CONTENTS

Page No.

1. ALIGNMENT SURVEY 2

2. PRELIMINARY SURVEY 3

3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN 10

4. DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS 28

5. BIBILIOGRAPHY 34

ALIGNMENT SURVEY

GENERAL

Administrative, developmental, strategic and other needs would determine the

obligatory points to be connected by a hill road. Control points will be governed
by saddles, passes, river crossing and other natural features like escarpments and
unstable areas.

Optimum alignment will be one, which yields the least overall transportation cost,
taking into account the cost of construction and maintenance of the road as well as
the recurring cost of vehicle operation, and at the same time having least adverse
impact on the environmental and ecological balance. The route should avoid the
introduction of hairpin bends as far as possible.

PROCEDURE OF FIXING THE ALIGNMENT

The alignment of a hill road is fixed and translated onto the ground in several
operations:
� Reconnaissance
� Preliminary survey
� Determination of final center line
� Final location survey

RECONAISSANCE
GENERAL

The reconnaissance survey may be conducted in the following sequence:

� Study of topographical survey sheets, geological and meteorological maps, and

aerial photographs if available.
� Aerial reconnaissance (where necessary and feasible),
� Ground reconnaissance.
� Final reconnaissance of inaccessible and difficult stretches.

Study of survey sheets, maps, etc.: Reconnaissance begins with the study of all
the available maps. In India, topographical sheets are available in scale 1:50000.

Aerial reconnaissance: Aerial reconnaissance will provide a bird�s eye view of the
alignment under consideration, along with the surrounding area. It will help to
identify factors, which call for rejection or modification of any of the
alignments.

Ground reconnaissance: The various alternative routes found feasible as a result of

map and aerial photograph study and aerial reconnaissance are further examined in
the field by ground reconnaissance. As such, this part of the survey is an
important link in the chain of activities leading to selection of the final route.

Final reconnaissance of inaccessible and difficult stretches: Ground reconnaissance

may disclose certain difficult stretches, which call for detailed examination. A
trace cut might be specially made in such sections for inspection.

Reconnaissance report: Based on the information collected during the reconnaissance

survey a report must be prepared. It should include all relevant information
collected during the survey

PRELIMINARY SURVEY

GENERAL

The preliminary survey consists of pegging the route previously selected on the
basis of the reconnaissance survey, cutting a trace 1.0m to 1.2m wide and running
an accurate traverse line along it for the purpose of taking longitudinal and cross
sections and establishing bench marks. The data collected at this stage forms the
basis for the determination of the final center line of the road.

PEGGING AND TRACE CUT:

The line and the grade of the selected alternative are pegged and the trace is cut
along the pegged route.

SURVEY PROCEDURE:

The survey should cover a strip of sufficient width taking into account the
degree and the extent of cut/fill, with allowance for possible shift in the center
line of the alignment at the time of final design. In the normal course, a strip
width of about 30m in straight or slightly curving reaches and 60m at sharp curves
and hairpin bends should meet the requirements.

Physical features such as buildings, monuments, burial grounds, place of worship,

pipelines, power lines, telephone lines, existing roads, etc. that are likely to
affect the project proposals should be located by means of offsets measured from
the traverse line.

Levelling work includes taking ground levels along the trace cut at intervals of
10m and at abrupt changes in slopes and also establishing benchmarks at intervals
250m exceptionally 500m by running check levels on a closed traverse basis
independently. While levelling along center line, readings of benchmarks should
also be taken to have a crosscheck in regard to accuracy of the field work. It is
particularly important that a single datum GTS datum should be used to tie up all
levels.

Cross sections should be taken at intervals of 60m and at points of appreciable

change in soil conditions. While taking cross sections, soil classification should
also be recorded. At sharp curves and difficult locations, detailed levelling may
be done for the plotting of contours.

MAP PREPARATION:

At conclusion of the preliminary survey, plans and longitudinal sections are

prepared for detailed study to determine the final centre line of bridge-crossing,
etc., the plan should show contours at 1m-3m intervals, so as to facilitate the
final decision.

Scales for the maps should generally be the same as adopted for the final drawings.
Normally, the horizontal scale might be 1:1000 and the vertical scale 1:100.

DETERMINATION OF FINAL CENTER LINE:

Determination of final centre line of the road design in the office is a forerunner
to the final location survey. This involves the following operations:

� Making use of plans from the preliminary survey showing the longitudinal
profile, cross-sections and contours, a few alterative alignments for the final
centre line of the road are drawn and studied and the best one satisfying the
engineering, aesthetic, economic and environmental requirements is selected.
� For the selected alignment, a trial grade line is drawn taken into
consideration the controls which are established by mountain passes, intersections
with other roads, railway/river crossings, unstable areas, etc.
� For the alignment finally chosen, a study of the horizontal alignment and
conjunction with the profile is carried out and adjustments made in both as
necessary for achieving proper co-ordination.
� Horizontal curves including spiral transitions are designed and the final
center line marked on the map.
� The vertical curves are designed and the profile shown on the longitudinal
section.
FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

GENERAL

The purpose of the final location survey is to layout the final center line of the
road in the field based on the alignment selected in the design office and to
collect necessary data for the preparation of working drawings.

