say no punctuation marks are necessary
except Company
in the body of the letter. You will notice, for example, an absence of punctuation marks from the date,
Company
the inside address, the salutation and the complimentary close.
Logo Logo
With equal spacing between all sections of the letter (one clear line space), most people agree that this
layout is very attractive and easy to type as well as business-like.
Yours sincerely
Writer’s
Format for a business letter
Signature
B. FORMAT FOR A BUSINESS LETTER

P T CHIRANGO
GENERAL MANAGER
List of Directors
1. Letterhead
All letters should be written on a letter head. All examinations now require students should to
write/design letterheads in the examination. This stems from the realization that whenever a
company writes a business letter it has to be put on a letter head in order for it to be considered
authentic.
Every letterhead should include the following information:

i. Name of Company
ii. Physical and/or Postal Address of the Company
iii. Company Logo
iv. Company Telephone, Fax Number
v. Company E-mail Address &
vi. Company Website Address
The letter head must be colorfully designed depicting a professional image of the company.
2. Reference
Many letterheads have ‘Our ref’ & Your ref’ printed on them. A reference will normally include the
initials of the writer in upper case and the typist in or lower case. A file or department reference may
also be included. The reference is placed above the date.
Examples: GBD/ptc GBD/jb/Persa1

GBD/jb/526
3. Date
This is the date on which the letter was written. It is usual to show the date in the order
day/month/year, and this is always typed in full. The date is placed above the inside address.
Example 18 November 2002
4. Sender’s address
The inside name and address of the recipient should be typed on separate lines as it would appear on
an envelope. Care should be taken to address the recipient exactly as they sign their letters. For
example, a person signing as ‘James Leighton’ would not be pleased to be addressed as ‘J Leighton’. If
a person’s title is known, it should be used in this section immediately after the name.
5. Salutation
This is the standard opening of a letter. The person named in the address should be named here.
If the name is given use ‘Dear Mr/Mrs/Miss/Dr.etc.,
If a post is a name, then use Dear sir or Dear madam.
Never say Dear Sir/Madam.
If a company is named, then use ‘Dear Sirs’
6. Subject Line
This is a heading that gives the subject of the letter. It is essential to have this heading. It should be
typed in capitals and underlined. It could also be typed in bold capitals. The subject line should
always stand out from the letter. It is place after the salutation
7. Body of the letter

This includes the following:
1. The opening paragraph that gives the subject of the letter
2. The middle paragraphs that develop the letter
3. The closing paragraph that summarises, stresses action and generates goodwill.
8. Complimentary Close
The complimentary close should be ‘Yours sincerely’ f someone has been named. However, if ‘Dear
Sir (s),’ or Dear Madam’ has been used, then the letter should end with ‘Yours faithfully’
9. Signature
The sender should sign his/her name above the typed name.
After the complimentary Close, skip 5 clear lines for the signature.
10 Name of Sender
This gives the full name and surname of the sender, followed by the sender’s position in the company.
If the sender does not show otherwise, the reader will assume that the sender is a man. It is very
important that senders state how they wish to be addressed. For example woman might wish to be
Name of Company
addressed as Ms, Miss or Mrs. Senders might have special titles such as ‘Dr’ or ‘Prof’. These should
be shown after the typed name. Address
11. Reference to items enclosed.
Telephone Number
The term ‘Encl’ is used to show that another document is enclosed with the letter. This could refer to
Fax
several documents. It is useful as a record that other documents have been sent.
E-mail
12. List of Company Directors
Most letterheads show a list of company Directors Website address
in the footer of the page. Most examination
boardies now require students to also a list of directors in the footer of the letter. The names of
Directors must be written in very small print.
Reference Our Ref: AM/ptc/Pers
Your Ref:
Company
Date Logo 22 May 2002
Receiver’s Address Mr Adams Mapfumo (Title

& Name in full)
Administration Manager (Job Title)
Compulink Pvt Ltd (Name of Company)
77 Angwa Street (Address in Full)
HARARE (city/town)
Zimbabwe (Country)
Salutation Dear Mr Mapfumo (Title & Surname Only)
Subject Line Order for Computers

Signature
Body of a letter Thank you for your letter of …
C. RULES FOR WRITING GOOD BUSINESS We are delighted to inform you that………….
LETTERS
The body of a letter should contain the message you have to convey. It is important to convey this message
accurately, briefly and concisely in plain English. Plain writing does not mean adopting a boring, dull style, but
simply writing in an
Complimentary easy, natural way without becoming
Close Yours long-winded
sincerely or or too familiar.
Yours The secret of good
faithfully
business letter writing is to write in plain language as in one person is talking to another.
1. Write clearly and to the point Writer’s

If you are quite clear about what you want to say in your letter, you should be able to say it clearly and in a
language your recipient will understand – as though youSignature
were having a conversation with them. Keep your
sentences short, and avoid over use of conjunctions such as, ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘however’, these tend to make
sentences too long.
Typed Name Mr Patson Chirango

Position
2. in
Be Company
Courteous & Considerate SALES MANAGER
Reference to items enclosed Enc (2)
List of Directors
Courtesy does not mean using old fashioned phrases such as’ ‘your kind enquiry’ your valued custom etc. It
means showing a consideration for your correspondent. Courtesy is a quality that enables r request to be
refused without killing all hope of future business or allows a refusal to perform a favour to be made without
killing a friendship.
Courtesy means replying promptly to all letters – answer letters on the same day they are received, if possible.
Courtesy means understanding and respecting the recipient’s point of view and resisting the temptation to
reply as if they were wrong. If you feel your correspondent’s comments are unfair, try to respond tactfully
without giving offence. Try to resist the temptation to reply to a rude letter in the same tone. Instead answer
courteously without lowering your dignity.
3. Adopt a tone suited occasion

For your letter to achieve its purpose, the tone must be correct as it reflects the spirit in which you project
your message. It is possible to convey any message. It is possible to convey any message in a way that would
not cause offence, even if it is a complaint or a reply to such a letter. Ignoring the tone could result in a
message that sounds aggressive, tactless, rude, curt, sarcastic or offensive to your recipient.
Instead of saying …………. Say…………..

We cannot do anything about your problem Unfortunately, we are unable to help you on this
occasion
This problem would not have happened if The problems will be resolved by connecting the wires in
You had connected the wires properly accordance with the instructions provided
Your television’s guarantee is up, so The guarantee for your television has expired so
you will have to pay for it to be fixed unfortunately you would have to pay the cost of any
repairs
4. Write naturally and sincerely
Try to take genuine interest in the recipient and their problems. Your message should sound sincere, while
written in your own way. Write naturally as if you are having a conversation
Instead of saying………. Say……………

I have pleasure in informing you…… I am pleased to tell you
We do not anticipate any increase in prices. We do not expect prices to rise
Please be good enough to advise us. Please inform us or Please let us know
Please layout us with a reply Please let us have your comments as soon as possible
5. Avoid wordiness
Business people today have many letters to read. They welcome the letter which is direct and to the point.
Instead of saying………… Say………………

We would like to express our regret at being We are sorry we cannot meet your requirements.
unable to fulfill your requirement.
I am sorry to have to point out that we do not We are presently out of stock of this item.
have these goods in stock at the present moment
in time
We are writing with reference to……….. We are writing about……….
We shall be in a position to……….. This information is needed for/to………
In the course of the next few weeks………. We shall be next few weeks……..
Payment of their account will be made by Chirango will pay their account next
Chirango next month
6. Avoid commercial jargon

Do not use roundabout, old fashioned phrases that add nothing to the sense of your message. They may have
been used in business letters several decades ago, but they have not place in today’s modern business
language. A good business letter will use no more words than are necessary to convey a clear and accurate
message. It will also be free of unnecessary long-winded jargon as shown in these examples.
Instead of ….. Say……..

The write wishes to acknowledge………..
We are in receipt of…………
We beg to acknowledge receipts of……… Thank you of your letter of
We beg to thank you for your letter of……..
The favour of your early reply will be appreciated.
Awaiting the favour of your early reply. Omit all these
Assuring you of your best attention at all times.
At your earliest convenience ………..……as soon as possible.
Enclosed please find……………… I/We enclose………………..
………………..only too pleased to …………..very glad to……………
Please be good enough to advise us please let us know
…………..under separate cover Separately (or by registered post, etc)
…………..your goodself You
……………take into consideration…….. Consider……………
7. Write simply & effectively
Plain, simple words will be more easily understood than long words. Single words should be used instead of
elaborate phrases.
Instead of Say
Communication Letter
Purchase Buy
Terminate End
Utilize Use
In the near future Soon
At the present time Now/at present
Come to the decision Decide
D. STRUCTURING THE BODY OF A LETTER

When writing a business letter it must be very short and precise. When replying to a letter, it is useful to
underscore or highlight each part of the letter that asks for information or which requires comment. Then
arrange your reply in a relevant order planning which point you will mention first, second, etc. As a general
rule the body of a letter should flow logically from the beginning to the end. The following four point plan
might be useful in mastering this technique
1. Opening or Introduction
This should:
1. Tell the reader immediately what the letter is about
2. Summarise key points
3. Establish goodwill through its tone
4. The opening paragraph should be written with short sentences and a simple vocabulary.
5. It should be written to give the reader a good first impression.
If responding to a previous communication the first paragraph will acknowledge any previous correspondence
or provide an introduction to the matter being discussed.
Examples
1. Thank you for your letter of ………….
2. Further to your letter of ………………………
3. With reference to your of …………………………
4. Following our telephone conversation this morning I am delighted to inform you that……….
5. We wish to hold our annual conference at your hotel on Wednesday 18 November.
6. A colleague recommended that I should contact you regarding…………………..
7. We have received your order number………….
8. The above consignment was received by us today…………..
NB….If you begin your letter with, ‘Further to you letter of ……………..’ or ‘With reference to ………. do not forget
such expressions need to be followed by a comma and continued, otherwise the sentences will be incomplete
Never apologise in the first paragraph please!!
2. Middle Paragraphs
After the introduction your second should preferably begin as follows
We are pleased to inform that………………
We are delighted ………….
This section will be the main part of the letter. This is where you give all the information which has been
requested or which the recipient needs to know. Alternatively, you could be requesting information advice.
All the facts should be stated in this central section, arranged logically in separate paragraphs where
appropriate.
After all the details have been provided, it is logical to state the response required from the recipient, or what
action you wish them to take. Alternatively, you may state what action you will take as a result.
Examples
1. If payment is not made within seven days, we will have no alternative but to place this matter in the hands
of our solicitor
2. Please complete the enclosed reply form and return it to us immediately for a full colour catalogue and
price list
3. Please let us know the costs involved, and also send us some specimen menus
Middle paragraphs should:

1. Be short and written in a clear and simple style
2. Be very well set out using a range of techniques such as headings and lists to make them as readable
as possible
3. Have short sentences
4. The middle paragraphs should develop the letter logically, giving the necessary facts.
4. Final Paragraph (Closure)
This is a very important paragraph. It should

1. Be written clearly and simply
2. Be written with effective tone to generate goodwill
3. State what the reader should do next
4. State what the writer will do next
5. Leave a good final impression
A simple one-line close will usually be that that is required finish off your letter.
Examples
1. I look forward to hearing from you soon
2. a prompt reply would be appreciated
3. we apologise again for any inconvenience
4. If you require any further information, please let me know.
Avoid the closing with a sentence, which begins with a participle,

for instance, ‘Thanking you in anticipation’ or ‘Looking forward to hearing from you’. Such expressions are not
full sentences and should not be used in modern business letter writing. (See table below)
Instead of saying ……… Say………
Hoping to hear from you soon I/We hope to hear from you soon
Trusting this information meets with your I trust this information meets with your
requirements requirements
Looking forward to our next meeting I look forward to our next meeting
Every business letter should adopt a diamond shape as indicated below
Key
Points
More &
more detail
Goodwill
Action/
Summar
y Close
Example of a well structured letter (See next page)

Company
Logo
Institute of Secretaries
Wilson House
West Street
LONDON
SW1 2AK
Tel: 081 987

2432
Fax: 081 987
2556
Website address: www//http://inst.co.za. E-mail: Secretaries@Institute.co.org
Our ref JT/SAT/ptc
18 November 2002
Mrs Janice L Price

The Adminstration Manager
15 Knight Road
Manchester
M2 9GJ
Dear Mrs Price
SECRETARIES’ CONFERENCE
I have pleasure in inviting you to attend our special conference to

be held atFormat
the Clifton Hotel onletter
for a business 8/9 October.
(Opening)
This is an intensive, practical conference for professional secretaries, with
the aim of increasing their managerial and office productivity, and bringing (Follow-
up)
them up-to-date with the latest technology and techniques.
The seminar is power-packed with a distinguished panel of professional speakers,

giving expert advice on many useful topics. A detailed programme is enclosed (Details)
giving full information on this not be missed conference
If you to decide to join us, please complete the enclosed registration form
and return it to me before 30 June with you fee of $50 per person. (Action)
II. TYPES OF LETTERS
I am sure you will not want to miss this opportunity of attending our conference, (Close)
and look 1forward
. ENQUIRY
to meeting LETTERS
you there.
These letters are written when one is asking for information about goods or services offered by the supplier..
Yours sincerely
When asked to write one you must observe the following procedures:
Institute of Secretaries
1. State clearly and concisely what you want - general information, a catalogue, price list, sample
quotation etc
Writer’s
2. If there is a limit to the price at which you are prepared to buy, do not mention this, otherwise
Signature the supplier may raise the quotation to the limit you mention
Mrs Margie Choto
CONFERENCE SECRETARY
Enc
3. Most suppliers state their terms of payment when replying, so there is no need for you to ask for
them unless you are seeking special rates.
4. Keep your enquiry brief and concise.
Enquiries mean potential business, so they must be acknowledged promptly. If it is from an established
customer, say how much you appreciate it. If it is from a prospective customer, say you are glad to receive it
and express the hope of a lasting and friendly relationship
FORMAT FOR A LETTER OF ENQUIRY
Subject line
This clearly announces the subject
First Paragraph
Start with a clear statement on what you have written the letter. State
1. What you want
2. Who wants it
3. Why it is wanted
Do not apologise at the beginning
Middle paragraphs
This part should give exact details, preferably in a list
Final Paragraph
Generate goodwill by thanking the reader and reinforcing the action asked at the beginning
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS
Requests
1. We are interested in ………………and should be pleased if you would send us…………..
2. We have received and enquiry for……………and should be grateful if you would send us………..
3. We have seen your advertisement in ……………………….
4. I understand you are manufacturers of…………………….. and should like to receive your current catalogue.
Closes
1. An early reply would be appreciated
2. When replying, please include delivery details
3. Please also state whether you could supply the goods from stock, as we need them urgently
4. If you can supply suitable goods, we may place regular orders for large quantities
REPLIES TO LETTERS OF ENQUIRY & REQUEST

These replies should be specific. They should answer each item so that the reader can use answers to make a
decision. Writers should also try to generate goodwill because these letters could result in business for their
company. The plan for the letters should also be as follows:
Subject Line
This should clearly announce the subject
First Paragraph
1. Thank the enquirer for her/his letter
2. Restate the request to show that you have understood the inquiry
3. Use the paragraph to generate goodwill
Middle of the letter

1. Give exact answers, point-by-point.

2. If you are enclosing price lists or any other messages, refer to them
3. If you cannot meet with any request, say so and express regret. Always try to be as helpful as possible.
Say why you cannot give all the information
Final Paragraph
Invite the write to respond for any help or information he may need
Use this paragraph to generate goodwill
Example
Dear sir
Will you please send me a copy of your current typewriter catalogue and price list? I am particularly interested
in purchasing an electronic typewriter with a memory and single line display
Yours faithfully
Reply
Dear Miss Mutandwa
I have pleasure in enclosing the catalogue of typewriters which you requested in your letter of 18 March 2002.
this includes details of a number of electronic typewriter by various manufacturers.
As you mention your requirement for a memory, have you considered a dedicated word processor? You will
find details on pages 15-25 and will see from the price list that prices of the smaller models compare very
reasonably with electronic typewriters.
If you would like demonstrations on any of the models in the catalogue, I would be happy to arrange for our
representative to call on you whenever convenient
Yours sincerely
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS
Replies to Requests
Openings
1. Thank you for letter of…………………….. As requested we enclose……………..
2. In reply to your letter of ………we are sending by separate post……………
3. I am pleased to learn from your letter of……………that you are interested in our……………
4. We were pleased to receive your enquiry of……………..for …………..
Closes
1. We look forward to receiving a trial order from you soon
2. We shall be pleased to send you any further information you may need
3. I hope the samples reach you safely and look forward to receiving your order
4. Ay order you may place with us will have prompt attention.
2. QUOTATION LETTERS
A quotation is a promise to supply goods on terms stated. A satisfactory quotation includes the following:
1. An expression of thanks for the enquiry

2. Details of prices, discounts and terms of payment
3. Clear indication of what the prices cover, for example, packing, carriage, insurance etc
4. An undertaking as to date of delivery
5. The period for which the quotation is valid
6. An expression of hop that the quotation will be accepted
Requests for quotations.
This request complies with the requirement of a satisfactory letter of enquiry

1. It states clearly and concisely what is required
2. It explains what the paper is for, and thus helps the supplier to quote for paper of the right quality
3. It state the amount required, which is important because of the effect of quantity upon price
4. It states when delivery is required, an important condition in any contract of purchase of goods
5. It states what the price is to cover, in this case delivery at our works
Example 1
Dear Sir
We shall shortly be requiring 50 reams of good quality white poster paper suitable for auction bills and poster
worked generally. We require paper which will retain its white appearance after pasting on walls and
hoardings.
Please let us have a quotation, including delivery at out works within four weeks of our order, together with
some samples.
Yours faithfully
Reply
Dear Miss Farashishiko
We thank you for your enquiry of yesterday and, as requested, enclose samples of different qualities of paper
suitable for poster work.
We are pleased to quote as follows
A1 quality Printing Paper white $1.21 per kg

The prices include delivery at your works.
All these papers are of good quality and quite suitable for poster work. We guarantee that they will not
discolour when pasted.
We can promise delivery within one week from receiving your order and hope you will find both samples and
prices satisfactory.
Yours faithfully
Tabulated Quotations
Many quotations are either tabulated or prepare on special forms. Such tabulated quotations are
 Clear, since information is presented in a form which is readily understood
 Complete, since essential information is unlikely to be omitted
Tabulated quotations are particularly suitable where there are many items. Like quotations on specially
prepared forms they should be sent with a covering letter which…….
1. Express thanks for the enquiry

2. Makes favorable comment on the goods themselves
3. Draws attention to other products likely to interest the buyer
4. Express hope of receiving the order
Such treatment creates a favourable impression and helps to build goodwill.
Quotations not accepted

When a buyer rejects a quotation or other offer, it is courteous to write an thank the supplier for their trouble
and explain the reason for rejection. The letter of rejection should:
1. Thank the supplier for their offer

2. Express regret at inability to accept
3. State reasons for non-acceptance
4. If appropriate, make a counter offer
5. Suggest that there may be other opportunities to do business together.
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS
Requests for quotations

1. Please quote for the supply of…………………..
2. Please send me a quotation for the supply of………..
3. We wish to have the following work carried out and should be glad if you would submit an estimate
Closes
1. As the matter is urgent we should like this information by the end of this we expect to place a large order.
2. If your prices compare favourably with those of other suppliers, we shall send you an early order
Replies to requests for quotations
Openings
1. Thank you for your letter of…………………………..

2. We thank you for your enquiry of…………and are pleased to quote as follows.
3. With reference to your enquiry of………….we shall be glad to supply…………….at the price of………
4. We are sorry to learn that you fins our quotation of………………….too high.
Closes
1. We trust you will find our quotation satisfactory and look forward to receiving your order.
2. We shall be pleased to received your order, which will have our prompt and careful attention
3. As the prices quoted are exceptionally low and likely to rise, we would advise you to place our order
without delay.
4. As our stocks of these goods are limited, we suggest you place an order immediately
3. ORDER LETTERS
Most company may use official printed order forms. These forms have many advantages including that they
have printed heading s which help ensure that no information will be omitted. However, some companies in
general and small companies in particular may not used printed forms but instead place orders in the form of a
letter. When asked to place an order by letter, accuracy and clarity must be ensured at all costs. The following
information must also be included in any order letter
1. An accurate and full description of goods required
2. Catalogue numbers
3. Quantities
4. Prices
5. Delivery requirements (place, date, mode of transport, whether the order will be carriage paid or carriage
forward etc and
6. Terms of payment agreed in preliminary negotiations
Routine Orders- these may be short and formal, but they must include essential details describing the goods, as
well as delivery and terms of payment. Where two or more items are included on an order, they should be
listed separately for case of reference
ACKNOWLEDGING ORDERS
Example 1
Dear Mrs Mutandwa
We were very pleased to receive your order of 18 November 2002 for cotton prints, and welcome you as one of
our customers.
We confirm supply of he prints at the prices stated in your letter, and are arranging dispatching by our own
delivery vehicles early next week. We feel confident that you will be completely satisfied with these goods and
that you will find them of exceptional value for money
As you may not be aware of the wide range of goods we have available, we are enclosing a copy of our
catalogue. We hope that our handing of your first order with us will lead to further business between us and
mark the beginning of a happy working relationship
Yours sincerely
Example 2
Dear Mr Likhwa
We are pleased to receive your order of 20 January.
Unfortunately we regret that we are at present out of stock of the make ordered. This is due to the prolonged
cold weather which has increased demand considerably. The manufacturers have, however, promised us a
further supply by the end of this month and if you could wait until then we would deliver your requirement
promptly.
We are sorry not to be able to meet your present order immediately, but hope to hear from you soon that
delivery at the beginning of next month will not inconvenience you unduly.
Yours sincerely.
DECLINING ORDERS
There may be times when a supplier will not accept a buyer’s order for various reasons such as
1. He is not satisfied with the buyer’s terms and conditions
2. The buyer’s credit is suspect
3. The goods are not available
Utmost care should be taken when writing to reject an order so that good will and future business are not
affected.
Example
Dear Mr Likhwa
Thank your for your letter of 12 May ordering 800m of 100 cm wide watered silk.
We regret to say that we can no longer supply this silk. Fashions constantly change and in recent years the
demand for watered silks has fallen to such an extent that we have ceased to produce them.
In their place we can offer our new GOSSAMER brand of rayon. This is a finely woven, hard wearing, non-
creasable material with a most attractive luster. The large number of repeat orders we regularly receive from
leading distributors and dress manufacturers is clear evidence of the wide-spread popularity of these brand. At
the low price of only $2 per metre, this rayon is much cheaper than silk and its appearance is just as attractive.
We also manufacture other clothes in which you may be interested are sending a complete range patterns by
parcel post. All these clothes are selling very well in may countries and can be supplied from stock. If, as we
hope, you decide to place an order, we could meet it within one week.
We hope to hear from you soon.
Yours sincerely
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS
Placing Orders
Openings
1. Thank you for quotation of ……………..
2. we have received your quotation of……….and enclose our official order form.
3. Please supply the following items as quickly as possible and charge to our account
Closes
1. Prompt delivery would be appreciated as the goods are needed urgently
2. Please acknowledge receipt of this order and confirm that you will be able to deliver by………..
3. we hope to receive your advice of delivery by return of post.
Acknowledging Orders
Openings
1. Thank you for your order of…………
2. We thank you for your order number …………and will dispatch the goods by………….
3. We are sorry to inform you that the goods ordered on ……………….cannot be supplied
Closes
1. We hope the goods reach you safely and that you will be pleased with them.
2. We hope you will find the goods satisfactory, and look forward to receiving your further orders
3. We are pleased to inform you that these goods have been dispatched today (will be dispatched in
…………./are now awaiting collection at………..)
4. COMPLAINT & ADJUSTMENT LETTERS
These letters are written because people wish to get action. They have a problem that needs to be solved, or a
complaint that they wish to express. They may be angry, but they should remember that their main purpose is
to get action. They should, therefore, be tactful. They should avoid accusations, sarcasm or other highly
emotive language
Complaints may be made because:

1. The wrong goods have been sent
2. Poor service has been received
3. The quality of the goods is not satisfactory
4. Goods have been delivered damaged or late
5. Process charged are not as agreed
When making a complaint or writing a letter of same the following points must be considered.
1. Do not delay, as this will weekend you position and the supplier may have difficulty in investigating the
cause
2. Do not assume that the supplier is automatically to blame; there may be a perfectly good defence
3. Confine your complaint to a statement of the facts, followed by either an enquiry as to what the supplier
proposes to d about it, or a suggestion of how the matter can be rectified.
4. Avoid rudeness; this would create ill-feeling and cause the supplier to be unwilling to resolve matters
When receiving a complaint or a letter of complaint from a client or when asked to make a reply to a letter of
complain in the examination the following points must be considered:
1. It is often said that the customer is always right. This may not always be the case, but it is sound practice
to assume that he may be right.
2. Acknowledge a complaint promptly. If you are unable to reply fully, explain that is being investigated and
a full reply will be sent later.
3. If the complaint is unreasonable, point this out politely in a way that will not offend.
4. If you are to blame, admit it readily, express regret and promise to put matter right.
5. never blame any of your staff; in the end you are responsible for their actions
6. thank the customer for informing you about the matter
FORMAT FOR A LETTER OF COMPLAINT