TRANSIT SURVEY

The center line of the road, as determined in the design office, is translated on
the ground by means of a continuous transit survey and pegging of the center line
as the survey proceeds. All angles should be measured with a transit. It would be
necessary to fix reference marks for this purpose. These marks should be generally
20m apart in straight reaches and 10m apart in curved reaches. To fix the center
line, reference pillars- control burjis should be firmly embedded in the ground.
These should be located beyond the expected edge of the cutting on the hillside.
The maximum spacing between the pillars may be 100m.

The following should be followed with reference to pillars:

� Reduced distance,
� Horizontal distance from the center line of the road,
� Reduced level at the top of the reference pillar, and
� Formation level of the road.

The reference pillars should be so located that these will not be disturbed during
construction. Description and location of the reference pillars should be noted for
reproduction on the final alignment plans.

At the road crossings, the angles that the intersecting roads make with the final
center line should be measured with the help of a transit. Similar measurements
should be made at railway level crossings.

BENCHMARKS:

To establish firm vertical control for location, design and construction,

benchmarks established during preliminary should be rechecked.

LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS AND CROSS-SECTIONS:

Levels along the final center line should be taken at all breaks in the ground.
Cross-sections should be taken at 60m interval.

PROPER PROJECTION OF POINTS OF REFERENCE:

The final location survey is considered complete when all necessary information is
available and ready for the designer to be able to plot the final road profile and
prepare the project drawings. Among other things, field notes should give a clear
description and location of all the benchmarks and reference points. This
information should be transferred to the plan drawings, so that at the time of
construction, the center line and the benchmarks could be located in the field
without any difficulty. In the last stage of alignment survey, hydrological and
soil investigations for the route should be carried out.
FIELD WORK DETAILS

The field work was started from Bench mark 11(connecting road between Melkote
Inspection bungalow to Gowrikatte circle (culvert parapet top) for fly levelling.
Highway alignment was started from TBM4 up to existing major road. The following
details were collected all along the survey route during reconnaissance survey:
� Soil type along the route and observation of the geological features.
� Presence of culvert along the route.
� Additional data regarding the geological function type of rocks were observed
all along the route of survey.

Consideration of geometric design and other requirements of realignment

preparations of plan were done by plane table survey.

Final alignment was carried out by redesigning the geometric parameters of the road
at the point of curve suitably.

TO FIND OUT THE REDUCED LEVEL

To find out the reduced level we use the dumpy level and levelling instruments. The
dumpy level generally consists of telescope tube finely secured in two collars
fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle. The modern
form of dumpy level has the telescope. This form is known as solid dumpy.

The levelling staff is straight, rectangular rod having graduations; the foot of
the staff represents zero reading. The purpose of the levelling staff is to
determine the amount by which station is above or below the line of sight.

TO FIX THE ALIGNMENT AND DIRECTION OF THE TERRAIN

The instruments required for this are:

� Prismatic compass,
� Ranging rod,
� Chain and tape

Prismatic compass is the most convenient and portable form of magnetic compass,
which can either be used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on a tripod. A
magnetic needle is attached to the circular ring or compass chord made of aluminium
a non magnetic substance. Using this instrument we measure the bearing (back
bearing and fore bearing).
Chain is another important device, which is generally made of steel, and is of
length 30m. It is a very important instrument to measure the length and also during
the fixing of the alignments in the field.

Another important device in the survey project is the Tape. It is generally made of
plastic. We first measure a certain distance interval with the help of chain or
tape.
After measuring the distance, using the prismatic compass and with the help of then
Ranging Rod we take bearing called fore bearing and back bearing.

USE OF PLANE TABLE

Plane tabling is a graphical method of survey in which the field observations and
plotting proceeds simultaneously. It is the means of making a manuscript map in the
field while the ground can be seen by the topographer and without intermediate
steps of recording the transcribing field notes.
The following instruments are used in plane table survey:
� The plane table with levelling head having arrangements for
� Levelling
� Rotation about vertical axis and
� Clamping in any required position
� Alidade for sighting
� Plumbing fork and plumb bob
� Spirit level
� Compass
� Drawing paper with a rain proof cover

WORKING OPERATIONS

1 Fixing: fixing the table to the tripod,

2 Setting:
� Levelling the table: the table is levelled by placing the level on the board
in two positions at right angles and getting the bubble centred in both directions.
� Centring: a table should be so placed over the station on the ground that the
point plotted on the sheet corresponding to the station occupied should be exactly
over the station on the ground. This is done by using a plumbing fork.
� Orientation: it is the process of putting the plane table in a fixed
direction so that the line representing a certain direction on the plane is
parallel to that direction on the ground. This is essential condition to be
fulfilled when more than one instrument station is to be used.
There are two main methods of orienting the plane table:
1 Orienting by means of trough compass, and
2 Orienting by means of back sighting.
USE OF CEYLON GHAT TRACER
It is a very useful instrument for setting out gradients. It essentially consists
of a long circular tube having a peep hole at one end and cross wires at the other
end.
1 To measure a slope:
� Fix the instrument onto the stand and hold it to one end of the line. Keep
the target at the other end.
� Looking through the eye hole, more the sliding weight in the line of sight
passes through the cross mark of a sight vane.
� The reading against the levelled edge of the weight will give the gradient of
the line.
2 To set out a gradient:
� Hold the instruments at one end,
� Send the assistant at the other end with the target,
� Slide the weight to set it to the given gradient, say 1 in n,
� Direct the assistant to move the target till it is bisected.
� Drive a peg at the other end so that the top of the peg is at the same level
as that of the bottom of the target.

REALIGNMENT:
While improving the horizontal alignment of road, improvement in sharp curves and
zig zags should be done after considering the whole alignment and not on a piece
meal basis. The improvement of transition curves would not generally be very costly
and therefore the defects should be rectified wherever necessary. The sight
distance available generally gets increased when the horizontal alignment is
improved or otherwise a set back distance may be increased at horizontal curves by
removing or shifting the obstructions from the inner side of curve upto the desired
extent.
While improving the vertical alignment attempt should be made to provide over
taking sight distance at summit curve. However, if this is not possible, atleast
the stopping sight distance should be available for the design speed at all
locations of the road. Now corrections of minor undulations such as humps and dips
may not involve high cost and so it is not desirable to provide suitable vertical
transition curves for shock free movements of vehicles travelling at the design
speed. Valley curves may be checked for comfort conditions and for visibility under
the head lights of the vehicle during night driving.
STEPS IN REALIGNMENT:
1. Reconnaissance of the stretch of road to be realigned, study of the deficiencies
and the possible changes in alignment.
2. Survey of existing roads recording the topographic features and all other
existing features such as drainage. The field work may be carried out using plane
table and level or by tachometry.
3. Observation of spot levels along the centre line of the road and cross section
levels at suitable intervals to note the gradient, cross slope and superelevation
etc.
4. Soil surveying along the stretch of land.
5. Comparison of economics and consideration of feasibility of alternate proposals
of realignment.
6. Finalisation of design features of realigned road stretches.
7. Preparation of drawings (showing plan, longitudanal section, and cross sections
for re-alignment project)

8. Marking out the centre line of re-aligned road while trying to utilise the
existing road to the maximum extent possible.
9. Checking the geometric design elements of the newly aligned stretch of the road.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN

A uniform application of design standards is most desirable from the viewpoint of

road safety and smooth flow of traffic. The use of optimum design standards will
reduce the possibility of early obsolescence of the facilities brought about by
inadequacy of the original standards.

HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS:

The different elements under this are:

� Pavement surface characteristics.
� Cross slope or camber.
� Width of pavement or carriageway.
� Kerb
� Road margins.
� Right of way.
� Width of roadway.

WIDTH OF ROADLAND, ROADWAY, CARRIAGEWAY AND SHOULDERS;

Desirable width of road land (also termed as right-of-way) for various

categories of roads are given in the Table.
Sl. ROAD CLASSIFICATION OPEN AREAS BUILT-UP AREAS
No. NORMAL EXCEPTIONAL NORMAL EXCEPTIONAL
1 National and state highways 24 18 20 18
2 Major district roads 18 15 15 12
3 Other district roads 15 12 12 9
4 Village roads 9 9 9 9

Notes:
� In order to ensure proper sigh distance, it may be necessary to acquire
additional right-of-way over that indicated in the table. The right-of-way should
be enough to ensure a minimum setback of 5mm for building line from the centre line
of the road.
� Additional land with reference to the requirements may be acquired at
locations involving deep cuts. Fills and unstable or landslide areas
� If a road is expected, to be a higher classification in the foreseeable
future, the land width should correspond to the higher class of roads.

Width of carriageway, should and roadway for various categories of roads should be
as given in table.

Highway classification Carriageway width (m) Shoulder width Roadway width (m)
National highway & state highway
Single lane
Double lane

3.75

2x1.25
2x0.9

6.0
8.8
Major district road & other roads 3.75 2x0.5 4.75
Village roads 3.0 2x0.5 4.0

NOTES:
� The roadway width given in the Table are exclusive of parapets (usual width
0.6m)
� The roadway widths for village roads are on the basis of a single lane
carriageway of 3m. Widths greater that 3m may however be adopted judiciously
depending on the type and intensity of traffic, cost and related factors. In that
case the roadway width should be increased correspondingly.
� In hard rock stretches or unstable locations where excess cutting might lead
to slope failure, 0.8m on two-lane roads and 0.4 m in other cases may reduce the
width of roadway. However, where such stretches occur in continuous long length,
reduction in roadway width should not be effected unless requisite passing places
are provided.
� On horizontal curves, the roadway width should be increased corresponding to
the extra widening of carriageway for curvature.
� On roads subject to heavy snowfall, where regular snow clearance is done over
long periods to keep the road open to traffic, roadway width may be increased by
1.5m for MDR�s, ODR�s and VR�s.