Subject line
This should state the facts of the complaint
First paragraph
A friendly opening that established a good relationship
Middle paragraphs
1. A statement of the problem
2. Full details of the problem to help the reader take action
Final paragraphs
1. a motivation to the reader to take the desired action
2. a statement of what the writer considers to be fair action
LAYOUT OF A LETTER OF ADJUSTMENT
A Letter of adjustment is a reply to a letter of complaint. This letter should be written to generate as much
goodwill as possible.
Subject Line
This should refer to exactly to the details of the complaint
Opening paragraph
This should thank the writer for calling attention to the problem
It should express concern for the problem
Middle Paragraphs
The reader should be told exactly what steps will be taken to solve the problem
If the reader has to take certain steps as well, then these should be explained
Final Paragraph
The write should again express concern
The writer closes by expressing goodwill and a desire to continue offering a service.
Examples
Complaint concerning wrong goods
Dear sir
On 18 November I order 12 copies of Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe under my order number FT567.
On opening the parcel received this morning I found that it contained 12 copies of History of Music by the same
author. I regret to that I cannot keep these books as I have an adequate stock already. I am therefore
returning the books by parcel psost for immediate replacement, as I have several customers waiting for them.
I trust you will credit my account with the invoiced value or the return copies, including reimbursement for the
postage cost of $8.00
Yours faithfully
Reply
Dear Mrs Farashishiko
We are sorry to learn from your letter of 18 November that a mistake should have occurred in dealing with
your order.
This mistake is entirely our own, and we apologise for the inconvenience it is causing you. This occurred due to
staff shortage during this usually busy season, and also the fact that these 2 books by Achebe have identical
bindings.
Twelve copies of the correct title have been dispatched by parcel post today.
Your account will be credited with the invoiced value of the books and cost of return of postage. Our credit not
is enclosed.
We apologise again for this mistake.
Yours sincerely
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS
Openings
1. The goods we ordered from you on……have not yet been delivered.
2. Delivery of the goods ordered on …….is now considerably overdue
3. We regret having to report that we have not yet received the goods ordered on …………
4. We regret to report that one of the cases of your consignment was badly damaged when delivered on……..
5. When we examined the goods dispatched by you on…we found that……………
6. We have received a number of complaints from several customers regarding the …………….supplied by you
on………
Closes
1. Please look into this matter at once and let us know the reason for this delay.
2. We hope to hear from you soon that the goods will be sent immediately
3. We feel there must be some explanation for this delay and await your prompt reply
4. We hope to learn that you are prepared to make some allowance in the circumstances
Replies to complaints
Openings
1. We are concerned to learn from your letter of….. that the goods sent under your order number ………..did
not reach you until…………..
2. We are sorry that you have experienced delays in the delivery of……………
3. We note with regret that you are not satisfied with the goods supplied to your order of……………..
4. Thank you for your letter of……….which has given us the opportunity to rectify a most unfortunate
mistake.
5. We wish to apologise for the unfortunate mistake pointed out in your letter
Closes
1. We assure you that we are doing all we can to speed delivery and offer out apologies for the
inconvenience this delay is causing you.
2. We hope you will be satisfied with the arrangement we have made, and apologise for the inconvenience
caused
3. We trust these arrangements will be satisfactory and look forward to receiving your future orders.
4. We regret the inconvenience which has been caused in this matter.
5. We apologise once again for the unfortunate mistake and can assure you that a similar incident will not
occur again.
5. COLLECTION LETTERS
These are letter that try to ‘collect’ outstanding debts. They must be written on a letterhead. They are also
known as reminder letters. There is the first, second and third or final reminder.
Chirango Hardware (Pvt) LTD
23 Willovale Drive
See examples below HARARE
Tel: 081
Company 987 2432
Logo Fax: 081
987 2556
Website address: www//http://inst.co.za. E-mail: Secretaries@Institute.co.org
Our ref JT/SAT/ptc

Your ref
18 November 2002
Mrs Janice L Price

58 Sinjalo Street
New Gada
EPWORTH
Dear Mr Foromani
YOUR OVERDUE ACCOUNT NUMBER 189967 – 345421
According to our records your account is three months in arrears. Since our credit policy is that
accounts should be paid within three days of statements, we respectfully ask you to settle the overdue
account of $19 000.
If you have any query about your account, please telephone me so that I may help you. We value your
custom and would like to be able to extend credit facilities to you in the future, but we regret that we do
this only id your account is in good standing
Yours sincerely
Chirango Hardware (Pvt) LTD
Writer’s
Signature
Mrs Margie Choto

CREDIT MANAGER
List of Directors
Second Reminder
Dear Mr Foromani
URGENT REQUEST TO SETTLE ACCOUNT NUMBER 189967 – 345421
Last month I wrote to you about your overdue account. As yet we have received no reply or payment. Your
account is now 4 months in arrears. The outstanding amount is $19 500.
If you are experiencing difficulties and wish to discuss the matter with me, please do not hesitate to do so. I
look forward to speaking to you or receiving your payment within 14 days
Yours sincerely
Final Reminder
The Editor
The Herald
P O Box 396
Dear Mr Foromani
HARARE
Dear Editor
NOTICE OF DEBT COLLECTION PROCEDURE ACCOUNT NUMBER 189967 – 345421
Subject
Body
Despite previous reminders and offers of help we have not heard from you about your account, which is now 5
of the
months in arrears. According to our records, the amount of $20 000 is overdue.
letter
WeYours
nowfaithfully
reluctantly inform you that unless your account is settled within 7 days of the date of this letter, it will
be handed over to a debt collection agency. Such a procedure will cost you more money and wll prevent you
from obtaining credit facilities at a wide range of business houses.
Writer’s
We hope Signature
that this procedure will not be necessary and that you will send us your payment NOW.
Writer’s Name/ nom de plume/pseudonym

Yours sincerely
Writer’s actual name & surname
Writer’s Address
Date
6. LETTERS TO THE PRESS
Letters the press are set out differently from other letters. The address of the sender appears after the letter,
a does the date. Although an Editor may pulblish a letter with a nom de plume (pseudonym),he will not publish
as letter unless the writer’s name and address are provided.
(See next page for the format)
Format for a letter to the Press
Writer’s
Signature
7. CIRCULAR LETTERS
Circular letters are used to send the same information to a number of people. They are extensively used in
sale campaigns and for announcing important developments in business. Their main purpose is to give
information, for example, change of address, extension of premises, introduction o new lines of business,
opening of a new branch, etc.
A circular letter is prepare once only and may be duplicated for distribution to the various recipients. Names,
addresses and individual salutation may be inserted after duplication in order to personalize the letter.
Although a circulars are being sent to many people, it is important to suggest an interest in the recipients by
giving them a personal touch
Circulars must be clear and accurate. A circular letter should be brief. If it is long it will probably not be read; if
it short, it will in most cases at least be read. It is essential therefore, to word a circular in such away that the
reader’s attention is held from the beginning.
Circulars take a variety of forms. Remember that a circular letter may be written as memoranda addressed
‘TO: All Staff. They may also be sent out to customers or suppliers as letters. They differ from normal
memoranda and letters because they contain general information. They are designed to give a wide variety of
people the same message.
When writing a circular the following rules must be remembered:

1. Be brief – people will not read a long winded circular
2. Make the letters as personal as possible by addressing each letter to a particular person, by name if you
know it. Us Dear Mr Smith instead of Dear Reader, Dear Subscriber or Dear Customer instead of Dear
Sir or Madam. Never use the plural form of the salutation – remember, one recipient will read each
individual letter.
3. Create the impression of personal interest by using you, never our customers, all customers, our clients,
everyone, etc.
Instead of Say
Our customers will appreciate………… You will appreciate…………..
We are pleased to inform all our clients…… We are please to inform you………….
Everyone will be interested to learn…….. You will be interested to learn…………
Anyone visiting our new showroom will see……… If you visit our new showroom you will see…………
FORMAT FOR A CIRCULAR LETTER
Salutation
Memo To: All Staff
Letter Dear Customer, Dear Supplier etc
Subject Line
This should be very specific. It should announce the subject immediately.
Opening Paragraph
Should give the reader an overview of the message
Middle paragraphs
Should very well set out with high readability. The facts should be highly organised.
Final Paragraph
This should:
1. Summarise key points
2. Stress action
3. Express goodwill
Example
This example has been written as a letter to all customers. The company is moving to a new building. The
writer’s aims are to: inform the customers of the move, persuade these to come to the new building, maintain
the goodwill of these customers
Dear Customer
MOVE TO 7 THIRD CASTLETOWN

We are moving! Out present shop is too small to meet our customers’ needs. We therefore decided to move to
7 Third Street on 1 December 2002. This well-designed shop in a developing area will enable us to meet all
your needs. We will be offering you:
 Plenty of parking
 Twice the floor-space
 A full display of all our goods
 Complete customer service
Move with us to 7 Third Street. We offer the best service in town
Yours sincerely
Kinds of Circular letters

Circular letters can be grouped into two groups namely those that announce changes in the business
organisations and those that announce changes in business partnerships
Circular announcing changes in business organisations
Opening of a new business (branch)

The following points should be included in a letter announcing the opening a new branch.
1. Where, when and why the branch will be opened

2. A description, attractively worded, of the stock offered.
3. An invitation to visit the new premises.
Example1
Dear Householder
We are pleased to announce the opening of our new retail grocery store at the above address on Monday 1
September 2002.
Mrs. Ellita Chakanyuka had been appointed manager, and with her 15 years; experience of the trade we are
sure that the goods supplied will be of sound quality and reasonably priced.
Our new store will opened at 8 am on Monday 1 September and as a special celebration offer a discount of
10% will be allowed on all purchases made by the first 50 customers. We hope we may look forward to you
being one of them .
Your sincerely
A circular letter intimating a change in the management of a business gives the name of the new partner,
supplies a few relevant facts about him, and state where there is to be any alteration in the firm’s name. a
continuance of the client’s custom if asked for, and a copy of the new partners signatures appears on the
letter.
When advertising foods by circular, opening on an original note may sometimes awaken the interest of the
reader. Care, however, should be taken with such an opening. Study the example below.
Dear Customer
Are you thinking of a walking holiday this Easter? Of course, walking is a pleasure only in conformable shoes;
badly-made shoes can create the utmost discomfort, and may even lead to serious foot trouble. We have
produced the Strydewell shoe to meet the needs of walkers. It is made of strong but pliable box calf, and the
sole is designed to give both flexibility and comfort.
We can supply this excellent shoe in various fittings, in all sizes and – most importantly – in half-sizes. It is
available in black, tan, fawn, brown, and grey. The price range, we feel, is reasonable; from $200.99 to $300.
We should be glad to show you the Strydewell shoe at any time. Why not call in at our main shop, 69 High
Street?
Yours Sincerely
Note that the circular begins by asking a question in a friendly way, then come the facts, and at the end, an
invitation but pleasantly. A circular written in such a way may arouse more interest than a stereotyped one,
but calls for presentation.
8. INVITATION LETTERS
Many organisations hold special functions to publicise a certain even such as the opening of a new branch
office, the introduction of new goods or services, or the retirement of a senior executive. As secretary you will
be expected to know how to prepare and reply invitations to such functions.
These invitations state

1. Who is holding the function
2. Venue, day, date, time of function
3. The dress (where relevant)
4. An address & telephone number for responding
There are two types of invitations, namely formal and informal invitations.
Formal Invitations
These are typed on A5 or A6 paper.
THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF LEVER BROTHERS

Request the pleasure of your company at a display of their new catering facilities
On
18 November 2002
at
THE COMPANY’S SHOW GROUNDS
7 Third Street Townsville

Time
1800
RSVP by 1 December 2002

Ms B Ndlovu
P O Box 888 Harare
Tel
THE DIRECTORS OF
Chirango Enterprises Pvt Ltd

Request the pleasure of the company of
……………………………………………………………………….
At their Bi-Centenary Celebrations
to be held at
Indaba Room
Crown Plaza Monomotapa Hotel;
Julius Nyerere Way
Harare
At 7 30 pm for 8:00 pm
On Monday 18 November 2002
RSVP
The Organising Secretary
Chirango Enterprises Pvt Ltd
18 Willovale Road
Willovale
HARARE
The acceptance or refusal of a formal invitation is prepared in a similar way, ie formal. However, there is no
need for the use of a dotted line for the insertion of the name. it is courteous to give reason if an invitation if
refused
Mr Likhwa
Thanks the Directors of Chirango Enterprises Pvt Ltd
For their kind invitation to their
At their Bi-Centenary Celebrations
to be held at
Indaba Room
Crown Plaza Monomotapa Hotel;
Julius Nyerere Way
Harare
At 7 30 pm for 8:00 pm
On Monday 18 November 2002

And has great pleasure in accepting
33 Chinotimba Road
Chinotimba
Victoria Falls
2. MEMORANDA
INTRODUCTION
Memoranda are messages written inside organisation. They are organized like letters, but vary a great deal in
formality. They may also be set out as reports with numbered headings. Memos are used to overcome the
problem of distance within a company and are used for getting information passed around up and down
within it. They are one way for communicating decisions, instructions and policy and unlike the telephone
they create a permanent record. Some companies use different coloured paper to denote the origin of a
memo
Memoranda usually lack some of the frills we associate with letter as they are written under urgent conditions
and one is not as conscious of the impression being made. They should nevertheless be written with care and
should contain only one basic point. Normally you should begin with a brief background explanation of the
problem or situation using just one or two sentences to do so. Then go on to the message itself. Memoranda
should always be short and never more than two or three paragraphs. Consciousness is the hallmark of any
good memo.
Memoranda are used

1. to communicate the same information to a group of people who have to attend a meeting
2. to inform people about company policies
3. to confirm points made in a conversation or meeting
4. to confirm decisions or agreements
5. to keep people informed of events in the company
6. to contact staff who are difficult to reach by other means
FORMAT FOR A MEMORANDUM

The format of a memorandum is totally different from that of a letter. Many companies have standard printed
memo forms.
NAME OF COMPANY
MEMORANDUM
TO Name or Job title of receiver
FROM Name or Job Title of sender
REF See Page 6
DATE Today’s date
Subject (as in letters) .
Body
of
memo
Writer’s
Signature
NB: Signature ONLY please. No complimentary close. No job title
Introduction
A memo is a document to remind and because of this the introduction of a memo should save as a reminder of
what you intend to write about. It should provide background information leading to the purpose of writing
the memo. It should highlight the purpose of the memo.
Normally you should begin with a brief background explanation of the problem or situation using just one or
two sentences to do so. Then go on to the message itself
Body - this should provide details of the memo. If the memo is presenting several facts they can be
presented in point form for high readability. Information can also be presented in the form of a table.
Conclusion - State what you want to expect the reader to do and what you also intend to do
Close End a memo with a sentence. For example - :I hope you will cooperate
3. FACSIMILE
Facsimile transfer is a means of transferring and receiving images (maps, drawings, and pictures as well as
print and handwriting) and can therefore be used to send exact copies of documents.
For
Info
Only
A facsimile transmission sends images of documents via radio waves or telephone lines. The images are stored
digitally in the memory of the computer. Images can be sent and received via modems. The computer's
graphics or laser printer is used for the final printout.
A fax machine usually offers various functions combined in one machine: a printer, scanner, telephone and
copier.
Facsimile is a service whereby photographs, diagrams, building plans, letters of A4 size can be fed into a special
machine and a copy of each is immediately transmitted t another machine. The receiving machine can be
somewhere in Zimbabwe or abroad. These machines use telephone to transmit their messages and they
produce a replica of the document sent.
FAX TRANSMISSION HEADER SHEET
The Lualaba Tree & Plant Supply Company

69 Cabinda Road
KISHANSA
Zaire
Company
Tel: 23 359089 E-mail: Lualaba@Yahoo.co.org Fax: 23
Logo
359799
TO Name or Job title of receiver
COMPANY Name or of receiver’s company
FAX NUMBER Receiver’s fax number
FROM Name or Job title of sender
REF as in letters (see page 7)
DATE Today’s date
NO OF PAGES: (Including header sheet): Indicate the number of pages
Subject (as in letters) .
Body
of
Fax
4. REPORTS A MUST
FOR CIS!!
Writer’s
Signature
I. INTRODUCTION
A report is an accurate, detailed, factual record of some event or situation.
It may be the record of an examination of some problem, and it would set out the relevant information,
research, findings and conclusion to be drawn.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a report is a formal statement of the results of an investigation or
of any matter on which definite information is required, made by some person or body instructed or required
to do so. The purpose of most reports is to enable the executive authority, whatever it may be, to take some
decisive action regarding the matter under review.
II. TYPES OF REPORTS

There are two types of reports namely formal and informal reports.
A. FORMAL REPORTS
A formal report is also known as a Schematic Report . It is written under specific headings. They follow a
prescribed scheme, hence the name schematic. A formal report is easy to read and interpret because
information is well grouped and presented in point form for easy readability.
Format for a formal report

A schematic report is written under the following specific headings.
1 Name of the organisation
2 Title
3. Terms of reference
4. Procedure
5. Findings
6. Conclusions
7. Recommendation
Title
This is a brief statement of the subject of the report. Your title must identify the report. It
Should be written in capital letters. It always begins as “REPORT ON…. ………….”
Terms of Reference
Terms of reference are instructions given to the writer/report compiler by her superior.
Terms of reference define the following;
1. aim/purpose of the report
2. nature of data/information needed.
3. person who requested for the report
4. when the report was requested
5. when report is to be submitted
6. whether recommendations are needed or not.
It is common practice that when writing a report you would have been instructed by your boss/supervisor to
investigate a certain problem and to report on your findings and recommendations by a certain date. In your
Terms of Reference you will state the date on which you where requested to compile the report, nature of the
problem to be investigated, the name or job title of the person who instructed you to write the report.
Procedure (methodology)
This is the method used to gather the required data. Here you outline briefly what you did in connection with
the gathering of the required information.
This is a crucial element of your report as it reveals the depth of your research and the value of your results.
The methods used in collecting the data about the problem must be listed in point form. Each point should
clearly state who was interviewed, observed etc. Information may be gathered through interviews (orally or
through questionnaires), observations (covert or overt), suggestion boxes, meetings , questionnaires, direct
participations etc. These are examples of what is known as primary/field research) You may gather the
required data from journals, books, magazines or various other records including reports which where written
by other researchers before. These are examples of secondary/field research tools
Findings
Findings are gathered facts and constitute the main part of your report. These are the results of your
investigation. Here you write a clear, concise account of what you found, giving each point you wish to make
its own paragraph. If you have several points number them clearly under separate sub-headings.
Conclusions
An assessment/evaluation of the findings. Conclusions are derived from the findings.
They are an evaluation of gathered facts. Conclusions will naturally depend upon what
you have in your 'Findings' paragraphs. Please do not introduce anything new at this
stage
Recommendations
These are your suggestions. Here you write what you think should be done in order to solve the problem.
Recommendations will depend upon what you have written in your 'Findings' and Conclusions. They should be
presented in the same order as findings and conclusions.
Please do not introduce anything new at this stage.
Example of a Formal/Schematic Report

The staff of Olivine Industries Pvt Ltd has shown considerable dissatisfaction with the canteen facilities
supplied, and the management is considering alterations and improvements in the canteen. You have been
instructed to investigate these complaints, which concern the food supplied, the service, and the seating
accommodation.
Write a report, giving your findings, and the conclusions you come to. Any recommendations you may include
will be considered by the Management
Model Answer
OLIVINE INDUSTRIES (Pvt) LTD
REPORT ON OLIVINE INDUSTRIES (Pvt) Ltd CANTEEN
A. TERMS OF REFERENCE
On 6 August as instructed by he General Manager, a review of the complaints made by
the staff of Olivine Industries Pvt Ltd about the canteen facilities provided by the firm, was
undertaken to determine the causes of the complaints, and to make appropriate
recommendations.
B. PROCEDURE
1. Between Tuesday, 12 August and Thursday, 26 August daily observations were
made of the provision of food and the organisations of midday meals in the
canteen.
2. Various staff members had lunch in the canteen on unscheduled days, thus
ensuring that not special meals were served during the course of the
investigations. The food was examined for quantity served. These staff member
were interviewed afterwards.
3. In addition, with co-operations of the personnel manger, a cross section of the
staff of both the administration department and the workshops, was interviewed.
4. A daily record was kept of observations, with comments.
C. FINDINGS
1. (a) The quality of the food provided was, without exceptions satisfactory, and a
certain amount of variation was made each day in the menu.
(b) The quantity of food served tot he staff was the same for the ladies of the
administration block and the workshop crews; the amounts served tot he latter
were, by comparison, inadequate.
(c) The amount of meat served with each portion was small, for example only 4 or 5
cubes of beef in a portion of stew, or 50g of steak of chop.
2. The organisation of the distribution of lunches was unsatisfactory and the services
generally poor.
(a) Two queues of some length formed at the lunch counter. These were attended to
by two young women, one of whom was constantly interrupted by argument with
the men about the size of the portions served.
(b) Staff members towards ends of the queues were obliged to wait for as long as
twenty minutes before they were served their lunch.
(c) The slowness of the lunch service was further aggravated by either of the two
young women breaking off from time to time to sell cigarettes and packaged
sandwiches.
3. Seating accommodation proved inadequate.