CAMBER/ CROSSFALL

The pavement on straight reaches should be provided with a crown in

the middle and surface on either side sloping towards the edge.
The camber or cross fall on straight sections of roads should be as
given below. For a given surface type, the steeper values of camber should be
adopted in areas having high intensity of rainfall and lower values where the
intensity of rainfall is low.

A. Earth roads 3 to 4 percent (1 in 33 to 1 in 25)

B. Gravel or WBM surface 2.5 to 3 percent (1 in 40 to 1 in 33)
C. Thin bituminous surface 2 to 2.5 percent (1 in 50 to 1 in 40)
D. High type bituminous surface 1.7 to 2 percent (1 in 60 to 1 in
50)
 The crossfall for earth shoulders should be at least 0.5% more than the
pavement camber subject to a minimum of 3%. On super elevated sections, the
shoulders should normally have the same cross fall as the pavement.

DESIGN SPEED:

The designs speeds for various categories of hill roads should be as given in the
Table.

DESIGN SPEEDS (Km/h)

Road classification Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

ruling min. ruling min. ruling min. ruling min.
N.H & S.H 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
M.D.R 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
O.D.R 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
V.R 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

SIGHT DISTANCE:

Stopping sight distance is the clear distance ahead needed by a driver by

bring his vehicle to a stop before meeting a stationary object in his path. And is
calculated as the sum of braking distance required at the particular speed plus the
distance traveled by vehicle during perception and brake reaction time,
intermediate sight distance is defined as twice the stopping sight distance. Design
values for both these sight distances and the criteria for their measurement are
given in the table.

DESIGN VALUES OF STOPPING AND INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCES FOR VARIOUS SPEEDS:

Speed (kmph) Design values in metres

Stopping sight distance Intermediate sight distance
20 20 40
25 25 50
30 30 60
35 40 80
40 45 90
50 60 120

CRITERIA FOR MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE

Sl. No. Sight distance Driver eye height Height of object

1. Safe stopping sight distance 1.2 m 0.15 m
2. Intermediate sight distance 1.2 m 1.2 m

OVER TAKING SIGHT DISTANCE:

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending
to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against traffic of opposite direction is
know as the minimum overtaking sight distance or the safe passing sight distance
available.

The overtaking sight distance depends on the following factors:

1] Speed of overtaking, overtaken and oncoming vehicles.
2] Spacing between the vehicles.
. 3] Skill and reaction time of driver.
4] Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle.
5] Slope of the road .

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL:
In general horizontal curves should consist of a circular portion flanked
by spiral transitions, at both ends. Design speed, super elevation and coefficient
of side friction affect the design of circular curves.
Minimum radius curves should be adopted only when absolutely necessary at
reverse curves, sufficient gap should be ensured between the two curves for
introduction of the requisite transition curves. Compound curve may be used only
when it is impossible to fit in a single circular curve.

SUPER ELEVATION:

Super elevation to be provided on curves is calculated from the following formula.

e= V �
225R

Where: e= super elevation

v= design speed in km/h
R= radius of the curve in metres

The change over from normal section to super elevation should be

achieved gradually over the full length of the transition curve so that the design
super elevation is available at the starting point of the circular curve.

MINIMUM CURVE RADll:

On a horizontal curve, the combined effect of super elevation and side

friction balance the centrifugal force. The basic equation for this condition of
equilibrium is:

v� = e+f or R= V�
gR 127*(e+f)
Where
V = vehicle speed in m/s v = vehicle speed in km/h
G = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
e = ratio of super elevation
f = co-efficient of side friction between vehicle tyres and pavement. (Taken as
0.15)

Radii for horizontal curves corresponding to ruling minimum and absolute minimum
design speeds are shown in the Table
MINIMUM RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVES FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF HILL ROADS

Sl. No. Road classification Mountainous terrain Steep terrain

ruling min ruling min
1 National & state highways 50 40 40 30
2 Major district roads 40 30 30 20
3 Other district roads 30 25 25 20
4 Village roads 25 20 25 20

Also, if the deviation angle is less than 1� then horizontal curve is not required
at such places.
TRANSITION CURVES:
Spiral curve should be used for transitions. These are necessary for smooth entry
of vehicles from a straight section into a circular curve. The transition curves
also improve aesthetic appearance of the road, besides permitting gradual
application of the super elevation and extra widening at curves.
Minimum length of transition curves for various radii is given in the table.

MINIMUM TRANSITION LENGTH FOR DIFFERENT SPEEDS AND CURVE RADll:

Curve radius (m) Design speed (km/h)

50 40 30 25 20
15 NA 30
20 35 20
25 NA 25 20
30 30 25 15
40 NA 25 20 15
50 40 20 15 15
55 40 20 15 15
70 NA 30 15 15 15
80 55 25 15 15 NA
90 45 25 15 15
100 45 20 15 15
125 35 15 15 NA
150 30 15 15 15
170 25 15 NA
200 20 15
300 15 NA
400 15
500 NA

The above table indicates the horizontal curves without transition curves.
In such cases, the super-elevation is provided as follows.
� First, calculate the length of transition curve though it is not provided.
Let L= length of transition curve
� Also, calculate the amount of super-elevation E, to be provided.
� Now, 2/3E is provided at the straight portion in a length equal to 2/3L, also
a remaining 1/3E is provided in the curved portion in a length equal to 1/3E
� In a similar way the calculated extra widening We is also provided, i.e.,
2/3We in the straight portion and 1/3We in the curved portion.
� Also, the extra widening is introduced on the inner side of the curve for
curves without transition curves also in hilly roads.

WIDENING OF ROAD AT CURVES:

At sharp horizontal curves, it is necessary to widen the carriageway to facilitate

safe passage of vehicles. The widening required has two components.
� �Mechanical widening� to compensate the extra width occupied by a vehicle on
the curve due to tracking of the rear wheels, and
� �Psychological widening� to pem 1 it easy crossing of vehicles since vehicle
in a lane tend to wander more on a curve than on a straight reach.
Based on the above considerations, the extra width of carriageway to be provided at
horizontal curves on single and two-lane roads is given in the table.

WIDENING OF PAVEMENT AT CURVES

Radius of curve (m) Up to 20 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300

Above 300
Extra width (m)
Two lane 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 Nil
Single lane 0.9 0.6 0.6 nil nil nil

SET-BACK DISTANCE AT HORIZONTAL CURVES

Requisite sight distance should be available across the inside of horizontal

curves. Lack of visibility in the lateral direction may arise due to obstructions
like walls, cut slopes, wooded areas, high crops etc.
Set-back distance from the centre line of the carriageway within which the
offending obstructions should be cleared to ensure the needed visibility can be
determined.
The set-back distance is calculated from the following equation:
M=R-(R-n)*cos?
Where,
? = S / 2*(R-n)
m= the minimum set-back distance from the centre line of the road to sight
obstruction in meters at the middle of the road
R= centre line of the road in metres
N= distance between the centre line of the road and the inside lane in metres
S= sight distance in meters
For applying the above relationship, sight distance is measured along the
middle of inner lane. However on single-lane roads, sight distance is measured
along centre line of the carriageway and �n� is taken as zero.

Radius of circle curves(m) Set back distances in metres

S+20 m
(v+20 km/h) S+20 m
(v+25 km/h) S+20 m
(v+30km/h) S+20 m
(v+40km/h) S+20 m
(v+50km/h)
14 3.4 - - - -
15 3.2 - - - -
20 2.4 3.8 - - -
23 2.1 3.3 - - -
30 1.5 2.6 3.7 - -
33 1.0 2.3 3.4 - -
50 - 1.6 2.2 5.0 -
60 - 1.3 1.9 4.2 -
80 - 1.0 1.4 3.1 5.6
100 - 0.8 1.1 2.5 4.5
120 - 0.7 0.9 2.1 3.7
150 - 0.5 0.8 1.7 2.3

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL:

The vertical alignment should provide for a smooth longitudinal profile

consistent with category of a road and the terrain. Grade changes should not be too
frequent as to cause kinks and visual discontinuities in the profile
GRADIENTS:
Recommended gradients for different terrain conditions except at hair-pin
bends are given in the table

RECOMMENDED GRADIENTS FOR DIFFERENT TERRAIN CONDITIONS

Classification of gradient Mountainous terrain and steep terrain having

elevation not more than 3000 m above MSL Steep terrain up to 3000m height above
MSL
Ruling gradient 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.7)
Limiting gradient 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% (1 in 14.3)
Exceptional gradient 7% (1in 14.3) 8* (1 in 12.5)

GRADE COMPENSATION AT CURVES

At horizontal curves the gradients should be eased by an amount known as the �grade
compensation� which is intended to offset the extra tractive effort involved at
curves. This may be calculated from the following formula;
Grade compensation (%) = (30 + EJ) /R
Subject to a minimum of 75/R , Where R is radius of the
curve in meters

VERTICAL CURVES

Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at grade changes. Both
summit curves and valley curves should be designed as square parabolas. The two
types of vertical curves are:
� Summit curves
� Valley curves

The design procedure of calculation of length of vertical curves is as follows:

 SUMMIT CURVES

The length of summit curves is governed by the choice of sight, distance, whether
stopping sight distance of the intermediate sight distance.
The required length may be calculated from the following formula:

a) FOR SAFE STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Case (1); when the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance, i.e.L
is greater then S.
L= NS�
4.4
Where
N = deviation angle, i.e. the algebraic difference between the two
grades
L = length of the parabolic vertical curve in meters
S = sight distance in meters
Case (ii) when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance
i.e. is less than S
L= 2S- 4.4
N
b) FOR INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCE

Case (i) When the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance, i.e. is
greater then S
L= NS� /9.6

Case (ii) when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance,
i.e. is less than S
L = 2S- 9.6/N

VALLEY CURVE

The length of the valley curves should be such that for night travel the headlight
beam distance is equal to the stopping sight distance. Based on this criterion, the
length of curve may be calculated as under;
Case (i): when the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance. i.e. is
greater then S.
L = NS�
1.5+ 0.035S
Case (ii): when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance,
i.e. is less than S
L= 2S- 1.5+0.035S/N
In both cases :
N= deviation angle, i.e. the algebraic difference between the two grades
L = length of the parabolic vertical curve in meters
S = sight distance in meters
Note: The above formula have been derived with the following Assumptions:
Headlight height = 0.75 m
Upward divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle = 10

ALIGNMENT COMPATIBILITY
As a general rule, changes in horizontal and vertical alignment should be phased to
coincide with each other, i.e. the vertical curve should roughly extend from 1 the
commencement to the end of the corresponding horizontal curve. More preferably, the
horizontal curve should be somewhat longer than the vertical curve. Sharp
horizontal curves should not be introduced at or near the top of the summit
vertical curves or the lowest point of valley curves.