(a) The canteen measures approximately 151/2 metres by 8 metres, but a large
number of small tables crammed together hinders not only free passage between
them, but the placing of enough chairs at these tables too accommodate the staff.
(b) When the ladies from the administration department were late in arriving in the
canteen, the chair were occupied by workshop personnel whose overalls tended
to leave grease and workshop dust on the seats they had occupied.
(c) A special not was made of the ladies' complaints:
(i) that this grease and dirt ruined their dresses.
D CONCLUSIONS
\
1. FOOD Although the meals were well cooked and palatable the portions served to
the
men, in particular, were quite inadequate.
2. SERVICE Unduly slow service caused much of the food supplied to be wasted: hot
lunches were cold before they could be eaten.
3. SEATING While the floor areas of the canteen was sufficient for the needs of staff,
the
presence of too many tables and too few chairs presented a cramped
appearance and caused many of the men to eat their lunch while
standing
against the walls.
E. RECOMMENDATIONS
FOOD
(a) It is suggested that, since the price of meat is very high at present, sugar beans
be added to the menu, for these are filling and nutritious.
(b) The size of the helpings should be increased, and the portions for the workshops
crews should be appreciably larger than those intended for the ladies of the
administration.
(c) Whole-wheat bread instead of white is recommended for the sandwiches, since
this is more nutritious.
SERVICE
The canteen staff should be augmented by at least two or more assistants.
(a) The organisation of the duties needs to be more practical.
(b) It is suggested that one young woman should be detailed for the sale of cigarettes
and sandwiches, and one for the serving of cold lunches, leaving the remaining
two to distribute, undisturbed, hot lunches
SEATING
(a) The small tables, which seat only 4, should be replaces by tables capable of
seating 6, and sufficient chairs should be supplied to enable this to be done. This
will give more floor space, making freer movement between the tables possible.
(b) It is also strongly recommended that lunch-times should be staggered so that
administration staff and workshop staff do not share the same room at the same
time.
(c) If the administrative staff were to have lunch at the first sitting this would solve the
problem of dirty chair seat, for these could be washed down when the
canteen is cleaned, after the lunch hour
Report Compiled by:
Writer’s
Signature
Mrs Nettie Chirongoma

ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT
Example 2
Chirango Academy (Pvt) Ltd
REPORT ON NEW ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE FOR CHIRANGO ACADEMY
1. TERMS OF REFERENCE
The Manager Director has asked each of the Managers to propose what kind of organisational
structures Chirango Academy needs to meet the rapid growth in the computer games and adult
games departments
2. PROCEDURE
2.1 The existing functional line structure of CHIRANGO ACADEMY was studied according to an analysis of
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis)
2.2 A product line structure was studied according to a SWOT analysis.
2.3 A matrix structure was studied according to a SWOT analysis.
2.4 Various other organisations and their key directors were consulted, as well as CHIRANGO ACADEMY ‘s
management consultants.
3. FINDINGS
3.1 FUNCTIONAL LINE STRUCTURE - The SWOT analysis revealed that this structure was suitable for
small business and had served CHIRANGO ACADEMY well it its initial growth stage. There was good
control since each director or manager had a specific and limited area of expertise which he could
develop. There were few interpersonal problems since each director or manager was in control of his
own specialised area of responsibility.
There were, however, disadvantages. Functional line decision making was slower. Too much
responsibility had rested with the Managing Director to co-ordinate the different function because
each functional manager tended to be concerned only with his own area. This had created conflict
and jealousy. There was little opportunity for breadth of experience for anyone except the Managing
Director and consequently succession planning was limited.
3.2 PRODUCT LINE STRUCTURE - The SWOT analysis revealed that this structure was more suited to the
expansion of CHIRANGO ACADEMY. Decision-making would be speedier and more diversified; each
product manager would have a wide range of experience both in his specialised area and in more
general department. One of the strengths and opportunities of this structure over the functional line
structure would be that each division would be responsible for its own performance and business
results. A weakness would be that duplication of effort might lead to unnecessary expense. Too
much emphasis on results might lead to the achievement of limited goals instead of the overall
objectives of CHIRANGO ACADEMY.
3.3 MATRIX STRUCTURE - The SWOT analysis revealed that this structure allowed for greater flexibility
and involvement. Motivation would be high, and employees would be challenged to work together as
a project team. There would be greater flexibility in moving experts from one project to another as
the project required specific skills. This would create cost effective employment of key personnel and
would obviate duplication of effort.
One of the weakness and threats of this structure was that there might be a feeling of being
demotivated when a project team disbanded and members had to regroup themselves for a different
project. The feeling of a let down when the project came to an end would have to be carefully
handled and would require a great maturity of inter-personal reflections. There would also be the
threat of too much flexibility that could lead to the collapse of a project arising from too much talk
and not enough task performance.
Since every person would be responsible to a line authority and a project authority, divided loyalties
could result. Nevertheless, the advantages were seen to outweigh the disadvantages and the matrix
structure would have few of the problems that arise from more bureaucratic structure. A major
opportunity would be that top management could be freed to concentrate on strategic planning.
4. CONCLUSIONS
4.1 Appendix 1: The product line structure would be as shown.
4.2 Appendix 1: MATRIX STRUCTURE: This structure would include the promotion of the design manager
and the advertising manager to top management. It would mean the appointment of specialist
product managers and advertising personnel to manage and promote the new and existing products.
There would be little duplication of effort. The resulting challenges and excitement would be to
motivate staff and meet the demands of the future.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
a. The matrix structure be adopted to meet the needs of CHIRANGO ACADEMY’s growth, especially
in computer games.
b. The Design Manager and the Advertising Manager be promoted to top

management, not necessarily with increased salaries.
c. The existing Sales Manager be appointed as Manager (Children’ Toys)

and two new Managers be appointed either from existing staff or from
outside to fill the posts of Manager (Computer Games) and Manager
(Adult Games) respectively.
d. Three advertising posts be created over the next two years, each to be
responsible for the advertising and promotion of a specific product
group.
e. A personnel Manager be appointed to take care of interpersonal relation

and motivation problems to develop in time into a new staff department.
f. The new structure be phased in over the next two years to allow for the
new appointments and budgeting constraints.
Report Compiled by:
Writer’s
Signature
Mr Ashley Chirango
MARKETING MANAGER
25 March 2003
ATC/ltc/Admin/02
Example 3
Chirango (Pvt) Ltd
REPORT ON STOCK CONTROL
The Manager gave instruction on 27 January 2003 that an investigation should be conducted into the
serious problem of stock checking at the end of the year and that a solution should be suggested.
2. PROCEDURE
2.1 The office card index system and the bin card system at the warehouse were investigated.
2.2 The company auditors were consulted.
3. FINDINGS
3.1 QUANTITY - There were about 2 500 items to be checked each year.
3.2 OVERTIME - A great deal of overtime was needed to take stock at the financial year-end.
3.3 DISCREPANCIES - Any differences between the bin card and the card index system had to be resolved
by checking the original documents for the past twelve months.
4. CONCLUSIONS
4.1 WRONG TIME – With year-end accounting dates to be met, there was not enough time available to
check all the transactions for a whole year for each item of stock. The financial year-end is not the
best time for stock taking.
4.2 CONTINUOUS STOCK CHECKING - Under a system of continuous stock checking, the total stock would
be checked in four months if a quarter of the stock items were checked each month. This would
mean that each stock item would be checked three times a year.
4.3 DISCREPANCIES - Any discrepancies between din card balances and the office card index system
would involve a check of original documents dating back, at the most, four months under this
continuous card index system.
4.4 YEAR END STOCKTAKING – The troublesome procedure of year-end stocktaking would not be
required.
4.5 APPROVAL OF COMPANY AUDITORS – The Company Auditors agreed that a system of continuous
stock checking would be acceptable and that if all items were properly ordered on the card index
system and the bin cards, the year end stocktaking would not be required.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONTINUOUS STOCK CHECKING – A system of continuous stock checking should be carried out.
5.2 NATURE OF CONTINUOUS STOCK CHECKING – Thirty items should be checked each working day.
5.3 NECESSARY ACTION – The continuous stock checking procedure should be implemented from 1 May
so that each stock item would be checked twice in 2003 and three times each succeeding year.
Report Compiled by:
Writer’s
Signature
Miss Lesley Chirango

ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT
14 January 2003
PTC/ltc/Pers273/9
Example 4
Chirango (Pvt) Ltd
REPORT ON INVOICING
The Manager Director instructed on 18 February 2003 that an investigation should be conducted into
the problem of the incorrect calculation of some invoices sent to customers and that measures to
prevent this happening again should be suggested.
2. PROCEDURE
2.1 The company’s system of invoicing was studied closely.
2.2 The accounts clerk was interviewed and his enlisted.
3. FINDINGS
3.1 INVOICING SYSTEM
3.1.1 The sales clerk received the second copies for delivery notes for pricing
3.1.2 The sales clerk was then supposed to pass the batches to the accounts clerk for checking.
3.1.3 The checked invoices were then sent by the sales clerk to the typist, who typed them in duplicate.
3.1.4 The top copy was sent to the customer; the second was used as an internal record
3.2 CAUSE OF THE ERROR

The typist assumed that all invoice handed to her were checked, but one batch missed being checked
4. CONCLUSIONS
4.1 The accounts clerk and the typist could not be sure that all invoices had been checked.
4.2 The accounts clerk did not have the responsibility of passing the checked invoices on to the typist.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
A different system of checking is needed:
5.1 Invoices should be sent by the sales clerk to the accounts clerk for checking.
5.2 After checking, the invoices should be sent by the accounts clerk to the assistant accountant.
5.3 The assistant accountant should be satisfied that each invoice has been checked.
5.4 The typist should not type any invoice until it has been stamped ‘CHECKED’
5.5 The accounts clerk should check the typist’s typing of the invoice before it is sent to the customer and
the duplicate if filed.
Report Compiled by:

Writer’s
Signature
Miss Osley Chirango

CHIEF ACCOUNTANT
25 March 2003
PTC/ltc/Admin/02
A. INFORMAL REPORTS
These are reports which do not follow any prescribed format of presentation. They are presented in the form
of either a letter or a memorandum or a combination a letter/memo and schematic form.
A Letter Report is presented using the layout of a business letter. The letter report is best suited for brief
reports going to people outside the organisation such as customers. It differs from the an ordinary business
letter in that a letter report's paragraphs are numbered whereas those of a letter are not. The numbering are
part of the report hence they should be inside the margin.
A Memo Report uses the layout of a memorandum and is best suited for internal communications. A memo
report is largely used for brief reports. (See example below)
A Mixed Form Report combines two formats. It may take the form of a letter or memorandum at first and then
the preceding data is presented in - tabular or schematic form
Example of a Memorandum Report
Question
You are a secretary to a Sales Manager whose staff is soon to be increased. To accommodate the additional
Sales Representatives and Typists the office will require additional equipment and reorganisation. The current
equipment is not in a good state of decoration.
Write a memorandum to your manager proposing the changes you think will be necessary
Point to consider
1. This question suggests three topics namely
(i) new equipment
(ii) office layout
(iii) redecoration
2. In addition you must write an introduction defining the purpose and terms of reference, summarising
the recommendations and announcing the arrangement of the main sections.
3. The conclusions and recommendations should give an estimate of the cost of changes recommended.
The recommendations can best be justified by demonstrating the relatively low cost of the
improvements suggested.
MEMORANDUM
TO: The Sales Manager
FROM: The Executive Secretary
REF: PTC/cj/97/t2
DATE: 02 September, 2002
REPORT ON THE RE-DECORATION & REORGANISATION OF THE SALES OFFICE

I have pleasure in submitting for your considerations the attached report on the redecoration
and reorganisation of the sales office.
CHOTO INDUSTRIES (Pvt) LTD
REPORT ON THE RE-DECORATION & REORGANISATION OF THE SALES OFFICE
As the Sales Office will soon need redecoration and reorganisation to accommodate an increased
number of staff, I suggest the additions and alterations detailed below. A plain is attached tot eh
report as a guide to layout (appendix i), together with a colour scheme (appendix ii), and a detailed
estimate of costs (appendix iii).
1. NEW OFFICE EQUIPMENT
(a) Desks
The existing desks are in good conditions and can be retained. New desks will be
needed for the Shorthand Typist who will join us shortly and for two new Sales
Representatives. As desks in present use are of teak, it would maintain uniformity
if similar desks were ordered
(b) Cabinets & Cupboards

The office filing cabinets and cupboards are in very good condition. It would
therefore be preferable to order six new cupboards in a bright colour. One of the
new circular filing systems would prove indispensable to the secretarial staff and
would not take up as much space as the old filing cabinets.
(c) Carpeting
The existing floor covering seems to be quite adequate: this grey coated
carpeting is hard-wearing and will fit in with any colour scheme.
(d) Chairs, Telephones & Typewriters

The appearance of the office would be improved if new chairs were ordered in
some bright colour, the same colour perhaps as the filing cabinets. These chairs
should be comfortable. The three existing telephones are adequate for the needs
of the office, but a new typewriter will have to be ordered before the new
shorthand typist begins to work.
Continued
2. OFFICE LAYOUT
I have concluded a diagram of the proposed layout (Appendix i) which is self-explanatory.
I should, however, like to make the following comments on the reasons for my choice of
layout:-
(a) Windows - I have made every effort to ensure that desks are placed as near
to windows as possible so that all employers are aided by a certain amount of
daylight. The present lighting is adequate
(b) Doors - I have placed the desks in such a way that anyone entering the
office may immediately see all members of staff at work
(c) Heating - By next month under-floor electric central heating will have been
installed in the entire office block. I have not proposed any air-conditioning
system as this would prove very expensive. However, electric fans could be most
useful in the summer months
3. RE-DECORATION
In deciding upon a colour scheme (see Appendix ii), I had to consider several factors. Too
much bright colour would be overwhelming and so is confined this to chairs and cabinets.
Walls should be appointed with a hard gloss sot hat they can be cleaned easily, and wall
and ceilings should be of a colour that is light but easy on the eye.
4. ESTIMATE OF COSTS
The total estimated cost of these alterations is $297 899, 56. A detailed breakdown is
given on (Appendix iii).
I hope that the plans for the re-organisation meet with your approval and that this total estimated
cost does not appear too excessive.
Compiled by:
Writer’s
Signature
CLARA JANGA
EXECUTIVE SECRETARY
02 September 2002
PTC/cm/Pers273/9
II. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING REPORTS

1. Reports should be written in the third person or in the passive voice
2. Your writing style must be plain and straightforward. Avoid writing pompously; write very simply,
saying what you have to say in the clearest and most concise way possible.
3. The grammar must be correct. Do not fall into the error of writing long sentences, for you may well
lose the thread, before you reach the end, of what you started to say in the beginning
Do not write long, involved sentences. If it seems necessary to add to a stated fact, or to qualify
or describe it, write this in a separate sentence.
3. Use as few adjectives and adverbs as possible.
4. Avoid emphasising points as a result of personal bias.
5. Each fact must be isolated from the others by being put into its own paragraph, which must be short
and to the point.
6. State facts specifically: do not attempt to generalise - if any generalising has to be done, leave that to
your employers.
7. The whole tone of your report must be impersonal and objective
3. Use block letters for the heading of the report, and for paragraph heading.
4. Where you have several points to make under a heading, and several paragraphs, your number your
headings, and number the points under each one, like A, B, etc. for section headings, if the report is a
long one.
For example:
1,2,3 etc for paragraph headings
a,b,c etc for paragraph points and
i, ii, iii etc for sub points
1. If you are reporting on an accident, or making some sort of time and motion study of men at work,
etc, the order of your paragraphs will be chronological - ie in order of time of events or of the work
motions.
2. For any other kind of report, your paragraphs must be arranged in order of
importance.Remember that "Things thought of together must be spoken of together" Therefore
make sure that everything relevant to the paragraph heading is mentioned in that same paragraph;
never add an extra paragraph on at the end of your report in order to include - too late! - something
which you forgot to deal within in its proper order, or in its proper paragraph.
3. Since most reports are made following some investigations, some conclusion is in order, especially for
examination purposes. But be cautious in arriving at a conclusion, and even more cautious in making
suggestions. Word your recommendations tactfully. You must not give the impression of arriving at a
decision on behalf of your employers, nor of knowing more than they do; either would be arrogant,
and quite outside your mandate of terms of reference.
6. PROPOSALS
Introduction
A proposal is a persuasive message whish is written to get action. It should be well organised so that the
reader knows at once what the proposed action is. It must be well set out with clear sections, a numbering
system and effective headings. Like any other business document it must be written in a clear, formal system
and simple style.
It should give the reader exact details of costs, timetable and dates. Proposals should be persuasive. The facts
should be so well set out that the reader is convinced that the proposed action should be taken.
A proposal is set out like a report. It should be accompanied by a letter of transmittal is it sent outside the
organisation. Inside an organisation, a memorandum of transimittal may accompany it.
Types of proposals
There are two types of proposal as explained below
Requested Proposal Non Requested Proposal
Is once that the client asks for. For example, a Is written because you wish to generate work for
client may ask you for a proposal on what you your self. You see a problem and propose action to
would take to solve a problem and how much your possible employers to solve the problem
action would cost.
Format for a Proposal
See next Page

See next Page
See next Page
See next Page
Name of Company
Compan Address
y
Logo Telephone Number:
Fax:
Website address E-mail:
PROPOSAL TO SPEND $……….TO…………………
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
How much do you want to spent? On what? When? Why? (That is main reasons behind the
proposal)
And How? Try to justify the proposal in brief. Give reasons.
2. BACKGROUND TO PROPOSAL
What are the main reasons behind the proposal. eg, Effects of the status quo to production,
profits, rate of turnover, efficiency, safety of staff or customers etc and cost of repairs.
Constant breakdowns, high maintenance costs, absence of spare parts, etc
In a separate paragraphs, but under this item ,(ie as sub paragraphs) indicate the following:
 main Purposes of this proposal, eg to Recommend the purchase of new equipment .
 Procedure used to set up this proposal,( same as in reports)
3. DETAILED PROPOSAL
Here you indicate what you want to do. For example if you are proposing the acquisition of
new equipment, Here you will then write more about the equipment you want to buy. This will
cover areas such as acqusition costs, where exactly to get the machinery ,possible suppliers &
their terms, availability to spare parts, timing of purchases and implantation programme,
budgets, maintencase services/contracts
4. JUSTIFICATION OF PROPOSAL
A proposal is a persuasive documents which seeks to generate action. Under this part you
must try by means to persuade the receiver to accept your proposal. This can only be
possible if you manage to competently justify your proposal. Give reasons why it is necessary
for your proposal to be accepted. Justify your proposal organizationally, economically,
politically, socially etc, where necessary. Indicate the benefits of the proposal. Show
graphically the benefits of implementing the proposal
5. ACTION TO BE TAKEN
After saying all the above; What do you wantdone. Say it. This part is more or less the same
with the RECOMMENDATIONS part in report writing. Indicate the action to be taken.
Proposal compiled by
Writer’s
Signature
Mr Patson T Chirango
COMPANY SECRETARY
Example of a Proposal
Name of Company
Compan Compan
y
Address
y
Logo Logo
Website address: E-mail: Telephone: Fax:
PROPOSAL TO SPEND $3M IN 2002 TO REPLACE SIX WORN OUT

FLAVOUR MIX FOOD MIXERS & SEVEN WONDER MICROWAVE OVENS.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The proposal
The writer proposes that this company spend $3 million in the year 2002 to replace
 Six worn out Flavour Mix food mixers with Ace food mixers
 Seven worn out Wonder microwave ovens with Zippy microwave ovens.
Background to proposal
The above machines are no longer working to their full capacity. They are having to be
repaired on average once a week. These repairs are costing $1 million per week.
Justification of proposal
 These machines are essential if we wish to compete in a difficult market.
 Our competitors have bought new machines during the past six months.
 Our catering division needs these new machines for its series of open day dispels
planned for January 2003.
1. BACKGROUND TO PROPOSAL
1.1 Age of machines
1.1.1. Flavour Mix food mixers

These machines are now five years old. They have been used daily,
and are now breaking down.
They are costing us $1 million per week.
1.1.2 Wonder microwave ovens

These ovens are now six years old. Each machine is used for four
hours a day. Their performance has now deteriorated to 50% in terms
of the company’s standard performance rating.
1.2 Safety of staff

Three of the company’s caterers have had accidents in the last week with food
mixers. Theses accidents were caused by faulty switches
.
(Continued)
1.3 Poor quality of cooking

The microwave ovens are no longer cooking food correctly. This means that
our products are being spoilt.
1.4 Purposes of this proposal

The purposes of this proposal are to:
 Recommend the purchase of six Ace food mixers.
 Recommend the purchase of seven Zippy microwave ovens
 Justify the choice of the above products.
1.5 Procedure used to set up this proposal

The writer:
 Inspected the faulty machines and tested them according to the
company’s fixed procedure
 Examined a range of six food mixers and eight microwave ovens.
 Obtained quotations on the costs of all the above machines
 Compared the machines using the company’s standard procedure.
1.6 Plan of development of this proposal

The proposal starts with a summary. After this, the background to the
proposal is given. The proposal is then given in detail. Following this the
proposal is justified
2. DETAILED PROPOSAL
2.1 Purchase of Ace Mix Food mixers
. . . . .
2.2 Purchase of Zippy microwave ovens

. . . . .
2.3 Cost of the above products

. . . . .
2.4 Timing of purchases

. . . . .
2.5 Maintenance and spares

. . . . .
3. JUSTIFICATION OF PROPOSAL
3.1 Increased competition
Three more catering companies have set up businesses in our area. Our
company therefore needs to have the best machines to compete.
3.2 Competitions replacing machines

Our competitors have replaced all their food mixers and microwave ovens in
the past six months. They are therefore able to prepare and cook food more
efficiently than our company can.
(Continued)
A. Page 2 of 3
7. PRESS RELEASES
I. INTRODUCTION
A news release is a form of written communication used for giving out news to the news media such as
newspapers (i.e. the press) magazines, radio and television. (i.e. print and electronic media)
It is an objective announcement about a company activity or policy issued to the media, both print and
electronic, in the necessary time with all the necessary facts.
The purpose of a press/news release is to make information known to an organization’s shareholders,

government, opinion leaders, as well as other people who may need to know about what takes place within a
organisation.
II. USES OF NEWS RELEASE

A news release may be used to make announcements such as the production of a new product, appointment
of a senior executive as well as organizational adjustments such as a merger with another organisation
It can also be used to announce the following:

 Anniversaries
 Change of address
 Appointments, promotions
 Performance awards
 Record breaking sales
 Scientific breakthroughs, etc.
New release can also be used when there are crisises like:-
 Terrorist attacks, industrial strike action,
 An accident, product failure, etc.
Any editor of a media house will only publish a press release if it is newsworthy and credible to his readers.
Therefore, each and every news release must be Newswothy. It must also be simple, brief and brightly
written. It must convey information that makes it worthy reading and nothing more. Thus, when drafting a
press release you should ensure that you write your story in a manner that shows the importance of your story
to those who will read a newspaper or magazine in which you intend to have it published. To achieve this you
must follow the way journalists write their stories.
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD NEWS RELEASE

As already discussed above a good news release must be:
1. Newsworthy and credible
2. Very short, precise and brief
3. Very simple, clear and straight forward – it must be written in simple language.
4. A good news release should not begin with, for example, ‘We are proud to announce’, nor use
pronouns like ‘you’, nor contain self praises. A news release must not read like an advertisement. It
must not be disguised advertising puffery otherwise the editor will throw it into the thirteenth file.
Please Note that a press release :-

 May or may not use pictures
 May not use sub-headings
 Should have a title
 Should have the word press/release
 Should have a lead paragraph
 Its headings should be in Bold and Caps.
IV. FORMAT FOR NEWS RELEASE

A press/news release is very easy to write provided you practice writing it. There are many ways of mastering
the art of writing press releases, and below are two different ways/methods of learning how to write good
news releases. Please study these methods and master one which you think is very easy for you. I hope this
will help you to answer all examination questions on Press releases.
Heading
Your heading should be appropriate and in relation to the subject. It should be short, brief and yet eye-
catching.
Introduction
This is a summary of the whole story. You must snatch the editor’s attention by writing very good opening
paragraph. In other terms include the most important information in the first paragraph. In your intro try to
answer the 5W’s and 1H in the first paragraph.
5Ws - Who, What Where, When, Why
1H - How
In other terms your intro should account for

1. Who did What?
2. Where was it done?
3. When was it done?
4. Why was it done? &
5. How was it done?
Body
Central paragraphs should be short so that they do not affect the purpose of the release.
Conclusion
It’s appropriate to finish by repeating the most important points or by quoting key persons or achievements.
N.B. – A proper news release should have a smooth development of ideas i.e. chronological and logical
presentation of ideas.
Please note that …..