HAIRPIN BENDS

A hairpin bend bay is designed as a circular curve with transition curves at

each. Compound circle curves may also be provided. The following design criteria
should be adopted normally for the design of hairpin bends:

a. Minimum design speed - 20 km/h

b. Minimum roadway at apex
� National/state Highways - 11.5 m for
double lane

9 m for single lane

� Major District Roads/Other District Roads - 7.5 m
� Village Roads - 6.5 m
c. Minimum radius for the inner curve - 14 m
d. minimum length of transition 15 m
e. Gradient
� Maximum 1 in 40
(2.5%)
� Minimum 1 in 200
(0.5%)
f. Super elevation 1 in
10 (10%)

Inner and outer edges of the roadway should be concentric with respect to the
centre line of the pavement, where a number of hairpin bends have to be introduced,
a minimum intervening length of 60m should be provided between the successive bends
to enable the driver to negotiate the alignment smoothly. At hair-pin bends,
preferably the full roadway width should be surfaced.

PASSING PLACES

Passing places or lay-byes are required on hill roads to cater to the following
requirements:
� To facilitate crossing of vehicle approaching from the opposite direction;
and to tow aside a disabled vehicle so that it does not obstruct traffic.
� There is no specific need of passing places on two-lane National and State
Highways. But in the case of single lane sections on National/State Highways which
have narrow roadway, provision of some passing places may be desirable.
� Normally the passing places or lay-byes should be 3.75m wide, 30m long on the
inside edge (i.e., towards the carriageway side), and 20m long on the farther side.

LATERAL AND VERTICAL CLEARANCES AT UNDERPASSES

LATERAL CLEARANCE:
Desirably the full roadway width at the approaches should be carried through
the underpass. This implies that the minimum lateral clearance (i.e. the distance
between the extreme edge of the carriageway and the face of the nearest support)
should equal the normal shoulder width.

VERTICAL CLEARANCE:
Minimum vertical clearance of 5m should be ensured over the full width of the
roadway at all underpasses and similarly at overhanging cliffs and any semi-tunnel
section etc. the vertical clearance should be measured with respect to the highest
point of the carriageway, i.e., the crown or the super elevated edge of the
carriageway.

BLOCK LEVELLING
The method is used when the area to be surveyed is small and the ground
is not very much undulating. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of
squares. The size of the square may vary from 5 to 20m depending upon the contour
and contour interval. The elevations of the comer of the contour and contour
interval. The elevations of the comers of the square are then determined by means
of a level and a staff. The contour lines may then be drawn by interpolation. It is
not necessary that the squares may be same size. Sometimes, rectangles are also
used in places of squares. When there are appreciable breaks in the surface between
corners, guide points in addition to those at comers may also be used. The squares
should be as long as practicable, yet small enough to conform 1 to the inequalities
of the ground and top the accuracy required.

DESIGN OF VERTICAL CURVES

1. VALLEY CURVE AT 360m CHAINAGE

V=50kmph

N=?1+?2 = 1/27 -1/570 = 0.0353rad

SSD = 0.278vt + v�
254f

= 0.278*50*2.0 + 50�
254(0.4)

= 53m
For speed of 50kmph the minimum recommended SSD is 60m.

1. Length of valley curve for comfort condition

L = 0.38vNV� kmph

= 0.38v0.0353*50�

= 24.0m
2. Length of valley curve for SSD condition

SSD= 60.0m Assuming L>SSD

L = NS�
2h1 + 2S tana

= 0.0353*(60.0)�
1.5 + 0.035*60.0

= 35.0m < SSD

 Assuming L<SSD

L = 2S - (1.5+0.035S)
N
= 2*60 - (1.5+0.035*60)
0.0353
L= 18m

Provide L = 24m

Chainage of T1 = 360-(24/2) = 348 m

Chainage of T2 = 360+(24/2)= 372m

R L of T1 = 966.670- ((12*0.175)/100) = 966.649m

R L of T2 = 966.670+((12*3.7)/100)= 966.226m

R L of E = �( RL of T1 + RL of T2)
= (966.649+ 966.226)/2
= 966.438m

R L of F = �( RL of E + RL of pi)
= �(966.438+966.226)
= 966.332m

XF= 966.332-966.226 = 0.16m

SL NO CHAINAGE (m) RL OF TANGENT

POINT
T1 348 967.210
1 351 967.030
2 356 966.670
3 361 966.670
4 366 966.657
5 371 966.594
T2 372 966.531

SUMMIT CURVE

Assuming l > SSD , SSD = 60

L = NS ^ 2/4.4 = 0.031 (185)^2 / 4.4

= 24.5mt
N= 1 / 25 � 1 / 110
= 0.030 radius
Therefore length of summit curve = 24.5 m

chainage of T1 = 120 � (24.5 / 2) = 107.75 mt

chainage of T2 = 120 + (24.5 / 2) = 132.25 mt

R.L of T1 = 979.306
R.L of T2 = 978.424
R.L of E = (979.306 + 950) / 2 = 964.653 mt