1. Your heading should state the key points of the news release.
2. Your introductory paragraph should attract the readers’s attention. It should also be short, cleat,
readable yet factual.
3. The Body of your news release should furnish the facts of the story clearing in descending order of
importance. In order to hold the reader’s interest, your body should justify the promise of the headline.
4. Finally avoid/remove all jargons. Avoid long & overloaded sentences, as they
are a recipe for boredom and confusion.
Alternative Format
The Seven Point formula
1. Subject - what is the story about?
2. Organisation - What is the name of the organisation?
3. Location - Where is the organisation located?
4. Advantages - What is new? What are the benefits?
5. Applications - What are the uses? Who are the users?
6. Details - What are the sizes, colours, prices, and

performance figures or other details?
7. Source - Is this different from location, eg location might

be where the work is done, source will be the
head office address.
PRESS RELEASE
News from Chirango Enterprises Company

Logo
Headline
Opening paragraph:
Summary of the whole story; subject; subject in first few words; brief name of organisation;
location; highlights of story
Advantages: What is new, different
Applications: Uses and users
Details: specifications, prices
Sources of product or service: full name, address, telephone number of supplier
ENDS
Writer’s name,
telephone number,
Date
Serial Number
Name, address, telephone number of organisation or PR Consultancy

V. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A GOOD NEWS RELEASE

1. A news release should be set out in manuscript style, not business letter style.
2. Omit full points from initials of organisations and any other abbreviations, for example, ZIANA not
Z.I.A.N.A., ZESA not Z.E.S.A, ZRP not Z.R.P
3. Avoid indiscriminate use of capital letters, for example, ‘Managing Director’ should be ‘managing director’
4. Lines should be double-spaced
5. Double line spacing will enable the editor to make a comments about each line using space provided. If
triple-line-spacing is used it will also allow the editor to make a comprehensive summary about each
paragraph.
6. The release should be produced on a specially designed and printed heading with distinguishes it from a
business letter heading. (At the top there can be words such as ‘News From’ followed by the name and
perhaps the company logo. The address and telephone number are best printed at the foot of the sheet.
Remember that a headline should state what the story is about.
7. Sub-Headings – These are unnecessary, as the editor will decide whether they are wanted and where to
put them. However, for clarity, subheadings may be introduced in a long technical story if there is more
tan one items, such as Mode A and Mode B.
8. Do not write company or product names entirely in capital letters, for example, Crystal and not CRYSTAL.
9. Initial caps should be used for proper nouns only, for example, Chirango and geographical names such
as Harare, Kwekwe, Gweru.
10. Never use capital for job titles. However, in titles of certain dignitaries initial caps may be used e.g. Prime
Minister, President, Professor, that is business titles are not given initial caps, but most political religious,
military and academic titles are.
11. Underlining – Nothing should be underlined as this is a printing instruction to set in italics, and that is the
editor’s decision not the writer’s
12. Figures – One to nine should be in words, 10 onwards in figures (except in dates, prices, measurements or
address when all figures are used) larger figures should be spelt out if it is clearer, for example, one
million
13. Dates – The press style is to give month first, and
a. A news release should contain the following important information:
14. The words ‘news release’ in caps at the top of the sheet of paper and centred.
15. The name and address of the organisation below the words ‘news release’ placed to the extreme right
side of the paper.
16. Title of the story – This is the headline which helps to explain what the story the new release is about.
17. A news release should have equal margins on both sides of the paper.
18. It should contain details of the contact person which include the person’s full name, phone number, postal
address and physical address. – Details of the contact person are written at the bottom of the last sheet of
the press release.
19. A news release should contain the word “MORE” or “CONTINUED” at the bottom of each sheet of paper if
the story continues on to the next page.
20. At the top of the next page identify the story with a note such as New Product – 2 numbering
each page after the next.
21. The word ‘END’ in caps, should be written at the end of the last page, or immediately below the bottom
right corner at the right hand corner. No suffix after the number, for example, November 18
22. Dates are not given st, nd, thrd and th endings
23. If a release reports an event never write, ‘recently’, ‘today’, ‘next Monday’ or something equally vague.
This can be confusing to editors of Dailies, weeklies and monthly journals. Avoid using ‘recently’ as this
usually implies stale news. If something is announced today write ‘today’ followed by the date in brackets
as appropriate.
24. Quotation marks – Inverted commas should be confined to reported speech or actual quotations. Do not
place quotation marks round product or other names. Publishers have their own house styles and while
some may give quotation marks to the title of the book, play or piece of music, most will use italics. – In a
news release neither should be used, i.e. neither quotation marks nor underlining.
25. At the end (give) the author should give his name and telephone number.
26. Please note that:…………
27. All pages must be numbered excluding the header sheet
28. You must use, only one side of sheet of paper (like what I have done in this handout – I wrote only one
side/sheet of paper)
29. The title of the story should be contained on all the pages after the header sheet at the extreme left side
of the sheet of paper.
V. GLOSSARY
1. Embargo is a request not to print a story before a stipulated date and time.
2. Press Conference – A meeting of journalists who are assembled to receive information which they
discuss. It might be held at short notice and it might be held in the boardroom or hired room. They are
oftenly held at airports on the arrival from abroad of a newsworthy person.
3. Press Reception – This press gathering is more of an organized event with a bar, buffet, or lunch and a
programme of talks, demonstrations and perhaps an audio-visual presentation.
4. Facility Visit – An individual journalist or a party of journalists is taken to visit to, for example, a factory,
an official opening or an outside demonstration requiring transportation, hospitality or perhaps
overnight accommodation.
V. PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Write a news release of about 250 words describing a new public transport service (ie road, rail, sea
or air). Invent your own details. The release is to be sent to the travel trade tests press, both
nationally and internationally.
2. Write a news release of about 250 words to announce the introduction of a new aircraft by your
national airline. You may invent the details regarding the aircraft and the routes it will fly.
8. ARTICLES
I. INTRODUCTION
An article is an essay which is usually written for a newspaper or a magazine. They are normally written like
press releases. They should be organised so that the reader gains a clear idea of key points at the beginning.
However the differ from newspaper articles in that they
 Are written for a specific audience inside an organisation
 Are written to entertain, as well as inform
 Have as their subjects domestic and personal issues relevant only to people inside the company.
There are three reasons why you should be able to write a good article
1. It may be necessary for you to write an article for publication. The editor of a newsletter or a trade
journal may approach you to write an article, or your may feel that you wish to do so off your own bat.
2. Understanding pf articles will help you to write better reports
3. In the examination, you may be expected to write an article because it gives the examiner a good
indication of your language ability.
The writing of an article consists of five basic steps namely:

1. formulation of the central idea
2. consultation of sources
3. making notes
4. drawing up a scheme and classifying information
5. writing the article
1. Formulation of the central idea

Articles are usually written because there is a problem which the write wishes to clear up. Two things arise
from this problem.
 A title and
 A statement of objective
Example
Mr Mutumhe is an advertising agent at Masara Outfitters ltd. He is instructed to compose a series of advertisement,
advertising the firm’s clothing. His problem is: what kind of advertisement will achieve the best results in the clothing
industry?
After a thorough research he succeeds by means of his advertisements in increasing the firm’s turnover by 20%. He
decides to write an ar4ticle about new insights he has gained.
Title: Effective advertising
Objective: To provide guidelines for advertising agents in the modern Zimbabwean clothing industry as
regards the design of effective newspaper advertisements
The reason for the formulation of an objective is so that the write can clarify his own thoughts about the
aspect of the matter which he wishes to discuss.
The necessity for the statement of a n objective becomes apparent from the title in the above example:
effective advertising. Arising from such a title the writer can ask himself a number of questions like: “What
type of advertising do I want to write about?” “who is going to read this article?” “Which country am I writing
about?” etc.
The answers to these questions are summed up in the objective. The writer formulates the objective himself
for himself alone, in order to write a good article.
To formulate the objective, the writer is guided by five basic questions
Who? What? Where? When? Why?
2. Consultation of Sources
In the examination situation where you are required to write an article,, your only source is you mind. You do
not have the opportunity to read more about the subject.
However when you have to write an article for a newspaper, a magazine or a journal, you would normally do
some preparatory work in order to gain more information.
In such cases, you can follow one or more of the following steps.
(a) Study of literature

You may go to a library – preferably a university library – and read up on the subject. Such a
background study consists of reading books, newsletters, newspapers, magazines, journals and
government publications.
(b) Interviews
You may conduct interviews with people who are more knowledgeable about the subject than you
are.
(c) Surveys
You may make a survey by sending out questionnaires to people involved in the case.
3. Making Notes
Making notes means that you must have the ability to distinguish between important and irrelevant
information.
4. Drawing up a scheme and classifying information

After you have consulted as many sources as you feel are necessary, and you have made a list of notes, you
must then draw up a scheme and classify your information.
(a) Drawing up a scheme

Examine your notes and decide on the essential idea arising from them. If you are writing an article
in an examination, you should also write down a list of notes or ideas before you draw up a scheme.
Choose a few of the basic points and make up a title or sub-heading for each idea. Remember that
your scheme should have an introduction and a conclusion.
A scheme will look more or less as follows
1. Introduction - What is communication

2. 1st basic point - The reasons for communication
3. 2nd point - Types of communication
4. 3rd point - The usefulness of communication
5. Conclusion - Conclusion: Let’s communicate better
(c) Classification of information: put every item on your list of notes under the one of the sub-headings
which you have chosen as your basic points.
5. Writing the article
Once you have carefully followed each of the preparatory steps, the writing of the article becomes reasonably
simple.
Note that the article in its final form often consist of two sections namely:
1. The title
2. The article itself
This means that sometimes there is no indication of a statement of objective, sub-heading or classification
scheme.
The fact that there are no sub-headings in the final article does not mean that the writer has not made sub-
headings, but rather he has embodied them in essay from in the article. After the objective is stated in the first
paragraph, while paragraphs appear as though they were written under particular headings.
In other instances, the writer makes use of sub headings. It depends entirely on the writer himself as to how
the final product is presented.
II. CHECKLIST FOR WRITING GOOD ARTICLES
Have I
1. selected the right facts and opinions
2. Chosen a good title that prepares the reader for the essays?
3. Written a good, clear introduction that prepares the readers the content?
4. Organised my information so that it is clear to my reader?
5. Kept to the organisation pattern that I have chosen?
6. Provided signposts to my readers so that that they are able to follow my arguments?
7. Ensured that I have a unifying theme running through my work?
8. Ensured that I have good coherence and the right emphasis?
9. Written my article at the right level of formality?
10. Chosen the right factual and emotive words to convey these facts and opinions?
11. Written a good concluding paragraph to draw together my main ideas?
12. Made my article as readable as possible?
III. PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Write an in-house journal article choosing from the topics below.

1. Write an article on sporting achievements of the company’s staff over the last six months.
2. Write an article on a special achievement of a member of staff in the field of education. She could, for
example have achieved a degree or diploma after six years of studying part-time.
3. Write an article on the company’s successful family day.
4. Imagine that you a bank manager. You were worried about security in your bank and have decided to
read up on the subject so that you can install effective security measures. Eventually you have acquired
so much knowledge on the subject, that the editor of the banking magazine has asked you to write an
article. Write the article.
5. Imagine that you are student who is in the process of writing a communication examination. You decide
to answer the following question: “Write a short article of about 150 to 200 words in length about
promotion opportunities for women in building societies”
6. You are a student who has to answer the following question in a Pitman examination: “Write an article
of about 250 words in length about agricultural problems in Zimbabwe”
7. Imagine that you are a marketing agent. One of your clients wished to establish a series of chain stores
in rural areas, but did not know which type of shop would be the most profitable. He instructed you to
establish what kind of consumer items attracted the majority of the money of the rural population of the
Mashonaland East, and you now wish to make your findings known in the article.
8. ADVERTISEMENTS
Advertisements are designed to attract attention. Once the potential buyer has noticed the advertisement the
company hopes to create an attitude that will persuade her or him to take the desired action, buy the product
and keep buying the product. Advertisements are aimed at specific groups in the population. The groups are
identified by means of market surveys. Their needs, dreams, hopes, desires, concerns and fears are then
established. Once the advertising company has this information, it creates an advertisement aimed at the
specific group. Such an advertisement would be designed both to inform and persuade. It should attract
attention and set the mood for action.
The company will have to decide on the best medium to use. The radio is effective for advertisements that
rely more on factual information. The visual impact is into important. Television, on the other hand, is very
effective when the visual and the spoken word are important. The company would also consider using
newspaper and magazines that rely on the visual impact of pictures and the written word
AIDA Method of advertising

Advertisements are normally organized in four stages as follows
1.Attenion, 2. Interest, 3. Desire, 4.Action
Stage 1 –The first stage is to attract the reader’s, listener’s or viewer’s attention. This is called the cognitive
stage. The audience start thinking about the advertisement and its content.
Stage 2 – at this stage the audience’s interest is aroused. This is called emotional approach to the
advertisement.
Stage 3 – the audience’s desire is now aroused. This is also an emotional approach to the advertisement.
Stage 4 – if the other three stages have been successful, then the audience is stimulated to action. This last
stage is called an action stage.
Advertisers analyse people’s needs, attitudes and desires. They try to ‘teach’ people what they want. They do
this by :
1. Selecting the media such as newspapers, magazines, radio and television
2. Aiming advertisements at carefully analysed segments of the population
3. Using pictures, words, colours and shapes.
Advertisers base their appeals on people’s needs for pleasure, power, security, beauty, a long life, happiness,
health, love, social acceptance & leisure.
Advertisers strive to communicate the existence pf products that will satisfy needs, wants and desires, the
qualities of products and where products can be obtained. More specifically they try to stimulate:
1. The needs for a category product
2. Awareness of a specific brand
3. An attitude towards a specific brand
4. The intention to buy a specific brand
Once they achieved the above, advertisers try to make buying as easy as possible
Techniques used in advertising

The following is a brief list of some of the techniques used in advertising to gain and hold attention. These
techniques are especially relevant to the writing of unsolicited sales letters.
- Attractive photographs and sketches - Testimonials from authorities

- An effective tone - Headings
- Questions - Lists
- Imperatives such as ‘buy one now!’ - Capital letters
- Challenging statements - Repetition of key ideas
- Quotations from famous people - Slogans
- Something unexpected - Offers of free samples
- Appeals to people’s desire for health, leisure, - An invitation to action by filling in a reply-pad
success, card
comfort, more money etc
- Emphasis on the qualities of the product compare - Evidence from laboratory tests
with
rival products
People in organisations might have to prepare advertisement for local newspaper. These would take the form
of Classified advertisements, public announcements, Notices of meetings & Vacant posts
Classified advertisements are printed in newspapers column under general headings such as “Cellphones &
Accessories”, “Houses for Sale” etc. They have no special layout. They have to give the facts as briefly as
possible.
See press for examples of advertisements
10. NOTICES
I. INTRODUCTION
Notices come in many shapes and sizes and are issued for a wide variety of reasons. They have certain
characteristics that are common to memos in that they are always brief and concern just one central point.
You cannot covey a complex message by means of a notice. Only short notices attract attention.
Notices should be situated where everyone who should read them is not just passing by but where they have
time to stop and read them.
While notices serve functions similar to those of memoranda, they exist certain important differences between
them.
1. Notices are brief mass communications. They are usually pinned, conspicuously to bulletin boards in
lobbies or in canteens or staff rooms where there is the best chance of their being read by everybody;
they do sometimes appear in odd places such as on cupboard doors, however, or gummed to the wall
beside the lift.
2. Memoranda are passed horizontally or vertically; notices intend to be passed downwards to the
lowest levels of a firm’s hierarchy.
3. Notices are intended, on the whole, to stimulate the staff to whom they are addressed to greater
efforts in every manner of direction, but if they are carelessly framed they may well have the effect of
arousing resentment.
II. WRITING NOTICES

1. When writing a notice, keep it short. The inveterate reader will read every single word; the non-reader
will glance at a long notice and pass-by.
2. Simple language and straightforward syntax are essential for a well designed irrespective of educational
background.
3. Apart from, and in addition to, being clear, notices should neither snarl, nor should they implore; they
must simply give an instruction, briefly but courteously.
4. The lettering must be bold, and words well spaced.
5. Stale notices should not be left to clutter the notice board for their continued presence detracts from the
impact of new notices.
11. INSTRUCTIONS
I. INTRODUCTION
Instructions normally serve the purpose of telling people what they are to do or how to do it. e.g If
you discover a fire, immediately operate the nearest fire alarm call point.
When one is telling people how to do things a logical arrangement of stages of a procedure is very important.
A person who is following out an instruction of any complexity will do it step by step and if essential steps are
left out or are introduced in the wrong order he will make mistakes, be confused or probably irritated.
Therefore, if you are writing any instruction to be issued to everybody or to be put on the notice board, please,
make sure that the instruction notice is presented in a logical order – i.e, the steps must be presented step-by-
step.
II. REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONS

1. They must be absolutely accurate.
2. They should be concise and to the point, yet complete.
3. They should be absolutely clear so that there are no gaps between the various steps.
4. They should not be so vague that the reader has to think, “what does this mean”.
5. They should be written in language that is easily understood.
6. They should be written in the third person.
7. They should be as short as possible.
8. They should be neatly typed.
9. They should arouse enthusiasm of the reader.
10. They should be accompanied by a sketch.
I. HOW TO WRITE INSTRUCTIONS

From time to time in our working life we have to describe/define what can loosely be called a
‘process’. This may be the daily duties you have to perform which you have to describe to someone
taking over from you; or it may be the operation of some piece of office machinery such as a
photocopier, duplicator, fax or telex, which others in the organisation need to know about.
Whatever the process, you need to set about describing it in a methodical manner. Your aims must be:
a. to communicate clearly
b. to avoid the possibility of misunderstanding or misinterpretation.
c. To ensure that nothing essential is omitted, and
d. To use a style and language appropriate to the person who will have to act upon the information.
Assemble all the facts. These are then arranged in a logical order preferably numbered for ease of
reference.
Consider the recipient, his level of education, vocabulary limitations, ability to comprehend, and any
factors such as his emotional state, which may influence his interpretation or his ability to act upon what
you write. Please note that technical phrases, jargon, or specialist terms are more likely to confuse than
to help.
Unnecessary information must be avoided – instructions must be clear. To ensure clarity, the instructions
must be as complete as possible. However, remember that too many unnecessary details can confuse the
reader just as much too few can. Too many details result in instructions that are so long and involved that
the reader is not motivated to read them; the result is that the person to whom the instructions are given,
doesn’t bother to read them at all and would rather choose the “shortcut” by doing it his own way or by
asking someone else to explain briefly how it is done. Thus, your instructions must be neither too long nor
too short.
Instructions may be written either in point form or in essay form. (You should be able to re-write
instructions presented in point form in essay form and vice versa).
Guiding principles for writing instructions that are clear and meaningful.
1. The person issuing the instruction must be certain of the content and intention of the instructions,
that is, must know exactly what the instructions are and to whom they are directed, and for what
purpose. (The standard of education of the recipient will influence the terminology used).
2. The person issuing the instructions must assume that the reader is ignorant of, or unfamiliar with, the
topic. This will ensure that you explain every term and step clearly, and that you follow a logical
progression – or that you choose terms and steps that are clearly understandable.
III. FORMAT FOR INSTRUCTIONS
a) Introduction
This must explain briefly the subject of the instruction and why instruction is necessary.
b) Theory/Principles of Operation
Describe the necessary tools carrying out the instruction.
c) List of Equipment/Materials Needed

Describe the necessary tools/equipment and their location.
N.B Under certain circumstances, step (a) and (b) may be omitted.
d) Description of Process
Give an outline of the intended processes.
e.g If you are writing instructions about a fire drill.
i. Persons will assemble.
ii. Persons will proceed, etc.
Or the actual process.
i. the machine is set in operation.
ii. The machine takes time to warm up.
e) Performance Instructions
i. Outline the processes step by step so that the persons carrying out the processes can understand it.
Make sure each step is presented in a logical progression.
ii. Whenever possible explain the reasons for each step in the process without going
into unnecessary or complicated details. Giving reasons can prevent serious
mistakes.
iii. Warn the performer what not to do.
e.g In carrying out an electrical repair the current must not be left on.
iv. If feasible, use illustrations to make the process clear.
Different Types of Format for Issuing Instructions

The purpose of the instruction dictates the format.
Fire Instruction Notice

FIRE/EVACUATION PROCEDURE
Instructions to staff
Action to be taken in case of fire or other emergency
Assembly point: MAIN CAR PARK
If you discover a fire

 Immediately operate the nearest fire alarm call point
 Attack the fire, if possible, with the appliances provided but without taking personal
risks – ensuring a clear escape route is available at all times
On Hearing the Fire alarm

 The receptionist on duty will call the Fire Brigade immediately
 Leave the building and report to the person in charge of the assembly point at the
place indicated above, where a roll call will be taken
 The senior person or authorised deputy on the affected floor will take charge of any
evacuation and ensure that no one is left in the area
 USE THE NEAREST AVAILABLE EXIT

 DO NOT USE THE LIST
 DO NOT STOP TO COLLECT PERSONAL BELONGINGS
 DO NOT RUN OR PANIC
 IF YOU HAVE VISITORS, ESCORT THEN TO THE ASSEMBLY POINT
 DO NOT RE-ENTER THE BUILDING FOR ANY REASON UNTIL THE

SAFETY OFFICER OR THEIR REPRESENTATIVE GIVES YOU
PERMISSION
12. INTERNET
Writer’s
Signature
CLARA JANGA
CHIEF SECURITY OFFICER
An international network of separate networks, each of which retains its own identity, into an interconnected
network. It is the largest “information superhighway” in the world.
The internet began in the US Department of Defence network. It main purpose then was to link scientists and
university professors around the world, and was neither used by business nor the general public. One of the
most puzzling aspects of the internet ins that no one owns it and it has no formal management organisation.
As a creation of the US defence department for sharing research date, this lack of centralization was
purposeful, to make it less vulnerable to wartime or terrorist attacks. To join the internet, an existing network
need only to pay a small registration fee and agree to certain standards based on Transmission control
Protocol (TCP).
Costs are low because the internet owns nothing and so has no real cost to offset. Each organisation, of
course, pays for its own networks and its own telephone bills, but those costs usually exists independent of
the internet. Networks that join the internet must agree to move each other’s traffic at no charge to the
others, much as is the case with mail delivered through the international postal system. This is the reason why
all the data appear to move at the cost of a local telephone call. The result of all this is that the cost of the E-
mail and other internet connections tends to be far lower than equivalent voice, postal, or overnight delivery
costs, making the internet a very inexpensive communications medium.
The value of the internet lies precisely in its ability to easily and inexpensively to connect so many diverse
people from so many places all over the globe. Anyone who has an internet address can log on to a computer
and reach virtually every other computer on the network regardless of location, computer type, or operating
system. The internet carries many kinds of traffic and provides users with many functions.
Functions of the internet
Communication - Communication including the E-mail is the most widely used function on the
internet. Many millions of messages are exchanged daily worldwide on E-mail systems. Internet
communication functions related to E-mail include on-line forums and chatting. The internet supports
thousands of public forums that operate like electronic bulletin boards on almost every conceivable topic.
Individuals use the Net E-mail facility to get in touch with friends, to gather opinions from other users abut a
product they are interested in purchasing, to argue political issues, or to mail. Researchers use this facility to
share ideas, information, and even documents
The net also supports live interactive conversations called “chatting” with others anywhere in the world, much
as people might do via a telephone conference call, although with the net the words must be typed in rather
than spoken.
Anyone with a personal computer, the right software and a modem plus the willingness to pay a small monthly
usage fee can access it through one of the service providers that are popping up everywhere.
Information retrieval – Hundreds of library catalogues are on-line through the internet including those of the
University of California and the Harvard University. In addition users are able to search thousands of
databases that have been opened to the public by Universities, governments, corporations etc. For example a
Supervisor interested in finding information on absenteeism at the work can quickly and easily search
computer databases and locate many articles, papers, books and even conference reports from universities
and other organisations all over the world. They can then download the information for their reading and use
at their leisure.
Internet benefits to organisations
Reducing communication costs – Communicating through the internet is far cheaper than communicating
through an other means. Most companies are finding that by using the net to fulfill a range of their
communication needs, they are lowering other communication costs, including their telephone and fax costs.
While all companies can benefit from lower costs, small businesses find reduced communication costs
particularly beneficial because it sometimes enables them to compete with larger companies in markets that
would otherwise be closed to them.
Enhancing communication and coordination – As organisation expands and globalization continues the need to
coordinate activities in flung locations become more critical. The internet has become an important
instrument for that coordination. The internet makes it easier for companies to keep employees informed
about company developments.. through the web employees are able to see a company calendar, the
employee policy manual, organisation charts, interactive training tools etc
By using the internet ordinary staff members now have access to vast amounts of information. This was until
recently available to senior management only. Ordinary staff members can now get a detailed and high level
picture of the company’s operations
Any staff member can also send an electronic message to the Chief Executive, and expect a reply. This has
resulted in making organisation charts invalid
Accelerates distribution of messages – because modern economies have become information economies,
access to knowledge is critical to the success of many company. To speed up product development, to react
rapidly to an emerging problem, information gathering and dissemination must be quick and easy.
Improving customer service and satisfaction – companies large and small are using the internet to
communicate effectively to make product information, ordering and technical support easier and immediately
available
Internet facilitates marketing and Sales
INTERNET PROBLEMS TO ORGANISATIONS

Security – the internet is a highway that carries a great deal of personal and organisational information and
data, much of it sensitive. Electronic links tend to be exposed to attacks from both thieves and vandals.
Internet hackers have found ways to steal passwords as they pass through one site and use them to break
into computer systems at other sites all over the world.
An internet hacker is a person who gains unauthorized access to a computer network for profit, criminal,
mischief of personal pleasure
Technology problems – There is a lack of standards. A number of incompatible ways exist to access the net,
allowing specific users to perform certain functions and so many people cannot mail graphics documents to
each other. The lack of standards also affects the ability of organisation to establish a stable link to the
internet. Other organisations are not able to access the internet because of the absence of the hardware,
while those with hardware may also not be able to send messages through the net because of traffic jams
(overloads)
Legal issues – doing business on the internet is still unacceptable due to the absence of proper legislation.
The other problem with the internet is that of credibility of internet messages. No individual actually owns it.
This concern about computer based messages has risen because some messages are sent by computer
generated personages. Traditionally mass media have editors and fact-checkers to ensure that messages are
accurate. The internet, on the other hand, does not have this control. The credibility of sources does,
however, vary on the internet. Commercial sites carry relatively more credibility, and unknown sources carry
less.
A much greater burden will therefore be placed on the user to determine how much faith to place in any
source. In addition to the above problem, there is a more serious one. As more and more commercial and
political information is made available, who will decide on which messages are allowed and which are not
allowed?
13. E-MAIL
Electronic mail is any facility which enables an organisation to communicate internally or externally by
transmitting text, data, images or voice electronically using some form of computer base and a public or
private telecommunication system.
E-mail entails the electronic transmission and storage of messages from a sender to a receiver, each with a
compatible workstation. E-mail can be transmitted without the concurrent presence of both the sender and
the receiver. The receiver can view the information at leisure. E-mail is usually available on subscription basis.
An E-mail system consists of
1. A terminal, that is a piece of equipment on which a message can be created; this will usually
incorporate a VDU and a keyboard
2. A computer which stores and processes messages
3. A program to enable the computer to carry out commands \
4. A Modem & a communication network
Advantages
1. Messages can be delivered as planned.
2. Communication time is cut from days to minutes which means its fast
3. cost effectiveness particularly with the rises in postal charges
4. time & paper saving
5. there guaranteed security as each subscriber is allocated a mailbox into which other subscribers
can leave messages but not retrieve or read messages. Messages remain until the owner reads
them or release them.
6. prevent interruptions
7. efficient in that it enables flexible working patterns - that is, members travelling domestically or
abroad have access to their E-mail from almost any computer terminal.
8. enables individuals to have better control and management of their own time
9. facilitates wide message distribution where used intra-company
10. can provide useful written/memory held record when used as alternative to telephone call
11. enables messages to be date activated which ensures that are delivered automatically at pre-
determined future dates
Disadvantages
1. Initial expense of installation
2. Staff reluctance to use it
3. The need to train staff in its use if they are to maximise its potential
4. System breakdowns
5. The likelihood of receiving ‘junk mail’
6. The possibility of unauthorised access to system causing security worries
7. Internally they are not suited to the preparation and transmission of lengthy documents
8. Can invite information overload
9. Do not alleviate poor communication habits
10. Can encourage time wasting via exchange of personal and non-sense messages internally.
14. TELEX
It is a system whereby a message sent by a machine called a teleprinter is simultaneously produced at a distant
point and it typed.
A telex is a device similar to a typewriter, which can be used to send printed messages over telephone lines. It
is possible for subscribers to be In touch with each other, in exactly the same way as a telephone. The telex
terminal is called a tele-printer. It looks in many ways like a combination between a typewriter and a
telephone with the keyboard, paper feed and dial
Each subscriber is issued with a telex number, which is dialled by a telex subscriber when they want to receive
messages. . Contact is made by dialling the number required, and an answerback code establishes that the
correct link has been made. When connection is made between the tele-printers the operator types the
messages and its automatically printed out in the receiving machine. The machines are left overnight so that
messages can be printed even if the office is closed.
Information is transmitted either by typing directly on the machine or by using a pre-pared diskette. Calls are
charged according to distance and time spent on transmission, so that using a tape/disk is much cheaper since
transmission can be speeded up. Modern telex systems are electronic incorporate a number of modern word
processing features
Features of telex machines

1. A storage capacity for incoming messages
2. A hold-on-memory-and-transmit-later facility for outgoing messages
3. Enables text to be viewed on the VDU and edited for transmission
4. Enables messages to be received while outgoing messages are being prepared
5. Messages can be stored of diskettes
6. Can be incorporated into a desk-top microcomputer
Advantages
1. it is very fast & convenient
3. it provides a written record
4. Messages can be received in absentia ie when there is no one in the office
5. It is flexible in that messages can be sent at any time of the day.
6 it is relatively cheap if used sufficiently
7. Makes it easier to communicate with other subscribers
8.Risk of mistakes is reduced
“Blessed are they who have nothing to say & c nnot be persuaded to say it”
Introduction
Oral Communication refers to direct conversation of direct sources
Main forms of oral communication

6. Planned formal talk – a prepared talk on a given topic
7. Unplanned informal talk – oral communication when we meet people in their regular activities within the
organisation. The grapevine is an example of an informal talk network.
8. Interviews – these may be arranged for many purposes, eg, disciplinary, counseling, appointments,
promotions, exits etc, meetings – these can take several forms, for example, groups or sections can hold
meetings, committee meetings etc
9. Telephone calls – a swift and simple way of passing on information both within the organisation and
outside
10.Other example includes public address, conferences, training sessions, oral briefings, etc.
A. Advantages
5. Allows for contribution and participation from all parties.
6. Instantaneous feedback – questions can be raised and answered. Immediacy is both an advantage
and a disadvantage; too often you think later of some important questions not asked, or some aspect
of a complicated topic not clarified
7. Allows for instant interchange of ideas, views, attitudes and opinions
8. Facial expression, sound & gestures aid understanding
9. Easier to convince or persuade
Disadvantages
9. Often no written record of what has been said.
10. Disputes can arise over what has been said
11. Does not provide enough time for evaluation and analysis
12. Messages can not be received in absentia
13. Does not disseminate information to dispersed recipients
14. More difficult to control when a number of people participate
15. Lack of time to think things out and consequently quality of decision making may be inferior
16. More difficult to hold ground in face of opposition – not easy to communicate with an opponent.
17. Perception of meaning is likely to be less accurate as the receiver has little time to brood over the
meaning of words and figures and work out what the transmitter really means. We can interpret
what is communicated in one particular way, then later realised that there is an alternative meaning.
Few of use can weigh words and phrases as carefully in oral communication as we do when dictating
a letter or memorandum, nor can a draft of the message be pondered over and over again to an
assistant for his fresh mind to seek possible double meaning or obscurities. A misleading message is a
danger
1. GROUP COMMUNICATION
Introduction
A group may be defined as a number of people who have gathered together with a goal in mind. These
people may be together for a single meeting or may meet over an extended period.
The individuals in the group:

1. share a common goal
2. interact together
3. develop a set values and norms within the group
4. are prepared to take risks in the group
5. Develop behaviour in the group that would not be seen outside the group.
This definition stresses that the group needs a purpose. It also stresses that the members interact to reach a
decision. It therefore applies more to a smaller group that to a large AGM that it run according to a set of
procedural action.
Styles of communication also vary according to the size of the group. In a small group of five, for example,
there will be a great deal more interaction than in a large meeting. For this reason, there is a separate section
on meetings that are rune according to a set of rules
Advantages of groups
An uniformed manager makes poor decisions. Managers use groups to get advice, to help them reach
decisions and to apply decisions.
1. Groups enable people to
2. Get to know each other
3. Work well together
4. Exchange information, ideas, opinions and attitudes
5. Stimulate each other
6. Become involved in common tasks
7. Work together to achieve common goals
Implications for communication
If groups are to work well, then managers and staff need to ensure that:
Effective listening takes place
People are sensitive to each others’ needs
Individuals are allowed to express themselves freely
Individuals hear each other’s needs and are allowed to themselves freely
A supportive climate is developed
People value each other
People express themselves clearly and openly
People acknowledge each other’s contributions as valuable
Informal Versus Formal Groups
Informal groups
An Informal group is a casual group without a leader. They normally include conversational and tension
releasing groups. Informal groups gather information informally, for example in the staff canteen. People
simply get together for informal chat and engage in small talk. (Conversational Groups) Thus informal lines of
communication which then form part of grapevine are developed.
Informal groups are very important in a company. The informal content helps people to get to know each
other. They also develop trust. These relationship will then help them form better working groups in the
future.
Tension Releasing Groups - these groups are also informal. They have no leader. They gather together
from time to time because of some event in the company that has caused tension.
These groups are important because they help people to discuss their anger and tension. In this way they
serve as an outlet for tension that could cause great problems if allowed to continue. They are also important
because people learn to understand each other better and to interact better
Formal groups
Learning groups - These are formal groups, usually with an appointed instructor or leader who guide the
learning. Specific staff will be appointed in the group. They are very important in companies because staff
both increase their learning and learn to :
 Evaluate ideas
 Define problems
 Work together and stimulate each other
 Cope with new information
Policy making groups - these are formal groups that work together to :
 Decide on company policy
 Create rules for the company
 Plan for the future
They will normally have an appointed leader and could follow an agenda. Members of such groups have to be
sensitive to each other’s views and have to be highly skilled at evaluating information.
Problem Solving Groups – These are formal groups set up to solve problems. They will normally have a leader
who has and agenda. These groups will be strongly oriented to the task. They have available a number of
problems solving procedures. They will work best if they strive to reach consensus rather than having a
decision forced on them by the leader.
Decision making groups – These groups are formal. They will have a leader whose task is to see that policies
are put into practice. These groups could be working under pressure. Their decisions could well be unpopular.
They will therefore focus strongly on the task, and will have long and serious decisions. They will have to make
sure that they have the best information for making decisions. A decision making group may, for example,
decide on whom to make a redundant
Characteristics of Groups that work well

Informal and formal groups have one thing in common. If they are to work well together, members of the
group need to interact effectively.
Effective communication is thus very important both for getting the task done and for ensuring that the
people involved work well together.
If a groups starts leaderless, then each member for the group is responsible for seeing that he or she works
well with the other. If a leader has been appointed, then that person is responsible.
Groups need three conditions for effective decision-making
A supportive climate – if members wish to create a supportive climate in the group, they need to do the
following:
 Strive to be non-judgmental of others’ statements or idea
 Focus on the problems, rather than on personalities in the group
 Strive to be honest and to respect the work of others
 Be wiling to share responsibility with the rest of the group
 Strive to explore issues rather than take sides
 Strive to create a cohesive group
 Work towards group, rather than individual goals
 Strive to listen to others
 Encourage questions with a great deal of give and take
Effective integration of members – Leaders need to pay a great deal of attention to maintaining good group
interaction. In particular they should
 Encourage members to share ideas
 Ensure, where possible, that hidden agendas are brought into the open
 Try to overcome difference when they occur
 Ensure that everyone has a chance to be heard
 Set the standard for the group
 Stress the value of every contribution

 Encourage good listening
 Relieve tensions when they arise
 Draw out quiet members of the group
Getting the job done - If the group has to perform a task, then the leader and members should:
 Suggest new ideas or approaches
 Encourage the seeking and giving of information and opinions
 Encourage the clarifying of ideas
 Co-ordinate information
 Define the progress of discussions
 Summarise past decisions
 Test to see if the groups is ready to decide on the actions
 Encourage consensus, rather than voting
 Speak clearly with good choice of words
 Use positive, rather than critical words
 Record ideas correctly
 Ensure that every person has a turn to speak
Leadership In Groups
Leaders do not act in the same way. They have a range of different styles, all of which will affect the ways in
which they communicate. The major styles of leadership may be describe as follows:
 Autocratic/Authoritarian/Dictatorial
 Bureaucratic
 Democratic
 Laissez-faire
The Autocratic Leader tends to give orders without much give and take in the group. Such leaders are strongly
task oriented and have strong views on how the task is to be accomplished. Conflict may arise in such groups
if the members do not respected the leader.
The Bureaucratic Leader leads according to the rule book. This approach is successful for more routine tasks,
but can lead to stifling of original discussion if the task becomes complex. This style might also be adopted by
an incompetent leader or by someone who lacks confidence.
Democratic leaders try to guide, rather direct a group. They encourage full participation by all members of the
group. They expect members of the group to reach decisions. Such groups are effective at solving complex
problems because they are creative. However, they might not be all that efficient because of the time needed
for all opinions to be heard and evaluated.
Laissez-Faire do not direct groups. Instead, they observe the group and record what is going on. They give
advice when it is needed. This approach to leadership is very effective for a group of highly motivated and
creative people who are keen and able to get on with the job without being directed.
Ineffective Groups
These are groups which do not work well. There are two factors which may cause a group to be ineffective
namely
 The prevalence of a destructive climate in the group
 A desire to maintain group cohesion at all costs
Destructive Climate - A destructive climate in a group will develop if members do not

 Value each others’ contributions
 Listen properly
 Allow turn-taking
Other characteristics of a destructive climate are:

 The passing of judgment on others’ ideas and values instead of being non-judgmental
 Manipulation of the proceedings for personal reasons that are kept hidden from the rest of the group
(ie hidden agenda)
 A superior attitude towards others in the group
 A dogmatic approach that rejects others’ ideas as worthless
 A refusal to work with others on an equal basis.
Maintaining group cohesion at all costs - if a group decides to maintain its cohesion at all costs,
then the group may become blind to its weaknesses.
This attitude may lead to:

1. A refusal top accept any ideas that might change the group’s present position
2. An acceptance of only those ideas that support the group’s vies
3. A refusal to think critically
4. An illusion that the group ‘s position can never be challenged
5. Reacting to others and their ideas as if they are the enemy
6. A denial of ethical responsibility
7. An assumption that everyone else holds the same beliefs as they do
Implications for communication

If a leader notes any of the above symptoms, then he needs to
1. Analyse the situation with the group
2. Encourage the development of a supportive climate
3. Encourage all members to state their points of view, even if these might not agree with the group’s
current thinking
CONFLICT IN GROUPS
conflict is inevitable when people work together. People may have strong views on how a project should be
managed, for example. They may also have different leadership styles, different values and different needs.
All these will lead to conflict.
Conflict may be approached from two points of view, that is negative approach and positive approach.
The negative approach to conflict holds that conflict is always destructive and should be avoided because it is
assign of incompetence in a company. This approach leads to an attitude that conflict is caused by a few
undesirable people. No conflict in a company is considered to be a sign of competence. Conflict is linked to
the undesirable characteristics of anger, aggression and violence.
The Positive Approach to views conflict as natural in an organisation. This approach says conflict may be used
in a constructive way to stimulate better interaction and new approaches to solving problems.
According to this approach conflict can be helpful, provided that it is properly handled. Conflict can lead to
better participation, higher motivation and greater creativity. Proper handling of conflict can lead to the
development of procedures for improved management of conflict in the future.
This view recognizes that conflict can be harmful if people become so involved that they cannot concentrate
on their work. Conflict can also lead to fear of being different. People then support what they regard as the
safe psotion. If conflict is allowed to continue, then people will
 Withhold information
 Stay away
 Leave the company
Types of conflict
Conflict may be discussed from two points of views namely
1. The people involved
2. The type of conflict
1. The people involved

if conflict is described from the first point-of-view, then it may be divided as follows:
personal conflict - this conflict is within people. They have conflicting needs, for example, and may not be able
to meet all these at once.
Interpersonal conflict - this conflict is caused by differences in attitudes and experience in a company. People
may be competing for scarce resources. They may also have to work with other people whom they do not like
or who try to dominate them. This type of conflict can bee destructive if people attack each other.
Organisational conflict – As organisations become larger and more complex, conflict caused by people’s
different roles and functions cannot be avoided. People become cut off from others and find it difficult to see
things from their point of view
2. The type conflict

conflict can be described according to its type. It may, for example be described as:
1. Value conflict
2. Content conflict
Value conflict can be destructive, because people regard their values as fundamental to their existence. These
are basic beliefs that people are very reluctant to change. In this type of conflict people may have to accept
that it cannot be resolved easily. They need to work to find other areas of agreement.
Content conflict describes a conflict over what people view as facts or opinions. This type of conflict can be
more easily resolved, provided personalities are not attacked.
Conflict Management
People may approach the management of conflict in two different ways:
1. Avoiding the conflict
2. Confronting the conflict
Avoiding conflict – people avoid the conflict because they feel that they cannot handle it. They smooth over
the differences and hope that the conflict will go away. People may also try to postpone resolution of the
conflict until the anger has disappeared. This approach may help in a small way, but it does not allow people
to settle the most important issues.
Confronting conflict – if people decide to confront the problem they could take three major approaches. They
could:
1. Try to win, without considering the other side (win-lose)
2. Attempt to compromise solution (lose-lose)
3. Approach the conflict with the view that both sides can win (win-win)
Win-Lose Approach – This approach is based on power. One side or person uses authority to defeat the other
side or person. This approach is only short term, and can cause a great deal of danger.
Lose-lose – This approach is sometime called a compromise approach. Each side makes some concessions, but
nobody is completely satisfied. This approach is useful in the short term, but can lead to a great deal of
dissatisfaction in the long run. but ca lead to great deal of dissatisfaction in the long run.
Win-win – This approach stresses that all parties can win if the conflict it handled carefully. The ideal approach
here is that all parties sit on one side of the table solving the common problem. All sides focus on the
problem, rather than proving who is right or wrong. They strive to work towards a common goal that will
satisfy everybody. An atmosphere of trust is created.
Implication for communication

Those involved in conflict need to
1. Analyse they type of conflict
2. Try to create an atmosphere of trust
3. Strive towards a win-win approach
4. Encourage effective listening
5. Acknowledge the values and interests of other
6. Encourage a clear statement that is neutral rather than disparaging
7. Show verbally and non-verbally that they are concerned about others
2. MEETINGS
INTRODUCTION
A meeting is a gathering of two or more persons, acting in unison, to discuss matters of mutual interest and to
decide upon them.
According to Oscar Britzius 1974: 576, a meeting is an assembly of persons, a coming together for a common
lawful purpose of two or more persons.The word meeting prima facie implies the concurrence or coming
together of at least two or more persons so that as a general rule, one person cannot constitute a meeting.
Purposes of meetings
1. to bring together knowledge and experience to solve problems
2. to provide, give & obtain information
3. to float ideas, proposals & take decisions within their sphere of authority
4. to generate interest and individual involvement (ie develop & promote cooperation and influence
attitudes)
5. to report back on some exercises or activities done
6. to seek assistance & co-ordinate activities
7. to dispel rumour and anxiety
8. to air grievances
Meetings facilitate eyeball-to-eyeball confrontations, ie, face-to-face contact by a number of individuals and at
the same time providing the opportunity of gauging instantaneous reaction and feedback. Meetings are good
communication tool because a wide cross section of opinion is gained since there is two way dialogue, ie
asking and answering questions
However, it is worth noting that meetings can become too numerous resulting in a great deal of frustration
and boredom owing to lengthy discussions. Meetings can become inconvenient at times, because it is very
difficult to arrange a meeting that will meet everybody’s schedule especially when the executive have many
commitments and tight schedules.
Conditions necessary for effective meetings

 the right people are invited to the meeting and the membership restricted in numbers
 the numbers are sufficiently briefed in advance to be in a position to make a worthwhile contribution at
the making.
 The terms of reference are clearly defined
 Meetings must be serviced with secretaries/treasurers/clerks who discharge their duties efficiently and
effectively
 Chairmanship should be competent
 The extent of power and authority must be spelled out
 It must operate within the structured framework
 Procedures must be established and adhered to
TYPES OF MEETINGS
Public meetings - Are those meetings on matters of public concern, or those held in a public place, or to
which the public or a section of the public is admitted. A public meeting is a meeting to which the public in
general is invited, either expressly of tacitly.
A public meeting is any meeting bona fide and lawfully held for a lawful purpose and for the furtherance of ,
or discussion of any matter of public concern, whether the admission to the meeting is general or restricted.
It is a meeting in public place and any meeting which the public or any section thereof are permitted to attend
whether on payment or otherwise.
A public meeting would include any meeting called for social, religious, political, non-political ,for example,
public lectures, or other purposes to which the members of the public are admitted, whether by ticket or
otherwise. A public meeting could either be held either outdoors or inside a building.
Private meetings - Attendance at these meetings is limited to membership. This would include the meetings
of registered bodies such as joint stock and other companies or trade unions and business meetings of clubs
and other special interest organisations.
A private meeting is one which restricts the admission of the public and includes meetings of clubs and such
other bodies, the conduct of whose business is of interest only to members of those concerned (F. Shackelton
1967 5th ed. pp4)
Formal meetings
These are proper meetings which follow the accepted procedure with an elected chairman. Therefore formal
meetings:
 vary in size from seven people to an AGM attended by hundreds of people
 are called by means of a Notice of Meeting
 have an agenda
 have their proceedings recorded in Minutes
 are run by a designated chairperson, who is helpoed by a Secretary and Treasurer
 are governed by a set of formal rules
 may have a formal constitution that governs, for example, how often they meet.
Examples of formal meetings:

 Annual General Meetings(AGMs) as per statute’s requirement, these are done annually, usually once
a year by each and every company registered in terms of the Company Act
 Statutory meetings required by statute
 Board meetings attended by directors, chaired by the chairman of the board with the official
paperwork
Informal meetings
For example, departmental meetings, managerial meetings, progress meetings, working parties etc. These are
held most frequently, permit great flexibility and encourage individuality and ideas.
They promote interpersonal relationship between the manager and his subordinates. They also act as briefing
sessions and to receive progress reports. There is no official paper work, no set patterns of procedure, no
formal chairman and no constitution of standing orders.
VALIDITY OF MEETINGS
A meeting must be well constituted

This means that there must a quorum.
A quorum is the minimum number of persons whose presence is required at a meeting in order to validly
transact the business of a meeting. No quorum is established for all public meetings. As for meetings of
registered boards the number is specified in the standing orders, articles of association or other regulations.
A meeting must be well convened - This means that the meeting must be called by the proper authority, eg,
by the committee, or other executive of the body concerned, or the requisite number of member prescribed in
the governing statute or the regulations of the body concerned, or by the requisite member prescribed in the
governing statute or a regulations of the body. All persons entitled to receive notice of the meeting must be
duly served therewith, unless they have expressly waived their right.
Public meetings are convened by general notice, for example, by circulars, posters or adverts in newspapers.
For registered boards they send the notices to individuals in accordance with the rules and regulations of the
articles of association, standing orders, and other regulations
A meeting must be well conducted - this means that the proper person must be in the chair.
All meetings must have a chairman, for registered boards the regulations contain provisions as to who shall be
a chairman. At public meeting the chairman will be appointed by the meeting itself.
OFFICE BEARERS AT MEETINGS
The Chairman
Unless the duly appointed person occupies the chair, a meeting is not properly constituted and the
proceedings are not valid. The appointment of the chairman is subject to the standing orders rules and other
regulations governing the proceedings of the body, society or association concerned. Usually the chairman is
elected for a fixed period, for example one year and a deputy chairman , or vice chairman is often appointed to
take the chair in the absence of the regular chairman. Alternatively, the chairman of each meeting may be
elected by the members present.
If the appointed chairman and deputy chairman are both absent, the members present may elect one of their
number to the chair. As a general rule, it is preferable for the chairman to be appointed by a simple
unopposed motion. However, if there is a contest, the meeting may appoint a temporary chairman to conduct
the election. The normal though not invariable method is to ballot the appointment of the chairman, since this
method avoids the embarrassment of making members openly declare their preference. On the other hand
such procedure is a time consuming method and it may be thought preferable to arrive at a decision as quickly
as possible in this case the matter will be decided by show of hands.
If the regular chairman or vice-chairman subsequently arrives the person appointed in his absence usually, as a
matter of courtesy though not of right, vacates the chair in favour of the regular chairman or vice chairman. If
an outgoing chairman seeks re-election he may vacate the chair and appoint a deputy to preside until the
result of the election is announced. Any objection should be voiced immediately, since failure to do so will be
construed as tacit acquiescence.
Having been appointed the newly elected chairman takes the chair and briefly thanks the meeting for the
honour conferred on him and the confidence reposed on him. In the absence of express provision in the rules,
any person is eligible to be elected and any member may nominate a person to be chairman.
Qualifications of a chairman
The chairman should……………
 Be a person possessing the qualities of tact and discretion
 Have the ability to control the meeting with sufficient firmness without being domineering
 Be absolutely impartial, possess a judicial mind and not be influenced by personal or party principles
 Have a wide knowledge of people and the subject under discussion in order to improve his conduct of the
proceedings
 Always be calm and collected, especially during a heated controversy
 Give due consideration to the minority
 Overlook personal remarks, yet be possessed of that masterful determination which will gain the respect
of the meeting and lead to the orderly and expeditiously conclusion of the business to be transacted
Duties of the chairperson

The chairperson should plan the meeting well in advance. He should do the following:
Before the meeting

1. If the meeting is optional, ask if it is necessary
2. Ensure that the time and place are appropriate
3. See that am agenda has been prepared and sent off in good time. This timing is especially important if a
constitution lays down the period of notice for a meeting
4. Give people advance warning if they have to prepare topics for the meeting
5. Ensure that all proposals have been correctly worded and are properly seconded. People should get
advance notice of these proposals on the agenda
6. Check the venue to ensure that it is comfortable and has the right sitting arrangements
7. Check that a microphone is available, as well as appropriate audio-visual aids and lighting
8. Check that the minutes of the previous meeting are sent out in advance, with the Notice of Meeting.
9. See that sub-committee have met and that their reports are ready for the meeting
10. Prepare thoroughly for the meeting
11. If necessary allocate a time-limit for the discussions of each time
Example:
8. Allocation of parking places for computer staff (10 minutes)
12. Appoint someone to record the proceedings.
During the meeting
1. Ensure that the meeting starts on time

2. make sure that everyone has an agenda and understands it
3. move the business of the meeting along
4. keep the agenda
5. discourage distracting behaviour such as…. Not listening, people talking off the point on their
favourite subject, people talking past each other, apathy
6. keep to the formal rules of debate where necessary
7. allocate an order for speakers
8. see that everyone has a fair chance to speak
9. summarise the discussions if necessary
10. tie up loose ends
11. identify and action that has to be taken and by whom
12. see that the secretary records the exact wording of any decisions taken. The names of proposers and
seconders should be recorded.
13. see that the secretary records financial transactions correctly
14. where necessary, delegate responsibilities and have these recorded
15. act impartially throughout the meeting
16. strive to be fair when decisions are made
17. exercise a casting vote only when no other way can be found of resolving the a matter
18. see that motions have been correctly counted and seconded
19. summarise all decisions at the end of the meeting and ensure that people know what they have to do
Powers of the chairman

 To preserve and maintain order and to decide any points of order submitted to him
 To have disorderly persons ejected from the meeting where such persons are preventing the transaction
of business and refuse to leave at the chairman’ request
 To adjourn the meeting if it is disorderly as to prevent transaction of business
 To maintain his decision on points of procedure
 To decide on all emergent questions.
 To conduct the meeting in an orderly and expeditious manner leading to clear and well defined results
Duties of the Secretary

1. The secretary is normally responsible for
2. Keeping the records of the meetings in a Minutes Book
3. Ensuring that the chairperson is kept up to date with all the factors affecting the meeting
4. Keeping a correspondence file
5. Keeping an attendance register
Before a meeting
The secretary should ensure that:
1. A notice of the meeting has been prepared and sent out within the time period prescribed in the
constitution.
2. The agenda has been properly set out with the correct wording. This should also be sent out in
advance
3. All minutes are up to date, and that correspondence has been correctly filed so that it can be
presented at the meeting.
4. The venue has been booked and that the correct tables, chairs, microphone and audio-visual aids
have been booked. He should also ensure that the venue is ready for the meeting.
During the meeting