R.L of F = 911.375 + 913.500 / 2 = 957.327 mt

S NO. CHAINAGE(m) RL OF TANGENT POINT

T1 3 979.574
1 5 979.429
2 5 979.262
3 5 978.967
4 5 978.675
T2 1.5 978.585

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

Assumed V=50kmph
R= v^2/(127(e+f))
R= 89.47m

Length of the transition curve = 45m ( from table 7)

S= L^2/(24R)= 45^2/ (24X89.47) = .94m

Tangent length OT1 = (R+S)tan(?/2) + L/2

= (89.47 + 0.94) tan(90/2) + (45/2)
= 121.91m

Spiral Angle = ?S = L(180)/ 2pR = 45X 180/(2X89.47X3.14) = 14.41� = 14� 24� 67��
Central angle for circular curve = ?C = ?- (2?S) = 90-(2X14.14) = 61.48� =
61�10�48��
CIRCULAR CURVE:
Length of circular curve = pR?C/180 = pX87.89X61.18/180 = 95.54m
Length of combined curve = pR?C/180+2L = pX87.8X61.18/180 + 2(45) = 185.54m

Calculations : -
Chainage of point of intersection = 335+121.91 = 456.91m
Subtract tangent length OT1 = 456.91 � 121.91 = 335m
Add length of transition curve = 335+45m = 380mts
Chainage of beginning of circular curve = 380mts
Length of circular curve = A = 95.54m
Chainage at end of circular curve B = 380+95.54 = 475.54mts
Add length of transition curve = 475.54+45 = 520.52m
Chainage at end of transition curve T2 = 520.54m
Extra widening of curve
We = nl^2/2r+v/9.5(r)�
={2(6.1)��(2*89.47)}+{100�(9.5*(89.47)�)}
=0.42+1.11
=1.53m
Total raise of outer edge above the inner edge
E= (17+1.53)*0.07= 1.29m

1. SSD = 0.278Vt+V�/254(f�0.01n)
= 0.278(50)(2.5)+(50)�/254(0.35�0.01*5)
=34.75+24.61
=59.36mts

2 . OSD=0.278Vst+0.278VbT+2S+0.278VT
Vb=50-16=34kmph
T=2sec
 S=0.2Vb+6=0.2(34)+6=12.8m
T=(14.45/a)�=(14.4(12.8)/3.2)�=7.59
OSD=d1+d2+d3
OSD=0.278(34)(2)+0.278(34)(7.59)+2(12.8)+0.278(50)(7.59)
OSD=221.74m
FIRST PART OF THE TRANSITION CURVE

Point Unit chord a(min) Polar angle

T1 0 0�0'0" 0�0'0"
1 5 0�3'33.48" 0�3'40"
2 6 0�17'13.24" 0�17'20"
3 6 0�41'7.82" 0�41'0"
4 6 1�15'17.22" 1�15'20"
5 6 1�59'41.45" 1�59'40"
6 6 2�54'20.49" 2�54'20"
7 6 3�59'14.35" 3�59'20"
8 4 4�48'11.83" 4�48'20"

CIRCULAR CURVE
Length of first sub chord =5m
Length of unit sub chord =6m
Length of last sub chord =.54m
Total no of chords =15
Point Unit chord d
?
A 0 0�0'0" 0�0'0"
1 5 1�36'3.61" 1�36'3.61"
2 6 1�55'16.33" 3�31'19.94"
3 6 1�55'16.33" 5�26'36.27"
4 6 1�55'16.33" 7�21'52.6"
5 6 1�55'16.33" 9�17'41.59"
6 6 1�55'16.33" 11�12'25.26"
7 6 1�55'16.33" 13�7'41.59"
8 6 1�55'16.33" 15�2'57.92"
9 6 1�55'16.33" 16�58'14.25"
10 6 1�55'16.33" 18�53'30.58"
11 6 1�55'16.33" 20�48'46.91"
12 6 1�55'16.33" 22�44'3.24"
13 6 1�55'16.33" 24�39'19.57"
14 6 1�55'16.33" 26�34'35.9"
B 0.54 1�55'16.33" 26�44'58.37"
2nd TRANSITION CURVE:
Length of first sub chord =5m
Length of last sub chord =6m
No. of unit chords = 8