The secretary should
1. ensure that everyone signs the attendance register
2. check that there is a quorum present, according to the constitution.
3. report to the chairperson on the numbers present
4. read out the minutes for the previous meeting if the minutes have not been sent out in advance
5. record the proceedings, ensuring that exact wording, figures and names have all been recorded
6. ensure that all motions, with proposers and seconders, have been accurately recorded.
7. record the numbers who voted
8. record the names of those who have to take further action, and deadline dates for t his action, where
relevant
9. collect copies of the chairman’s and committee reports for filing
After the meeting
After the meeting, the Secretary should

1. Write up minutes of the meeting within seven days, and send them to the Chairperson for checking
2. Once the minutes have been checked, file copy and send copies to the Chairperson and Executive
Committee* where appropriates
3. Write all letters as directed by the Chairperson
4. Brief he Chairperson on matter that have to be followed up
5. Brief sub-committees* and individuals if they undertook to do specific things, before the next meeting. He
should also remind them of deadline dates
6. Help the Chairperson prepare the agenda for the next meeting
7. Check that all rules in the constitution have been correctly followed.
Duties of the Treasurer

A Treasurer is to keep accurate accounts of all financial transactions. He also has to run the bank account and
prepare the accounts for annual auditing.
Before the meeting

Before the meeting the Treasurer should:
1. prepare appropriate financial statements for the meeting
2. ensure that the Chairperson and the Secretary receive copies. The Secretary should place such statements
in the minute book.
3. ensure that all figures on the Agenda have been correctly recorded.
During the meeting

During the meeting the Treasurer should:
1. read out financial statements if appropriate
2. present the accounts for ratification
3. present the cheque list since the last meeting for the group’ information
4. answer any financial queries
5. record any financial transactions that have to be completed after the meeting
6. advise the meeting on all financial matters.
After the meeting

After the meeting, the Treasurer should:
1. check with the secretary that all financial transactions have been correctly recorded
2. pay any accounts as directed by the meeting
3. keep the Books of Accounts up to date
4. Report to the Chairperson that accounts have been paid.
Duties of other officials
If the organisation or constitution allows for any other officials, they should:
1. Prepare any reports necessary

2. Ensure that they attend all meetings
3. Work closely with the chairperson\
4. Keep accurate records of all that they do
5. Ensure that they do their duties according to the constitution
E. DOCUMENTS USED IN CONNECTION WITH MEETINGS
All formal meetings are called by means of a typed Notice of Meeting. This notice is normally accompanied by
a formal Agenda. The proceedings are recorded in formal Minutes
Notices
The word notice is derived form a Latin word meaning Knowledge, hence it comes to signify the bringing of
knowledge in order to summon a meeting.
A notice has to be sent to every member entitle to be present whether or not they will attend. Omission to
give proper notice to any member may render the meeting void. It must state the time, day date and place,
nature of the business to be transacted. It should be sent out in accordance with the standing notice which
gives the number of days to elapse between the issuing of notice and the date of meeting.
It is prepared by the secretary and issued under the authority of those empowered by the regulations to
convene the meeting. The notice also enables the member to decide whether he needs to attend the meeting
or not. Notices also enable the member to decide whether he needs to attend the meeting or not.
Notices are not sent where meetings are held regularly at fixed time and place to carry out routine business.
When a public meeting is to be held it is usually advertised in the press or by posters. The secretary should use
his judgement for the best method of reaching the greatest number of interested persons. The cost of
advertising should be put into consideration and it probable effectiveness.
Requirements of a valid Notice

In order to summon a meeting notices are dispatched and the following rules must be carefully noted
1. Due notice must be given to every member entitled to attend the meeting in accordance with regulations,
and the notice must be issued by the proper authority. Omission to send a notice to any such person will
render the acts done at the meeting in his absence invalid.
2. Notices must be clear and explicit to ordinary minds. In particular notices of a meeting for special business
must be very explicit and five sufficiently detailed information of the matters for decision
3. The notice must contain adequate information regarding the object of the meeting since insufficient
notice of purpose may invalidate the decisions made thereat. Special business must be clearly disclosed
in the notice and sufficient information given to enable a person of ordinary intelligence to understand
what is proposed to be done
4. The notice must state in detail the place, day, date & time of the meeting all of which must afford the
persons receiving the notice a reasonable opportunity to attend
5. Notice must be served in the manner provide in the standing rules and order, that is, by post,
advertisement or personally etc.
6. All persons properly entitled to attend have a common law right to attend and take part in the
proceedings of the meeting. Failure to send a notice to any person entitled to attend will invalidate the
proceedings at the meeting. However, this rule will not apply in the following circumstances:
 Where all reasonable enquiries have been made to find a person without success
 Where a person is beyond reasonable summoning distance
 Where a person in dangerously ill that he could not be moved
 Where an absentee member fails to register his address
7. Notice of a meeting will be excused if all members are present and none object to the waiver of notice
8. An improper notice may nullify the resolutions of a meeting
9. The period of time between the notice and the meeting is very important. Notice periods may be
summarized as follows:
 A company’s annual general meeting and a meeting called for the passing of a special resolution – 21
days notice in writing
 Any other company meeting – 14 days’ notice in writing
 An unlimited company – not less than 7 days’ notice in writing
The Agenda
An agenda refers to the items of business for consideration at a meeting. It is a list of items to be discussed at
a meeting. It is sent in advance to give a chance to consider the business to be transacted
In order that the business of a meeting may be expeditiously disposed of, it is desirable that the various times
of business be set out in order in which they will be dealt with at the meeting. This list is known as the agenda
and the sheet of paper of which they are presented is called the agenda paper or order paper
The purpose of the agenda is to inform persons expected to attend the meeting the business to be discussed at
the meeting. The agenda need not only consist of a list of the items to be discussed but give brief details in-
order to guide participants on what the meeting will discuss and form decisions on. The agenda should also
state the type of the resolutions that will be passed at the meeting, for example, a general or special
resolution.
It is also proper that the agenda be sent or distributed to the participants at the same time with the notice of
the meeting so that they have ample time to prepare. The agenda should include all the items to be
considered at the meeting and it is the duty of the secretary of the meeting who will prepare the agenda to
make sure that all the issues to be dealt with have been included on the agenda. The items on the agenda may
at times be submitted by the members to the secretary or in the case of regular meetings may be decided by
the chairman.
Normally, the agenda is incorporated in the notice of the meeting and usually the items will be written in
accordance with their importance, routine business coming first and important issues coming afterwards.
There usually is an item for other business on the agenda which permits members in attendance to bring up
other matters of concern which may not have been included on the agenda. This may include matters of an
informal or unimportant nature to be discussed
Arrangement of items on the agenda

The agenda should be arranged in logical order headed with the name/class of the body convening the
meeting, time, day, date and place of the meeting. The items should start with routine items “apologies for
absence”, minutes of the previous meeting and matters arising. Items representing specific business of the
meeting should then follow and lastly there shouldABC
be aCOMPANY
provision for Any other business for minor items not
NOTICEthen
listed on the agenda OF Adate
MEETING
of next meeting.
Notice is hereby given that the third Annual General Meeting of Shareholders of the above Company will be
held at the Company’s registered office 25, First Street, Townsville on August, 18 November 2002 at 1000 hours
Advantages of the agenda Agenda
1. Item matters requiring attention are dealt .with systematically and in a logical sequence
2. prevents items from being overlooked. Once the agenda is circulated the chairman has to adhere to
1. Notice convening the meeting
2. the sequence of the business set out unless a variation is agreed by the meeting
Apologies
3. 3. Minutes
there is of the Second Annual
collaboration of theMeeting
secretary and the chairman when compiling the agenda
4. 4. Matters members
avoids arising fromanticipating
the Minutes matters which would come up for consideration in due course.
5. Correspondence
5. 6. Business
Directors’ is dealtforwith
Report speedily and in a pre-determined order
the year
6. 7. ItBalance Sheet
militates and Profit
against and Loss Account
a possibility of itemsfornotthebeing
year ending 30 June
dealt with at a2002
meeting
7. 8. Auditors’ Report
Members are giveon the Accounts
n the for the year
opportunity ending 30the
to consider Junebusiness
2002 prior to the meeting and if necessary
9. Election of Directors to replace Mr Zulu and Mrs A Smith. Both have retired by rotation, and are standing for re-
obtain
electionspecial information
8. 10. Declaration
Routine of dividends
business of seven
is dealt with per
firstcent
andofitthe
is preference
not subjectshare capital, and ten per cent on the Ordinary Share
to postponement
9. Capital for
Agenda the year
items can ending
be used 30as
June 2002 for minutes with very few alterations
a basis
11. Fixing of payment to Auditors for the past year
12. Any other business
Examples of Notice of meeting & Agenda
13. Closure
By Order of the Board

Signed:
Secretary’s
Signature
A.C. Mkizi
Secretary
Date: I July 2002
Some notices and agendas do not show the address of the registered office. Students are advised to answer
exam questions as per instruction. If the address of the registered office is provided in the question, then you
must use it. (see next page)
(1)
Chirango
Leisure
Products plc
B. NOTICE OF MEETING
TO: ___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Your attendance is requested at the meeting of the Board of Directors to be held

at 100 hours on Friday, the 18 April 2002 in the Board Room at Head Office.
AGENDA
1.Chirango
Apologies for absence
Boutiques plc
2. Minutes of the previous meeting
3. Matters
NOTICE
arisingOF A MEETING
4. Visit by the aInspector
There will be management meeting
of industries on Tuesday,
to the factory 18 November 2002 at 0900
hours in the Indaba Room at Crown Plaza Monomopata Hotel. Please make
5.every
Sales report of new range of leisure clothes
effort to attend.
7. Date AGENDA
of next meting
(2) 0. Apologies for absence
______________________
2. ________________________
Matters arising
3. CHAIRMAN
Accidents Reports (to be tabled) DATE
4. Staff safety induction

6. Date of next meeting
______________________
________________________
CHAIRMAN DATE
(3) Chirango
Sports
Club
NOTICE OF A MEETING
A meeting of the Cricket Committee of the Chirango Sports Club will be held at the
Club Canteen on Friday 19 Febraury 2003 at 1530 hours
AGENDA
1. Apologies for absence
3. Matters arising
4. Correspondence
5. Treasurer's financial statements
6. Purchase of cricket bats and balls
7. To consider suggestions for future sporting activities
______________________ ________________________
CHAIRMAN DATE
(4)
XYZ COMPANY
NOTICE OF A MEETING
There will be a management meeting on Tuesday, 18 November 2002 at 0900 hours in the Indaba
Room at Crown Plaza Monomopata Hotel. Please make every effort to attend.
AGENDA
16. Matters arising
17. Accidents Reports (to be tabled)
18. Staff safety induction
______________________
________________________
CHAIRMAN DATE
If a meeting is less formal and is to be attended by a small number of people from one
department, then the Notice of Meeting and Agenda could be set out as shown below:
ABC COMPANY
Production Department
Notice of meeting
Our next Production Planning Meeting will be held as follows :
Date: 18 June 2002

Time: 1000 hrs to 1100 hrs
Venue: Committee Room 2
Those attending: Joe Fischer, Ike Zitha, Fikile Mahlangu
Agenda
OBJECTIVE OF MEETING: To decide whether to recommend a 10% increase in production in the Trimming
Department.
Agenda Item Purpose Time Presenter Material to be read

in advance
1. Establish criteria for Consensus 15 min - -

making decisions
2. Review 3-year Information 10 min J.F. Attached figures

production figures
3. Consider short-term Decision 30 min I.Z. Attached estimates

use of excess capacity and
proposal
Chairperson’s Agenda
in Trim Department
The chairperson’s agenda contains more information than the ordinary agenda and spaces are provided on the
right hand side of the paper for the chairperson to make notes. The additional information gives the
chairperson all the relevant details that may be needed during the course of the meeting.
See next page

Chairperson’s Agenda
Chairperson's agenda Notes

Company Sales Team Meeting to be held on Friday, 3 April at 1000
hours in the Board Room at Factory Head Office.

Memo received from F Masenda
2. Minutes of the last meeting

Check item 3.2 - is spelling of 'Cornstance' correct
3. Matters arising from the minutes
4. Correspondence
Letters from customers
Nozithelo - Epworth
Omega - Ruwa
Agnes - Chitungwiza
5. Easter Sales Campaign Review

Easter sales figure presentation - Loriet Mlambo
6. New Promotions
Yeukai Masawi - Head of Marketing - to give presentation
7. Next quarter sales targets

Target document

Product safety note

Third Monday in June, avoid
June 23, 24 & 25
Minutes of meetings
Minutes are an official record of the proceeding of a meeting and are kept to preserve a brief, accurate and
clear record of the business transacted. They record the exact wording of:
 Resolutions taken
 Decisions of finance
 Appointments to posts and terms of office
 Instructions
 Contracts
Minutes should be written up as soon as possible after the meeting as it is much easier to be absolutely
accurate when the discussions are fresh in the mind. They should be written wholly in the third person and in
the past tense.
Minutes are important documents for four major reasons:

1. They remind those who attended and those who did not about the business of the meeting
2. They form part of the historical records of a company
3. Once approved, they are the official legally binding records of a meeting
4. They may be used as evidence in court.
They should, therefore, be very carefully and accurately written. They should be factual, unambiguous and to
the point.
It is essential that minutes should be

 Accurate so that they present a true record of the proceedings
 Brief so as to provide a summary of the important matters discussed and decisions reached for reading
and confirmation at the next meeting and for future reference.
 Clear so those absent from a meeting can be fully informed of the proceedings, and so that there is no
possible doubt about previous deliberations
Types of minutes
Verbatim minutes: - a word-for-word account of everything that takes place at the meeting. This requires
very high shorthand speeds (at least 120 wpm) or the use stenograph machine. Such minutes are rarely
required except in situations such as legal proceedings or an official enquiry.
Narrative minutes: a record of who proposed and seconded the motions, the points made by
participants, the decisions arrived at, the action to follow and who it take it.
Resolution minute: notes of who proposed and seconded the motions, what decisions were made, the
action to follow and who is to take it
Essential Elements of minutes

Minutes should contain some or all of the following elements:
1. name of the organisation
2. type of meeting
3. place, date and time of meeting
4. the chairperson’s name
5. the secretary’s name
6. a record of the names of those who attended
7. apologies for absence
8. notice of meeting
9. opening and welcome
10. minutes of previous meeting
11. matters arising from the minutes
12. correspondence
13. financial report
14. new business
15. general
16. closure
17. chairperson’s signature and date
18. distribution list
19. action column on the right hand side, with deadline dates where appropriate
Standard Layout of minutes

Minutes are laid out in the same order as the agenda and include
1. A title which indicates the type or class of meeting and the time, date and place
2. A list of those present at the meeting, with the officers’ position noted against their names
3. A list of apologies for absence
4. A statement that the minutes of the last meeting were approved as an accurate record or a note of
amendments agreed before approval
5. A record of any matters arising from the minutes of the previous meeting
6. A brief statement of the correspondence received together with an indication of any action to be taken
7. A brief statement of any reports received or read at the meeting plus an indication of any action to be
taken
8. A record of the main business of the meeting in the order in which it was handled (which could differ from
the order on the agenda) each item should be recorded under a separate heading
9. A record of nay item put before the meeting under ‘any other business’
10. A statement of the date for the next meeting
11. A signature block and space for date.
12. Sometimes address of registered office
Examples of minutes of a meeting

ABC COMPANY
Minutes of the third General Meeting of the ABC Company held at the Company’s Registered Office, 25 First
Street, Townsville on Wednesday 18 August 2002 at 1000 hrs
1. Present Action &
Mr A. Wentezel (In the chair)Mr A.C. Mkizi (Secretary) Deadlines
Mr S. Stander
Mr K. Zulu
Mrs A. Smith
Twenty Shareholder (see attached list)
2. Apologies
Apologies were received from :
Mr Z. Motau
3. Notice of Meeting
The Secretary read the notice of the meeting. The Chairperson declared the meeting open
and welcomed those present CHIRANGO SPORTS CLUB
MINUTES OF THE SPORTS CLUB COMMITTEE MEETING WHICH WAS HELD IN THE CLUB
CANTEEN
4. Minutes of Second Annual GeneralON MONDAY, 30 APRIL 2001 AT 1500 HOURS
Meeting
These minutes, having been circulated in advance, were taken as read. C.Z
Proposer: Mr K. Zulu 30 Aug 2002
PRESENT:
Seconder: Mrs A Smith Mrs N. Kamanga (in the Chair)
Miss N. Damba
5. Matters Arising Mrs C. Jimha
The Chairperson reported theMrs M Masara
following matters
Miss V Masawi
5.1……
Miss F Masenda
5.2……
Mrs G Mutumhe
Miss L Singano (Secretary)
6. Correspondence
The Secretary read the correspondence
ABSENT: relevant to the Second Annual General Meeting.
Miss B Chaparanganda
Miss C. Chikwari
7. Election of Directors Miss E. Jiri
The following were elected forMiss
the C. Machina
period 3 August 2002 to 2 August 2003
Miss R. Munyavi
Mr C. Zulu (Proposer: ……………. Seconder……………)
APOLOGIES:
Mrs Mrs PSeconder………….)
A. Smith (Proposer: ………….. N Garati
Miss R. L. Mlambo
Miss G. Kulera
8. Payment to Auditors
Mr Wentzel, seconded by Mr K Stander, proposed as follows:
MINUTES
That OF THE
the auditors, MessrsPREVIOUS MEETING
J.K Pelle and Partners, be paid ………….for the year 1 July 2001 to
Minutes
30 June 2002of the last meeting were read, adopted and singed by the chairman.
The meeting so resolved that K.S.
MATTERS ARISING
…………………………………….. 2 Sept 2002
Mrs Mutumhe reported that a reunion of the members of the Football Club proved very
successful.
10. Closure
The meeting
FINANCIAL closed at 1130 hrs with a vote of thanks to the Board of Directors.
STATEMENT
A statement of the current financial position of the Committee was read and adopted. In
Signed: ………………………….
addition, the statement for presentation tot he Annual Meeting to be held on the 18 th of
December(Chairperson)
2000 was approved
TENNIS
Date: ………………
Miss Masenda pointed out that there was a lack of facilities for members wishing to play
tennis. She stated that the one grass court belonging to the Committee was proving
inadequate
Attached: owing
List of to the
all those whoconstant
attended demand caused by the Club members' enthusiasm, and
asked whether the list
Distribution Committee could see its way to secure a second court. Miss Masawi
mentioned that members of the tennis section had contributed a large proportion of the
funds at present in hand, and that she considered Miss Masenda' recommendations
justifiable. The chairperson pointed out that the application would have to be submitted in
the first place to the Board of Director for their approval.
RESOLVED: That the Secretary be instructed to make application to the

(R36) Board of Directors for the provision of a second grass court
adjoining the existing grass court.
DATE OF NEXT MEETING

It was decided to hold the next meeting of the Committee on Tuesday 18 July 2002.
CHIRANGO SPORTS CLUB

MINUTES OF THE CONFERENCE ORGANISATION COMMITTEE MEETING WHICH WAS HELD IN THE
INDABA ROOM AT CROWN PLAZA MONOMOTAPA HOTEL ON FRIDAY, 31 MAY 2001 AT 1430 HOURS
1. PRESENT: Mr P. Chirango (Chairman)

Miss N. Damba
Mrs C. Jimha
Mrs M Masara
Miss N Kamanga
Miss F Masenda
Mrs G Mutumhe
Miss L Singano (General Secretary)
2. ABSENT: Miss B Chaparanganda
3. APOLOGIES:
The secretary reported that Mrs Garati had been admitted to hospital. She was asked to
communicate to Mrs Garati the Committee's sincere wishes for a speedy recovery
4. MINUTES OF THE PREVIOUS MEETING

The minutes of the last meeting which had been circulated, were taken as read, approved and
signed by the chairman.
5. MATTERS ARISING
There were no matter arising from the minutes
6. CONFERENCE ARRANGEMENT VENUE

Mrs Masara and Mrs Masenda had visited the conference town and looked over the two
proposed venues, the Kingdom Hotel and the Elephant Hills Hotel. They stated that the
acoustics were good in Kingdom but there were no refreshment facilities The Elephant had
good refreshment facilities, but the acoustics were poor. The Secretary recommended that the
Kingdom would be more practical from the point of view of effective speaking
The secretary's recommendations that the Kingdom should be used was agreed, provided that
the conference would adjourn for mid-morning and mid-afternoon breaks. It was agreed that
the Secretary should make arrangements for the booking.
7. ANY OTHER BUSINESS
7.1 FUTURE CONFERENCE

Miss Damba raised the matter of future conferences and asked whether the conference was
held at the right time of the year. She thought that March would be much more appropriate
time than June. The Chairman said that it was rather late to open a discussion on this matter
and suggested that it should be discussed at the next meeting of the Executive Committee, to
which Mrs Kamanga agreed
7.2 REPORT TO COUNCIL

The Secretary confirmed that he would make an appropriate report for submission to the
council.
8. DATE OF NEXT MEETING

It was decided to hold the next meeting of the Committee on Tuesday 18 July 2002.
There being no other business the meeting adjourned at 1800 hours

GUIDELINES FOR THE CONDUCT OF MEETINGS.

The following are a set of guidelines for a formal meeting. Other guidelines have already been set on the
specific duties of Chairperson, Secretary and Treasurer
Duties of the Chairperson during the meeting

The Chairperson should
1. sign the minutes of the meeting once they have been approved
2. insist that all speakers address the meeting through the Chair.
3. name speakers to indicate when they may speak
4. ensure that speakers receive a fair chance to speak
5. insist that speakers keep to the agenda
6. control the amount of time that speakers have
7. close the debate on a topic when he considers necessary
8. hand over the chair to the Vice-Chair when he is reading the Chairperson’s report
9. read the exact wording of a motion to the meeting before the inviting debate on it
10. appoint people to count votes* by secret ballot or to count hands
11. appoint people to count votes by secret ballot or to count hands
12. use a casting vote when votes for or against a motion are equal
13. accept amendments to motions provided that they have been seconded
14. give rulings on point of order
15. call for a cote if any of these rulings challenged.
*(Notes on methods of voting at a meeting available on request)
Chairman’s casting a vote

In order to ensure that there is impartiality the chairman does not exercise his vote as a member. He only has
to exercise it in the motion. However, a general rule, in the event of equality of votes for and against a
motion, the chairman shall have a second vote called a casting vote which is an additional vote t enable the
motion to be disposed of. A casting vote may be given only upon an equality of valid votes, and it is generally
preferable for him to give that vote against the motion, as it is undesirable that a motion to vary the status
quo be carried in the teeth of such strong opposition
Rules for speakers

1. every speaker must address the chair: he may not address any
other person directly
2. visitors may not ordinarily speak and they cannot vote. Visitors are generally not allowed to remain in the
room if the meeting goes into committee of the whole
3. speakers may speak only once on a motion in a debate, except in the case of the proposer (see 5 below).
Right to speak returns when a new motion or amendment is proposed.
4. the proposer of a motion may reply to the discussion even after closure, after which there can be no other
speakers. The proposer of an amendment has no right of reply.
5. a member does not lose the right to speak if he asks a question ‘on a point of information’ to clarify the
meaning of a motion
6. if a speaker is misquoted or misrepresented, he may correct the mis-statement or even interrupt.
7. once a person has spoken in a motion, he cannot propose an amendment to the same motion or even
interrupt
8. if a motion to adjourn is defeated, its proposer cannot speak on the original motion
9. A member is entitled to interrupt a speaker on ‘a point of order’. The speaker shall refrain from speaking
while the objectors makes known his point of order
10. A member may not propose a motion dealing with a matter that has already been concluded at that
meeting.
11. members should come prepared and bring all necessary documents including the agenda and a set of the
minutes of the last meeting
Proposing of Motions
Meetings should follow the following guidelines on motions:

1. A motion must be proposed and seconded
2. A motion may be added to with the consent of the proposer
3. The proposer and seconder have a right to speak on a motion
4. Motions, if not amended, are put to the vote. If they are carried they become resolutions
5. Motions may be amended by changing, removing or adding words. An amendment needs a proposer
and seconder
6. The amendment is voted on. If the amendment is approved by the meeting, the amended motion,
called the substantive motion is put to the meeting.
7. Two amendments cannot be accepted together
8. Each amendment needs to be voted on separately
9. A motion cannot be withdrawn unless the meeting, as well as the proposer and seconder, agree.
10. A motion is recorded as ‘carried unanimously’ if everyone votes for it. If nobody votes against it, it
can be recorded as nem con (no-one against) This could apply if some people abstain
11. A proposal that opposes a motion cannot be accepted as an amendment. This should be put as a
counter-proposal. The meeting will then vote on whether to accept this proposal or not. If the counter-
proposal is defeated, the meeting will then vote on the original proposal. If the counter-proposal is
accepted, then the original proposals falls away.
TYPES OF MOTIONS (PROCEDURAL MOTIONS).
All motions shall be proposed and seconded, then handed to the

chairman in writing. All motions shall begin: “It is proposed
THAT..”
1. The proposer and seconder have the first right to ‘speak to the motion’. The chairman then calls for
other speakers, one of whom shall speak mote than once on that motion
2. ‘A motion to adjourn’ is a preferential motion used to close a meeting.
3. A motion ‘to proceed to the next business’ asks for business to proceed to the next motion on the
agenda. If carried, the original motion is dismissed without vote.
4. A motion ‘to the previous question’ is a proposal that the question under discussion be not put at that
meeting but be postponed indefinitely ie sine die. If this motion is lost, vote on the motion under
discussion immediately be taken. It requires two thirds majority vote
5. A motion ‘to move into committee of the whole’ may be necessary for discussion of a highly
controversial or confidential matter. If it is carried, no person shall enter or leave the meeting until
the meeting the meeting ‘moves out of Committee of the whole’. No member shall continue the
discussion with anyone after the meeting has moved out of the Committee. Motions can be made ‘in
the Committee of the Whole’, but the votes are not final. No motions to prevent full debate of the
subject may be made.
6. A motion that ‘the question be now put’ (closure) asks for immediate vote to be taken on the motion
under discussion
7. A motion ‘to suspend Standing Order’ (rules) is necessary only in case of urgency or special need to
suspend certain rules which hinder effective procedure. It requires a two thirds majority vote
8. A motion ‘to fix the time to which to adjourn’ is a privileged motion used to decide the time of the
next meeting and has nothing to do with adjourning the present meeting.
9. A motion ‘to recess’ is used to grant the meeting a brief intermission
10. A motion ‘to rescind’ is used to cancel a previous resolution made by the current committee at an
earlier meeting
11. A motion ‘objecting to the consideration’ of a proposal is raised of one does not want that proposal to
be discussed at all. It can be made only on the main motion and only before even one word of the
debate has started. It requires a two-thirds majority.
12. A motion ‘to postpone’ (definitely)’ to a certain date or time is proposed if you want more time to
study a proposal.
13. A motion ‘to create a Blank’ is proposed if the principle of a motion is acceptable but any quantity,
amount or duration referred to is the subject of controversial discussion. For example, the motion
may then be accepted thus: ‘THAT the Committee grant an honorarium of $………. to the secretary’.
The amount may then be filled by voting on amounts suggested by the members
14. A motion ‘to reconsider’ a resolution made at the current meeting may be proposed if you have
changed your mind about a vote you made in favour of the original motion. A motion ‘to rescind’ is
made at a later meeting and can be made by any member, regardless of which side he voted on.
15. A motion of no confidence may be proposed if one member considers that a particular office-bearer
has displayed gross inefficiency or dishonesty in execution of his official duties.
GENERAL INFORMATION ON MEETINGS

1. a motion with its amendments is referred to as the ‘Substantive motion’
2. two amendments cannot be put together
3. a proper motion cannot be withdrawn without the consent of the meeting, including its proposer and
seconder
4. alteration of the terms of a motion after partial discussion is irregular
5. any proposal that directly opposes the main principle of a motion cannot be accepted as an
amendment. Instead one must propose a counter amendment and substitute an entirely new form of
word after ‘that’
6. neither a proposer nor seconder of an unsuccessful motion can propose more than one amendment
to the same part of the motion
7. a motion may be carried ‘unanimously’ if everyone votes in favour, or nem con if nobody votes
against a motion (there are no abstentions)
8. accurate minutes of a meeting shall not be regarded as a true reflection of the proceedings of that
meeting until they have been accepted by vote of the members present a the following meeting. The
chairman shall always call for a motion to confirm (or adopt) the minutes of the previous meeting before
handling ‘matters arising from the minutes.
9. The minutes of a meeting shall not be regarded as a true reflection of the proceedings of that meeting
until they have been accepted by vote of the members present at the following meeting. The chairman
shall always call for a motion to confirm (or adopt) the minute of the previous meeting before handling
‘matter arising’ from the minutes
10. If you object of the chairman’s ruling, you may call out, without being recognized by the chair: ‘I
appeal from the decision of the chair’ You require a seconder
11. If you are confused about the procedure which is being used and you require clarification, you may
call without being recognized by the chair; ‘point of information’
12. You may raise a ‘point of personal (or General) privilege’ if the physical conditions of the meeting are
hindering the comfortable participation of yourself (or the whole assembly) This point usually refers to
noise, heat, cold, or disturbances.
13. If another member has made a proposal with several different part, only some of which you approve,
then you may state: ‘Mr Chairman, I call for a separate vote on the items in the resolution’ This is a
demand and must be honoured. However, if the proposal refers to bylaws, then you have to make a
seconded motion ‘that the bylaws be considered by articles’
14. Every motion shall begin with the words ‘THAT’ i.e. It is adopted That…………..’ A motion which has
been accepted by the meeting becomes a resolution and is recorded in the minutes that:
15. Any motion that constitutes mere opinion is contemptuously referred to as a Pious resolution
16. Note the difference between an Amendment to a motion. An addendum cannot be added without
consent of proposer and seconder of the original motion.
17. Please note also that a motion may be amended by:
 Deleting certain words
 Adding certain words
 Substituting words
Points of Order
A member is entitled to interrupt on a point of order if he feels that a speaker
 Is using an objectionable form of speech
 Is off the subject and is introducing irrelevant matter
 Is not entitled to speak
 Has exceeded the time limit, or if
 The discussion seems to be out of order
 There is any irregularity or breach of standing orders
 The subject has already been discussed earlier on the agenda
Standing Orders
These are regulations of an enterprise which detail the procedure at meetings and the order in which business
shall be transacted. These are subject to change/adjustment for urgent or special business to the wish of the
company
Matters included
Standing orders may give instruction on the following
 date, time and place of meeting
 calling of special meeting
 notice of meetings
 adjournments, quorum, signing of attendance books
 attendance of press at meeting
 adjournment of debate
 adjournment of meeting
 amendments
 procedures of debate
 appointment of chairmen, secretary, committee members etc
 methods of voting and proceedings
 signing of minutes
 order of business
 order of debate, for example, motions, amendments, withdrawal of motions on amendments, next
business, closure etc
 suspension of business and of members
 questions - how they may be put to the meeting
 motions to rescind resolutions
 etc, etc, etc
As a general, the secretary should be familiar with the standing orders of his company not only to ensure that
there is strict compliance but also to be in a position to advice the chairman.
Should it be a registered company the above standing order will be contained in the articles of Association.
Motions, Questions & Resolutions

Motion is a proposal formally submitted to a meeting for consideration
Question is a motion that has been accepted by the chairman of a meeting and is the subject
of consideration by the meeting
Resolution is a formal decision taken at a meeting: a motion which has been duly proposed
and where necessary seconded becomes a resolution when it is duly carried by the
meeting
A motion is a proposal submitted to a meeting for consideration, and it becomes, ‘the question’ when it is
accepted by the chairman and submitted to the meeting for discussion. If and when it is adopted by a vote of
the meeting, the question becomes a resolution
Amendments
An amendment is a proposed alteration to the terms already under discussion at a meeting
An amendment that has been duly moved and seconded must be debated and voted upon separately from the
motion of which it is a proposed alteration and if the amendment is carried, the motion, as amended, now
known as a ‘substantive motion’ becomes the subject of further debate until it is put to the meeting for
decision.
Amendments may take the form of
 omitting certain words
 adding certain words at the end
 inserting certain words in the body of the motion
 omitting certain words and inserting or adding others
 rearranging certain words
TERMS COMMONLY USED AT MEETINGS
1. Ab initio - from the beginning

2. Acclamation - loud expression of assent to a motion, so that no
dissenting voices are heard
3. Ad hoc - 'for the purpose of' An ad hoc committee is one
appointed for a particular purpose.
4. Ad infinitum - to infinity
5. Adjournment - the deferring of a meeting, or of the debate on a
particular subject, until a later date
6. Address the chair - where a member wishes to speak they must first
address the chairperson
7. Addendum - an amendment which adds words to a motion
8. Advisory committee - offering advise or suggestion and making
recommendation, but taking no direct action
9. Agenda - 'things to be done' the items of business for
consideration at a meeting
10. Amendment - an alteration tot he terms of a motion before a meeting
11. Articles of association - the internal regulations of a limited company,
governing the relations of the shareholders
12. Ballot - the method of secret voting by placing the vote in a ballot
box.
13. Bona fide - 'in good faith'
14. By-laws - regulations dealing with the internal affairs of an
association
15. Casting vote - the vote frequently granted tot he chairman, additional to
any vote to which he may be entitled as a member, to enable him to
determine a question before a meeting when the vote for and against the
motion equal
16. Chairman - the person given authority to conduct a meeting
17. Chairman's agenda - an elaborated form of agenda of the basic agenda with
space left on the right hand side for the chairperson to make notes
18. Closure - the closing of debate on a specific question before a
meeting, generally worded. "That the question be now put"
19. Committee - one or more persons to whom a particular matter, or
specific group of matters, is referred for consideration and report
20. Consensus - agreement by general consent without formal voting being
taken
21. Constitution - document describing the objects of an association or
voluntary body and setting out the rules which govern its activities and
limit its powers
22. Convene - to call a meeting
23. Co-opt - to invite an individual to serve on a committee as a result
of majority vote. A person is usually co-opted because of some specialist
knowledge or expertise they can provide
24. Defamation - the publication of anything that brings the person of
character of another into hatred, contempt or undue ridicule, or cause him
to be shunned,, or tends to injure him in his occupation or social esteem
without lawful justification or excuse
25. Dissolution - the termination of a meeting when the business for which
it was convened has been transacted.
26. Division - the physical separation of the members of a
deliberative body into two groups, respectively supporting and opposing
the motion, in order that their votes may be counted.
27. Dropped motion -a motion which lapses for want of a seconder, or which,
with the consent of the meeting, is withdrawn by the mover
28. Ex-officio - a member invited to attend a meeting 'by virtue of his
office'
29. Formal motion- any motion which interrupts the debate on the question
before a meeting and which relates to a point of procedure.
30. In attendance - present on invitation to give expert help, advice or
information but with no voting rights.
31. In camera - 'in a vaulted chamber', that is in committee, not in a
meeting open to the public (in private)
32. In extenso - 'at full length', (that is, in full & without abridgement)
33. Inter alia - 'amongst other things'
34. Inter se - between themselves or ourselves'
35. Intra vires - 'within the powers' (within the legal power or authority of
the organisation)
36. Ipso facto - 'by the fact itself'
37. Lie on the table- something- a motion, letter, report is said to "lie on the
table when the meeting decides that no action should be taken on it at
present
38. Lobbying - the term given to the practice of seeking members' support
before a meeting
39. Majority - the greater part of those voting at a meeting. Questions are
normally decided by a simple majority of votes, unless a larger proportion
is prescribed by the Act or the articles
40. Majority vote - one where the greater number of members voting were
either for or against a motion. Articles standing orders will
set out where a majority is necessary for a motion to be
carried or defeated
41. Mala fide - in bad faith
42. Memorandum of
association - the basic document, or constitution, or a company, upon
which its existence depends. A memorandum of association governs a
company's objects and general relationship with the outside world
43. Minutes - a record in summary from of the proceeding at a meeting,
constituting the official history of the body concerned
44. Motion - a proposal formally submitted to a meeting for
consideration and decision
45. Nem. con. - no one speaking in opposition at a meeting. It simply
means no one contradicting. That is, there are not votes against the
motion, though some members cold have abstained
46. Nem. dis- no one dissenting at a meeting
47. Next business - a formal motion whereby the debate on a particular
question before a meeting may be abruptly terminated without a decision
being reached
48. Opposer - one who speaks against a motion
49. Out of order - the chairman can rule a member 'out of order' where the
member is not keeping to the point under discussion or is speaking improperly
50. Point of order - a question raised at a meeting with the subject of calling
attention tome irregularity in the manner in which the proceedings are
being conducted
51. Postponement - the deferment of a meeting, or the consideration of a
particular matter until a later date before the meeting is held., or the
consideration of the particular matter is commenced
52. Proposer - the member putting forward a motion for discussion at a
meeting
53. Private meeting- a meeting to which the right of admission s not extended to
the general public. Most company meetings ate private meetings
54. Proxy - a person appointed to act for another at a meeting
55. Public meeting- a meeting to which the general public has access
56. Quid pro quo - something for something
57. Question - a motion which has been accepted by the chairman of a

meeting, and is the subject of consideration by the meeting
58. Quorum - the minimum number of persons whose presence is
required at a meeting for it to be duly constituted.
59. Resolution - a formal decision taken at a meeting
60. Rider - a clause added to a document after completion, or to a
motion submitted to a meeting before it is adopted. A rider is an addition
to a resolution after it has been passed. It adds to a resolution rather than
altering it.
61. Right of reply - the proposer of a motion has a right of reply once the
on has been fully discussed but before it is put to the vote.
62. Seconder - one who supports the proposer of a motion
63. Sine die - 'for an indefinite period'. A meeting adjourned sine die
no date is fixed for the holding of the adjourned
64. Spoiled paper - a ballot paper which has been irregularly completed and
which, on that account, cannot be counted in the ballot..
65. Standing orders- the rules compiled by an organisation in respect of
the way in which business must be held in order to comply with the law
66. Statutory meeting - a meeting (usually of the shareholders of a public
company) which must be held in order to comply with the law.
67. Status quo - the state of things as they existed at a given time (the
present state of affairs)
68. Sub-committee- one or more person appointed by a committee to consider a
specific matter, or matter of a particular type, and to report back to the
parent committee. It is a group of members from the main or parent
committee appointed to deal with a specific aspect of the main
committee's work to whom it reports and recommendations will be
submitted.
69. Substantive motion- a motion before a meeting which has been modified by an
amendment which the meeting has adopted. The substantive motion has
still to be adopted by the meeting before it becomes a resolutions of the
meeting
70. Tabled - the description applied to a document to be presented to a
committee "on the table" - not one which has been included with the
agenda and supporting papers.
71. Teller - a person who counts the votes given at a meeting on a poll
or ballot
72. Ultra vires - 'beyond the powers'. That is, outside the legal or authority
of the organisation.
73. Unanimous - 'of one mind'. That is, all being in favour.
74. Verbatim - word for word.
Duties of the Chairperson (Summarised)

1. To see that the meeting is properly convened and that it is duly constituted, that is…
2. That the notice was issued by the proper authority and for the requisite period of time prior to the
meeting
3. That a quorum is present and is maintained throughout the meeting and
4. That his own appointment is in order
5. To ensure that the regulations of the body, and all statutory requirements are duly observed.
6. To obtain the confirmation of the meeting, that the minutes of the previous meeting are a
satisfactory record of the proceedings thereat, and to sign them.
7. To take items on the agenda paper in the order set out thereon, permitting alterations of that order
only with the consent of the meeting
8. To see that all motions and amendments proposed are within the scope of the notice of the meeting
and within its powers
9. To maintain order and to see that the meeting is conducted in a proper manner. It is the duty of the
chairman, and his function, to preserve order and to take care that proceedings are conducted in a
proper manner, and that the sense of the meeting is ascertained, with regard to any question which is
properly before the meeting
10. To give all present an equal opportunity to address the meeting on the question under discussion
(this does not however, mean that every person has a right to speak, since when a mater has been
adequately discussed, the chairman may close the discussion and put the motion to the vote)
11. To protect he right of the minority by ensuring that the views of all parties are equally and fairly heard
12. In the event of a dispute , to decide who shall speak, calling upon him by name, and to protect the
speaker form interruption
13. To forbid irrelevant discussion and the use of improper language, and to prohibit unnecessary and
unseemly interruptions, commentaries on a speakers remarks or the holding of private conversations
during debate
14. To prevent discussion unless there is a motion before the meeting
15. To allow each speaker one speech upon any motion, except in the case of a proposer of the motion,
who usually has a right of reply.
16. To ascertain the sense of a meeting by putting motions to the vote and declaring the result of the
voting
17. Others……….
....introducing any new committee members/visitors etc
...sustaining objectivity and impartiality
..closing and adjourning the meeting
..liaising with the secretary and agreeing on draft minutes
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term ‘Organisation’? Give examples of the organisation with which
you are involved
2. Explain the differences between line and staff divisions in an organisations
3. How would you create an atmosphere of trust in an organisation?
4. Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
5. Describe four kinds of messages in organisations
6. Describe six major barriers to message flow in an organisation
7. Explain the terms overloading and underloading of information
8. Describe six kinds of groups found in organisations
9. Describe four leadership styles Which do you prefer? Why?
10. What are group like when they do not work well?
11. Describe the task and maintenance roles in a group
12. What do you understand by the term conflict? Does conflict always harm a group? Justify your
answer.
13. Explain the difference between value conflict and content conflict
14. Explain the win-win approach to conflict resolution
15. You have been appointed chairperson of a group. You have to run an Annual General Meeting. What
would your duties be? What would the duties of the Secretary and Treasurer be?
3. ORAL PRESENTATIONS
I. SPEECHES
INTRODUCTION
Managers are often invited to address the public and their positions require them to make speeches within
their own organizations. A Speech implies three things that is a the speaker, subject and audience. A speech
is really a connection between the three.
FORMAT FOR A SPEECH
Introduction
The beginning of the talk is very important. Listeners make up their minds very quickly about the speaker’s
attitude towards them and towards his subject. The speaker should tell the audience why they are listening.
What they will gain from listening
Techniques used to attract audience’s attention

(i) Invite direct audience involvement through questions and requests.
Example.
“Good morning. How many of you have taken any formal studies after finishing full-time education? It
is something we normally put off; thinking that we don’t have time to it and won’t help my promotion
prospects? I would ask you to put aside those doubts this evening, while you listen to my account of
the opportunities available for adult education.”
(ii) Begin with an unusual statement that attracts the interest of the audience. Surprise the audience and
challenge its assumptions. Strong, short controversial statement(s) that contradicts what the
audience probably expected you to say (backed up with the explanations later) can be effective in
grabbing your listeners’ attention.
Example.
“I have no academic qualifications whatsoever, and yet I regard myself as an educated adult.”
(iii) Refer to the current or recent events that link with the topic and give it added interest
(iv) Refer to a specific problem that makes the audience think about their topic.
(v) Begin with a statistic or shocking fact that attracts interest. E.g. the number of murders committed in
the city every year amount to one in every 25 minutes. Call the audience’s
attention, great them, and remind them why they are gathered together.
Example.
“Ladies and Gentlemen, we are gathered here today to celebrate”
(vi) Thank the organizer for asking you to speak and say how pleased you are to be there.
Show a diagram, picture or object to attract interest
State the main points of their talk
Example.
“I would like to thank the committee for asking me to speak and to let you know how pleased I am to
addressing you this evening”
 Your introduction should be short.

 Never begin a speech with an apology. Never apologise for speaking. Don’t begin a talk by
apologising your presence although you can apologize for some indisposition such as cold or
cough.
 Do not assume that you must begin every speaking session with a joke.. Only if you have a
rare gift of humor should you introduce it at the beginning otherwise the effect would
usually be to embarrass the audience rather than entertain it.
 Never begin with that ghastly expression “I’d like to say a few words about………..”
BODY OF THE SPEECH.

The middle of the speech is often the weakest par. Speakers should, therefore, ensure that they: -
1. Attract and re-attract the audience’s attention with good non verbal communication.
2. Present the material coherently with good transitions.
3. Use audio-visual aids to back-up key points.
4. Plot your use of humor so that it comes at intervals throughout the speech to revive the audience’s
attention. Never sabotage your jokes by saying “I am going to tell you a really funny joke now……”
5. Keep anecdotes pithy and to the point. Avoid sticking any tried and tested once that have no real
bearing on the subject, introducing them with “That reminds of a story I once knew……” You must also
avoid hackneyed anecdotes that the audience may well have heard several times before.
6. Surprise your audience. Ask direct questions and a show of hands.
7. Be careful with criticism and controversy. Sharp criticism must be backed by solid arguments and
evidence. If you decide to be controversial consider carefully how the audience is likely to react and
prepare your responses.
CONCLUSION
Speakers should ensure that they end on a high note. The end of a talk should leave a lasting impression. The
conclusion should be memorable. After all, what is said last is likely to be remembered longest. Remember
that the end of the talk is rather like a sweet after dinner: if it is good we are inclined to remember the whole
meal with pleasure.
Speakers could select from the techniques below to achieve the impact they need.
1. Summarise, re-state or outline briefly the main points.
2. End with an appeal for action
3. Ask a challenging question
4. Use a quotation, statistics or vivid illustration to sum up the main idea.
5. Remind the audience why the key points are important.
6. Pay the audience a sincere compliment. You can say how attentive they have been and that you would
like to express your thanks for their kind hospitality by
Example.
“Ladies & Gentlemen, it has been a delight to be with you. I hope that my words will have been of some help in
promoting the cause for which you work and in which I, like you, believe in firmly. I wish you, Mr. Chairman,
your honorary Officer, Council, Members and workers every possible success in your great venture”
Please do not introduce new points into the conclusion. Reiterate in strong memorable words and phrases the
thrust of the whole speech. The following points may also be useful in coming up with a very good and
effective conclusion.
1. Never end with an apology for going overtime. Never apologise for speaking long.
2. Don’t say ‘Well that’s about all I have to say on the subject so I would conclude now” Stop but don’t talk
about stopping. The end of your presentation should convey a sense of completeness and finality.
3. Round off your talk and do not leave it broken and rough like a jogged rock. Don’t make the mistake of
saying “Finally………”, and later say "In conclusion……”, adding later “My last point is………”, and “I want
to repeat again……….’ ending with ‘It only remains for me to say……….’ If you say its your last point, then
there should be no going back.
METHODS OF DELIVERING SPEECHES
1. Manuscript - Writing out the presentation and read it

This is probably the worst method of preparing and delivering a talk. It is bad because we do not speak as we
write. When your speech is written you will go over it carefully and noticing this can substitute some common
words you will probably think, you mean a bigger word. You will tend to do this several times.
You will also notice a number of short sentences and you will combine them into long sentences. Thus while
the audience are trying to get the sense of your last sentence you will be half way through the next one. As a
result of your changes in style the audience notices the differences, finds greatly difficulty in understanding
your points and fatigued by the difficult, grow restless and inattentive and may be even dozes off.
The other problem is that the audience feels you are telling them not what you think and feel about the
subject at the moment but what you thought about a week or ten days before. Therefore much of its power is
lost. A speech must be phrased as to seem original and interesting throughout and to be stamped in with the
personality of the speaker. In a manuscript presentation, the power of the eye is lost. The eye is the most
important agent of expression. Your eyes make the first electrical connection with the audiences; they turn on
the current.
Advantages
There are however some occassions when the reading of a carefully prepared speech seems fitting
1. Government ministers often write out and read speeches to avoid being misquoted
2. Carefully prepare speech read from typescript may seen in order
2. Memorisation
Writing out a speech and committing it to memory.
B. Disadvantages
1. language is stilted and artificial
2. No chance is given for adoption to unforeseen circumstances either in the occasion or the audience.
3. The talk must be delivered as it was committed to memory for if any changes are made, or if heckling
breaks out, the association of ideas by which various sentences are remembered is destroyed and it is well
– highly impossible to pick the thread of the speech again.
4. Your whole personality cannot react to the audience at the same time. Your mind will be busily engaged
in remembering words and sentences forms and cannot devote adequate attention to re-creating the
thought while speaking.
5. Gestures are likely to be ill-timed, to be just a fraction of a second too early or too late.
6. Involves a tremendous amount of time and effort.
7. The greatest objection to writing and committing a speech to memory is that the whole thing is likely to be
forgotten. The memory is the most unreliable functions of the mind.
3. Extemporaneous style
In this method the outline or the path of thought is carefully prepared so that the speaker knows before hand
just what thoughts he will utter but leave the exact language in which these thoughts will be clothed until
appearance before the audience. Most good speakers usually employ the extempore style.
4. Impromptu Style
In this style, the speaker prepares neither thought nor words before the actual speaking. Very little good
speaking results from this style. Impromptu speeches are likely to be loosely built and of slight material
II. ORAL REPORTS
Format for an oral report

An oral report is normally based on a written report. It will therefore follow the format for a written report.
Introduction
1. a brief statement of the Terms of reference or instructions given to the speaker (these may be called
a brief). Instructions should include
a. the name of the person who gave the instructions
b. the date of the instructions
c. the main instructions given
2. an overview or summary of the report. This summary should include
a. a statement of why the audience needs to listen to the report
b. a statement of what the audience will gain from listening
c. a brief description of the background to the report
d. a brief statement on the purposes of the report
e. a brief summary of the findings
f. the main conclusions
g. the main recommendations
Body of the report
1. A brief statement of the procedure used to gather the information. (This could, for example, cover
interviews, site inspections, reading of articles or the use of special equipment)
2. The main findings, backed up with visual aids such as overhead projector transparencies or flip-chart
paper
Conclusions
These are the insights gained from the facts, and the implications of the facts (Note that no new information is
given at this stage)
Recommendations
These are the proposed actions to be taken as a result of the findings and conclusions
Preparing a talk or oral report
A good oral presentation results form careful preparation. The following procedure is strongly recommended.
1. Decide on your purposes. These cold for examples be to inform, persuade and entertain.
2. Analyse the needs of the audience
3. Decide what your audience need to know or do at the end of your presentation. This decision will
help to give you focus
4. Prepare a mind-map of your ideas
5. Prepare a horizontal topic outline of your selected key and supporting ideas. This will give you the
body of your talk or report
6. Add an introduction and conclusion to your plan
7. Once your are satisfied with your plan, prepare postcard-size cure cards as youj notes. Ensure that
you
a. number each card
b. write key points only with large letters for easy reading
c. write on one side only
d. tie the cards together so that you can work your way through them without dropping them.
III. PERSUASIVE TALKS
Preparing a persuasive talk

A persuasive talk needs a special approach. People would find it easier if they could base all persuasion purely
on facts. However, this is not often possible. In reality, they have to use a combination of facts and personal
appeal based on the audience’s needs and goals
Persuasion may be defined as an attempt by a person or group to change the attitudes, beliefs or behaviour of
another person or group. This definition stresses that persuaders have to take into account the beliefs,
attitudes, needs and goals of others. Persuaders should also find out if the audience if likely, at the start, to be
positive or negative towards them and their ideas. In order to be successful a persuaders need to show their
knowledge of the fact. They also need to persuade through their own attitudes and enthusiasm.
Approaches to persuasion
Persuaders could use
1. A logical approach
2. A psychological appeal
3. A personal appeal
1. Logical Approach
This appeal uses facts as a basis. The persuader could use an inductive or deductive approach.
The inductive approach uses specific examples as a basis for making a general statement. This approach is
useful if your audience starts off against your view. If you were a salesperson, you could, for example, show
specific results of tests to move towards a general statement of your product.
The deductive approach starts with a general statement and moves to specific statements to back it up. This
approach is effective if you feel that your audience is likely to accept your general statement as long as you
support it with specific examples.
Note: Use both sides of an argument or persuade people. Do not simply argue form
one point of view. If they feel that your audience is hostile, start with points with which they can
agree. Then move to your point of view.
2. Psychological Appeal
This approach is based on an analysis of the audience’s needs, desires and motives. It should stress the
benefits of the audiences.
3. Personal Appeal
This is based on the speaker’s reputation or credibility
FORMAT FOR A PERSUASIVE TALK

The following outline plan for a persuasive message is suggested below
Introduction
1. Gain the audience’s attention
2. Establish common ground with the audience
3. Work on point of agreement with the audience
4. Stress the advantages for the audience
The middle
1. Develop the argument in terms of its advantage and disadvantages
2. Work from the problem to the situation
3. Keep stressing the advantages to the audience
The End
Stress the desired action in terms of what he audience can gain
General guidelines on oral presentations

Once you have prepared your talk or report you should rehearse it. Encourage your audience to discuss
problems with you. Check timing. Ensure that you can use you audio-visual aids effectively. Check the
balance of your presentation so that you allocate the correct time to each stage.
When you present your talk or oral report pay special attention to your
1. Non-verbal communication, particularly your voice, eye contact, your hand movements and the way
you stand
2. Your dress and general appearance
3. Your level of enthusiasm
4. Your style of presentation
5. The quality of your audio-visual aids, and the way in which you use them.
Show genuine concern for your audience. Make immediate eye-contact with your audience, and try not to
read too much from your cards. Make sure that you dress appropriately. When you start, stand evenly on
both feet. Do not cross arms and legs or twist your back. Use gestures to emphasise points and to keep
contact with the audience.
Make sure that you

1. speak with a lively & clear voice, using a personal style
2. speak at a speed that allows your audience to tune in to your voice
3. vary your speed
4. use your voice to emphasise key points
5. uses pauses for impact
THE SPEAKER’S CREDIBILITY

A speaker’s credibility is vital. The audience must believe in the speaker if his or her message is to have any
impact. Credibility may be defined as an attitude towards a sender held at any given time by a receiver. This
definition stresses that credibility is conferred on a sender by the receiver. A sender has no credibility. It also
stresses that credibility is dynamic. It changes all the time, and may change from the beginning of a talk to the
end.
In oral presentations, three kinds of credibility are recognized, namely, initial, derived & terminal credibility
Initial credibility is conferred on the speaker before he starts. This is based on what the audience believes
about the speaker.
Derived credibility is conferred on a speaker during the presentation. It is based on

1. The way the speaker puts across the message
2. The impact of the message
3. The quality of the speaker’s delivery
Terminal credibility is conferred on a speaker at the end of the presentation. Credibility may, therefore,
change during a presentation. Speakers should, therefore, pay attention to every stage of a presentation.
Credibility may be described as a combination of the audience’s assessment of the speaker’s
1. level of authority
2. trustworthiness
3. intentions towards the audience
Speakers can make themselves credible by:

1. Paying very careful attention to the beginning of the message
2. Ensuring that they are introduced by someone respected by the audience
3. Paying close attention to their appearance
4. Selecting their ideas carefully and supporting what the audience llikes
5. Using facts to back up general statements
6. Making sure that their delivery is excellent
7. Establishing common ground with the audience
8. Appearing open-minded and sincere
9. Ending on a powerful note
4. VISUAL AIDS
Introduction
In any oral presentation, listeners use more than one sense to receive messages and they have a better chance
of remembering what you have said. Visual aids also assist the memory to remember what has been said.
Visual aids can make you meaning, enlighten your message and inspire your audience.
Visual aids enable a speaker to communicate information more quickly – and listeners to absorb it more easily.
As every motorist knows, roads signs – whether symbols or colour codes – have an immediacy that neither the
spoken nor the written word can match. The importance of visual aids is summed up by the formula below
Words + visual aids = quick comprehension + long lasting impressions
“One picture is worth a thousand words”

(Chinese proverb)
Requirements for a good Visual Aid

When deciding to use a visual aid consider these questions.
1. Will it grab the audience’s attention?
2. Will it suit the audience and the occasion?
3. Will be large enough, high enough and clear enough for people at the back of the room to read or see?
4. Will it help people to understand and remember the point you are making? Or will it merely distract from
your words?
5. Could you not convey the message better with words alone?
6. Will the equipment you need be available?
Visual Aids should support the talk. They should never replace it. Keep in mind the following points about
audio visual aids:
1. They should not be over used; because they could destroy the balance of the They should be audible,
visible, simple and immediately understandable.
2. They should be well planned
3. They should be kept on long enough for the audience to listen, look at and absorb the material.
4. They should work efficiently.
Advantages of visual aids

1. Create immediate impact and help keep your audience’s attention
2. Reinforces/strengthens oral communication (emphasise key points)
3. they give variety to a presentation and in so doing helps restores slacking interest, by providing additional
visual stimulus and concentration
4. Help Simplify the written & spoken word. They help convey ideas easily and quickly if time is limited.
5. They create an aura of professional competence if well presented.
6. help guide the speaker and the audience during a presentation
7. If you are a nervous or inexperienced speaker, visual aids are useful psychological propos. They divert the
listener’s attention from you, and handling them helps you to channel your won nervous energy
8. Provides simulations of situations (model/replication)
9. Provides visual record and a clear interpretation in the mind
Disadvantages
Visual aids cost money, take up a fair amount of time and thought and for someone who make s very few
[presentations, they diminish flexibility. If they go wrong they invariably cause a certain amount of
embarrassment and confusion.
Visual aids may be subjected to power failures and broken bulbs. The other disadvantage is that they need a
good screen at the correct angle for the best image.
Types of Visual Aids
TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES NOTES
 They are very versatile and  They may be When preparing

have a powerful light source subjected to power transparencies, ensure that
which requires little if any failures and broken  They are simple
Overhead dimming of the light in the bulbs  Letter size is about
Projector room where they are being  They need a good 9mm high, and lines
used . screen at the correct are about 1,5mm thick
 The speaker can remain angle for the best Do not obscure the image
facing the audience image on the screen. Use a
 The speaker can plan in pointer. Switch off the
advance, or write on projector whey you are not
transparencies in from of using it
the audience
 It can be used with lights on
 It is suitable for large or
small venues
 Transparencies can be
stored and re-used
 eliminate chalk dust  It is not suitable for a When you write a flip chart
Flip Chart  is portable and can be large audience. make sure that:
These are large prepared in advance  If you make a  You write boldly using
sheets of cheap  It does not need power, and mistake you cannot colours that stand out
(newsprint – so can be used inside and rub. If you make a  You keep the letters
type) paper outdoors mistake the best about 5cm high

usually clipped  The speakers can prepare or thing is to scrap the  You keep each sheet
to boards write during the particular sheet and simple
presentation start again on a fresh Keep in mind that you can
 Different stages can be on e. write notes in pencil on
shown on different sheets, each page if you prepare in
which can be placed on top advance. These notes will
of each other so that each guide you during the
can be uncovered at the presentation
appropriate time
Chalk & White  You can easily rub out  There is the problem When using a board, make
Boards mistakes, or modify your of chalk dust (even sure that you
picture as you present your the ‘dust-free  Write boldly and
talk variety’ is usually carefully
 They are easy to use dusty and messy  Stop talking while you
 You can prepare your  A white board can write. Then turn to talk
material before hand or take on a glare if the to the audience.
build it up as you go along lighting is wrong  Use a pointer and stand
 They allow the speaker to  Poor handwriting and aside so that people
control the place at which drawing can destroy can see.
the visual image is built up the visual impact  Use strong colours
 They can be used in a large  Practice in advance
or small venue. what you plan to write.
Posters &  They can be prepared in  They need specialist Posters differ from flip chart
Notices advance and can be re-used knowledge to paper in that
Are usually  They can be left on prepare.  They are designed to
prepared on permanent display for  They are costly. stand on their own
large sheets of added impact  There is no  They are prepared in
paper with guarantee that advance
pictures and viewers will  They are professional in
information in understand the full appearance
large print. NB – Posters and Notices differ impact of the When designing a poster,
They are meant from flip charts in that messages without ensure that
to eye catching  They are designed explanation  The poster can stand
and to be read to stand on their on its own
from a distance. own  The lettering ins clear
 They are prepared and legible
in advance and are  All diagrams are
professional in properly annotated
appearance  Text should be simple
and short.
Models  They can make available to  They are not  When using a models,
A model is an audience a large or small accessible to a small ensure that you
scaled down object that would not audience  Tell the audience what
representation normally be available their scale is
of a large or  Display the model
small object. prominently during you
presentation
Videos  They show aspects of a  Expensive equipment When using a video, make
product or function that it has to be used. sure that you:
difficult to show in other  It is subject to more  Test the equipment
ways, for example, what to frequent breakdowns and the film at the
do in a fire, how to deal than simpler venue
with a difficult client etc equipment.  Have everything ready
 Illustrates vividly the spoken  It may also draw for immediate playing
and visual together. It can attention away from
be shown with lights up so the speaker because
that he speaker can if its strong attraction
maintain contact with the
audience
 Provides additional visual
stimulus and concentration
Tape Recorder  Is very useful for illustrating  Unless it is of a good When using a tape
speech or other sound quality, it will not recorder make sure that
effects. give good you try out the equipment
 Is suitable for a small reproduction and the cassette int eh
audience venue beforehand. Make
sure that everything is
ready for instant playing
when you need it
 Your audience can refer to  When using handouts do
Handouts them long after your not hand them out until the
presentation. moment that you audience
 They can be prepared in actually needs to refer to
advance and with no them – otherwise they will
equipment other than a probably read the handouts
typewriter, pen and paper rather than listen to you.
or photocopier Make sure you have enough
handouts to go around
Flannel Boards Flannel boards are boards covered with felt , or a similar substance. Diagrams or lettering
backed with felt can be placed on them and will remain in position until removed. They are
& fairly expensive, and the material has normally to be prepared before hand, but they are
useful when the same presentation has to be given a number of times.
Magnetic
Boards Magnetic boards are similar to flannel boards but they have a magnetic surface, and small
pieces of metal areused as a backing to hold the figures to the board. Sometimes the metal
itself can be cut to shape and used as it is instead of as a backing of paper, etc. sometimes a
magnetic board has a surface which can be used as a blackboard as well. Both of these are
useful for bar, line or pie charts
Audio Graphic Teleconferencing
This is an electronic telecommunications service provides limited graphic support by using tele-writing-based
terminal systems, electronic blackboards and digitised diagrams. Slides, which are synchronised and viewed at
the same time at several locations, are also used for this purpose.
The electronic board is a special board on which images can be transmitted to a screen or terminal at another
site. Some of electronic blackboards are equipped with devices which allow the information on the board to be
scanned, and which provide a hard copy of this information
5. TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Using the telephone

Most of the information which passes in and out of an organisation is covenyed through the telephone.
Anyone handling telephone calls has a key role in influencing first impressions, which are frequently lasting,
that customers gain about the organisation. If the telephone inquirer does not receive a clear and courteous
greeting, a poor opinion of the company as a whole is immediately formed. What the telephonist says and the
tone and manner in which it is said can also influence the response received from the caller. Time is money in
business, especially when it is spent on the telephone, and it is important to guard against conducting
unnecessarily long conversations
When speaking on the telephone, the you should always try to sound friendly and helpful. It is important to
listen to, and show an interest in, what the caller has to say, and to speak clearly and unhurriedly. Words with
the same vowel sound, for example ‘five’ and ‘nine’ can sound alike on the telephone and special care is
therefore necessary when quoting amounts, names and unfamiliar words.
The telephone alphabet can be used to spell out words which the caller may have difficulty in recognising.
Avoid the use of slang expressions such as ‘hang on’, ‘ok’ ‘hello’ which do not give a good impression in
business. The word, ‘hello’ means nothing and has no place in the English Vocabulary, so please never use that
word.
The telephone alphabet

When it is necessary to emphasise or identify any letter or word it can done using an alphabet code, such as
A for Alfred N for Nellie

B for Benjamin O for Oliver
C for Charlie P for Peter
D for David Q for Queen
E for Edward R for Robert
F for Fredrick S for Samuel
G for George T for Tommy
H for Harry U for Uncle
I for Isaac V for Victor
J for Jack W for William
K for King X for X-ray
L for Lucy Y for Yellow
M for Mary Z for Zebra
Matters overhead on the telephone must be treated in the same strict confidence as the contents of
correspondence. Above all, the telephonist must have a good speaking voice and should learn to recognise all
who use the telephone in the organisation by sight, name and voice. Familiarity with the organisation’s work is
desirable and also knowledge of the part played in the organisation by each executive, section and
department. The telephonist is then able to handle calls efficiently and connect callers quickly to the right
personnel.
Anyone receiving or sending messages through the telephone must have the qualities of a good telephonist.
When Answering the telephone

1. Always answer promptly when it rings and announce your identity. If the caller is received via your
telephone operator, give your name and department (if necessary). If you are receiving an incoming call
direct, state the name of the establishment, for example, ‘Denmark Training Services’ A greeting such as
‘Good morning, Denmark Training Services’, has a pleasing effect. If an internal call has been received,
state your own name and position if necessary, for example, ‘Fiona Muhwati, Production Manager’s
Secretary’
2. Avoid saying ‘hello’ as this wastes time and does not help the caller. ‘Hello’ means nothing and no place in
the English vocabulary.
3. Try not to keep the caller waiting. If there is likely to be a long delay in connecting the caller, it may be
better to ring them back and save their time on the telephone. This is particularly important if the call is
made from a pay telephone where the caller may not be in possession of additional coins.
4. Have a message pad and pencil to hand so that you can write down a message. Pick up the receiver with
your left hand so that your right hand is free for writing (vice-versa of course if you are left-handed)
5. You may have to leave the telephone for a while in order to make an inquiry or collect some information.
If so, let the caller know how long you expect to be and ask if they would prefer you to call them back. In
these circumstances, arrange for your calls to be answered in your absences.
6. When an incoming call has to be transferred from one extension to another, convey the caller’s name and
request to the new extension so that they do not have to repeat the message.
7. If a delay occurs before a caller can be connected, keep them informed of the action you are taking.
8. If any incoming call is disconnected, replace the telephone receiver so the person making the call can re-
establish the connection as soon as possible.
9. If you receive a call which is a wrong number, remember that the intrusion is not intentional and that it is
probably just as irritating to the caller as it is to you. No apology is required of you, but one made by the
caller should be accepted politely.
10. Always try to make a conscious effort to greet people cheerfully, even at the end of the day, and if you
know a caller’s name, do not hesitate to use if when addressing them. The telephonist is responsible for
seeing that each caller is connected to someone who can deal with their business. A caller who wishes to
speak to an executive absent from the office should not be kept waiting but asked whether they would like
to
i. Speak to someone else
ii. Be rung back by the executive
iii. Ring again later or
iv. Leave a message
11. Whatever the caller’s answer, the caller’s name business address and telephone number should be noted.
Taking messages
Calls and messages should never be entrusted solely to memory, which may well prove unreliable, and the
important facts should be written down while they are being received. The following important points should
be noted
 Date and time of the call
 The name of the person for whom the telephone call was made
 Caller’s name, address and telephone number
 Precise details of the message received
The message should be repeated back to the caller to make sure it has been taken down correctly. As soon as
the message has been recorded it should be placed on the executive’s desk so that it can be seen by them
immediately on their return.
When making a call

1. Check the correct code and number before dialling. If you are in doubt, look it up in the telephone
directory and a make a note of it
2. Dial your number carefully and allow sufficient time for a call to connect
3. If you make a mistake while dialling, replace the receiver for a short while and then start dialling again
form the beginning of the number
4. When the person you have called answers, say who you are and to whom you wish to speak to
5. If you are connected to a wrong number, remember to offer an apology. It may be your fault, or it may an
equipment fault, but it is certainly never the fault of the person called.
6. Familiarise yourself with the telephone tones
7. When the call is answered, say to whom you wish to speak to and then give your name. Also state the
extension number of the person you require, if you know it. If you do not know it, ascertain this and make
a not of it for future use.
8. If a number cannot be dialled, dial the PTC telephone operators to obtain it for you, stating the number
required and your own telephone number.
9. A telephone call should be planned in exactly the same way as a business letter and therefore even dialling
the number you should be prepared with any necessary papers at hand. It is advisable to prepare before
hand a short list of points to be discussed.
Video teleconferencing/Confravision
This service allows people to hold face to face discussion but without the inconvenience of everyone traveling
to the same meeting place. The confravision provides studios in cities throughout the world which is linked up
by sound and vision so that discussions can take place as if all those attending the meeting were present in the
same room.
This service links individuals or groups of people n different places by sound and vision - People see each other
and talk to each at the same time.
Audio Teleconferencing
Audio conferencing is made possible through the use of a bridge, which is an electronic device that permits a
minimum number of three people to converse from different locations. An operator is needed to facilitate the
process. All participants call a number that was previously assigned for this purpose.
Audio Graphic Teleconferencing - provides limited graphic support by using tele-writing-based terminal
systems, electronic blackboards and digitised diagrams. Slides, which are synchronised and viewed at the
same time at several locations, are also used for this purpose.
The electronic board is a special board on which images can be transmitted to a screen or terminal at another
site. Some of electronic blackboards are equipped with devices which allow the information on the board to
be scanned, and which provide a hard copy of this information
5. ADVERTISING
Advertisements are designed to attract attention. Once the potential buyer has noticed the advertisement the
company hopes to create an attitude that will persuade her or him to take the desired action, buy the product
and keep buying the product. Advertisements are aimed at specific groups in the population. The groups are
identified by means of market surveys. Their needs, dreams, hopes, desires, concerns and fears are then
established. Once the advertising company has this information, it creates an advertisement aimed at the
specific group. Such an advertisement would be designed both to inform and persuade. It should attract
attention and set the mood for action.
The company will have to decide on the best medium to use. The radio is effective for advertisements that
rely more on factual information. The visual impact is into important. Television, on the other hand, is very
effective when the visual and the spoken word are important. The company would also consider using
newspaper and magazines that rely on the visual impact of pictures and the written word
AIDA Method of advertising

Advertisements are normally organized in four stages as follows
1.Attenion, 2. Interest, 3. Desire, 4.Action
Stage 1 –The first stage is to attract the reader’s, listener’s or viewer’s attention. This is called the cognitive
stage. The audience start thinking about the advertisement and its content.
Stage 2 – at this stage the audience’s interest is aroused. This is called emotional approach to the
advertisement.
Stage 3 – the audience’s desire is now aroused. This is also an emotional approach to the advertisement.
Stage 4 – if the other three stages have been successful, then the audience is stimulated to action. This last
stage is called an action stage.
Advertisers analyse people’s needs, attitudes and desires. They try to ‘teach’ people what they want. They do
this by :
4. Selecting the media such as newspapers, magazines, radio and television
5. Aiming advertisements at carefully analysed segments of the population
6. Using pictures, words, colours and shapes.
Advertisers base their appeals on people’s needs for pleasure, power, security, beauty, a long life, happiness,
health, love, social acceptance & leisure.
Advertisers strive to communicate the existence pf products that will satisfy needs, wants and desires, the
qualities of products and where products can be obtained. More specifically they try to stimulate:
5. The needs for a category product
6. Awareness of a specific brand
7. An attitude towards a specific brand
8. The intention to buy a specific brand
Once they achieved the above, advertisers try to make buying as easy as possible
Techniques used in advertising

The following is a brief list of some of the techniques used in advertising to gain and hold attention. These
techniques are especially relevant to the writing of unsolicited sales letters.
- Attractive photographs and sketches - Testimonials from authorities

- An effective tone - Headings
- Questions - Lists
- Imperatives such as ‘buy one now!’ - Capital letters
- Challenging statements - Repetition of key ideas
- Quotations from famous people - Slogans
- Something unexpected - Offers of free samples
- Appeals to people’s desire for health, - An invitation to action by filling in a
leisure, success, comfort, more money etc reply-pad card
- Emphasis on the qualities of the product - Evidence from laboratory tests
compare with rival products
People in organisations might have to prepare advertisement for local newspaper. These would take the form
of Classified advertisements, public announcements, Notices of meetings & Vacant posts
Classified advertisements are printed in newspapers column under general headings such as “Cellphones &
Accessories”, “Houses for Sale” etc. They have no special layout. They have to give the facts as briefly as
possible.
See press for examples of advertisements
“Call a spade a spade because if you call a

spade a big spoon you will confuse your
children”
Chirango

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“Today is the tomorrow you worried about yesterday”

Fundamentally, communication involves the passing of information from one

Effective communication is, thus, vital if an organisation is to survive. Effective

In communication; thoughts and ideas are transferred from one mind to

However, particularly in written communications, words have meanings which

Communication may also be defined as the process of transmitting or

Meanwhile James Storner and Freeman defines communication as a process by

Finally Michael Fielding in ‘Effective Communication in organisations,’ defines

Fielding’s definition stresses four major points:

When we talk of communicating we talk of the transmission of information in

Our main in communicating is to be understood, yet too many a people

In its simplest form communication consists of a sender transmitting a message

Sender Message Receiver

The model below shows, in detail, what happens in the communication

SENDER encoding RECIPIENT decoding

(Message in (Putting into (Message (Words

Terms used in the Communication Process

2. Encoding: Refers to the translation of information into a series of symbols

3. Message: Is the encoded information sent by the sender to a receiver. A

4. Channel – A medium by which a message travels. A channel is nay pathway

5. Receiver: Is any person, group or organisation that receives a message from

7. Feedback – Reaction to sender’s message by the receiver

Role of the Sender in the communication process

Role of the receiver in the communication process

Importance of Active listening

Barriers to effective listening

Techniques for effective Listening

What can speakers do to ensure that they are listened to?

Problems at network level

cultural background (for example, some remarks by management about

2. Channels- organisations also experience channel problems. Some channels

Human relations blocks

Foreign language, dialects, accents, use of technical jargon, plus the

Solutions - Use language that is appropriate to the recipient, select style,

(a)Restriction to formal channels- the notion of channels through which

excessive reliance on informal communication such as grapevine. Formal

(b)Inadequacy of upward communication-the first organisational mainly affects

(c)Excessively indirect communication- too slavish adherence to the

Other barriers to effective communication

Main forms of oral communication

Major forms of visual communication

The advantages of visual aids is their ability to convey complex information

2. body language (also known as non-verbal communication)- people

gesture. Body language can support forms of communication. The

When deciding whether to use written, oral or visual methods or a

single best way to communicate but the method of communication should be

Problems with the interpretation of non-verbal communication

Because of the problems inherent in NVC there is need for communicators to

5. we often use non-verbal stereotypes for judging people. We might, for

The intonation, or rise and fall of voice

As we listen to paralanguage we make up our minds about people’s

Facial expressions & eye contact

Eye contact is significant when we work with other people. It is used to

During speeches, speakers should keep up good eye-contact with an audience,

Even in ‘no-touch’ cultures, however, a touch to the elbow or shoulder can be

Proxemics, or distance & territoriality

From a Western point-of-view, we like to keep a distance of at least one-and-

When people have to be very close together, as in a Commuter Omnibus, their

Seating arrangement at an oblong table will affect the ways inA

People who sit a A or B are given the status of leader. People C

eye-contact and the reduction of barriers

Objects of the environment

Clothing & Accessories