SECOND PART OF THE TRANSITION CURVE:

point lengths a total

B 0 0�0'0" 0�0'0"
1 5 0�3'33.48" 0�3'40"
2 6 0�17'13.24" 0�17'20"
3 6 0�41'7.52" 0�41'0"
4 6 1�15'17.22" 1�15'20"
5 6 1�59'41.45" 1�59'40"
6 6 2�54'20.49" 2�54'20"
7 6 3�59'14.35" 3�59'20"
8 4 4�48'11.83" 4�48'20"

DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS

OBJECTS AND REQUIREMENTS OF PAVEMENTS:

The surface of the roadways should be stable and non-yielding, to allow

the heavy wheel loads of road traffic to move with least possible rolling
resistance. The road surface should also be even along the longitudinal profile to
enable the fast vehicles to move safely and comfortably at the designed speed.
Based on the vertical alignment and the environmental conditions of the site,
the pavement may be constructed over the embankment, out of almost at the ground
level.
 It is always desirable to construct the pavement well above the maximum level
of the ground water to keep the sub-grade dry even during monsoons.

TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES:

Based on the structural behaviour, pavements are generally classified into

two categories.
� Flexible pavements.
� Rigid pavements.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible
flexural strength and are rather flexural in their structural under loads.
The flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layer to
the surface of the layer. Thus if the lower layer of the pavement or soil sub-grade
is undulated, the flexible pavement surface also gets undulated. A flexible
pavement consists of four pavements:

1. Soil sub-grade
2. Sub-base course
3. Base course
4. Surface course

RIGID PAVEMENTS:

Rigid pavements are those, which possess noteworthy flexural strength or flexural
rigidity. The stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers
as in the case of flexible pavements layers. The pavements are made of Portland
cement concrete plain, reinforced or prestressed concrete. The rigid pavements are
usually designed and the stresses are analyzed using elastic theory, assuming the
pavement as an elastic plate resting over elastic or a viscous foundation. It
consists of three components:

1. Cement concrete slab

2. Base-course
3. Soil sub-grade
Traffic is estimated based on 7 day 24-hr classified counts.
In exceptional cases, 3 day count is used. The rate of growth is estimated based on
past trends. If not, 7.5% is taken for rural roads.
Design life is usually 10 to 15 years.
The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative no. of standard axles
(C.S.A).It is done using the following equation:
Ns =365 A {(1+r)x - 1] F
r

Ns=C.S.A
A=Initial traffic * D.F.
R= rate of growth
F= vehicle damage factor

Where distribution factor (D.F)

Single lane (3.75 m) 2
Intermediate road (5.5m) 1.5
Two-lane 0.75
Four-lane 0.40
Dual carriage way: 75% of the number of vehicles in each direction.
Vehicle damage factor; is a multiplier for converting the number of commercial
vehicles of different axle loads to the number of standard axle load vehicles.

TRAFFIC TERRAIN
VDF
UN-SURFACED THIN SURFACED THICK SURFACED
<150 HILLY 0.5 0.75
ROLLING 1.5 1.75
PLAIN 2 2.25
150-1500 HILLY 1.0 1.25
ROLLING 2.0 2.25
PLAIN 2.5 2.75
>1500 HILLY 1.25 1.5
ROLLING 2.25 2.5
PLAIN 2.75 3

Sub-grade: CBR test is done strictly as per the specified procedure.

Test is done by static compaction. But if not possible, dynamic compaction may
be used.
Static compaction
Vol of mould= 2209 cc,
Wt, of dry soil =2209 d gm.
Wt. of wet soil= (100+m)* 2209 d gm
100
d= dry density in gm, /cc
M= moisture content in %
� Soil is broken into lumps. Any stone larger that 20mm in discarded,
� Mix the soil with required amount of water,
� Fill it in the mould, tamp it with steel rod,
� Place a filter paper on to soil.
� Place the spacer disc.
� Compress it in compression testing machine.
� For new roads,
a. D and m is determined by proctor compaction test. (m=omc)
b. CBR value of obtained by soaked CBR test.
� In case of existing road,
a) D and m is obtained by field density (d) test, by sand replacement
method.
b) Field moisture content (m)
� At least 3 samples must be tested.
(In situ CBR test in not recommended because it not possible to simulate the
critical conditions of moisture content and dry density in the field)

With the thick bituminous surface and if rainfall is 500 mm / yr. and if
D= 1m at least.
= 1 m for sandy soil
= 3 m for sandy clay
Then, soaking is not required.
Sub- base: materials are natural sand, moorum, gravel, laterite, and brick metal
and crushed stone.
Min. CBR = 20% to 30%
(If sub grade CBR is higher than 20% to 30% value, then sub-base is not required.)
Base : consists of WBM or wet mix macadam.
Its CBR value = 100%
Min. Thickness = 15 cm.
Bituminious surface :
SD= surface dressing.

Soil test;

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST:

This is a penetration test developed by the California division of highways, as a

method of evaluating the stability of soil sub grade and other flexible pavement
materials. The test results have been correlated with flexible pavement thickness
requirements for highways and airfields. The CBR test conducted in the laboratory
on a prepared specimen in a mould or in the field.
This test causes a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter to penetrate a pavement
component material at 1.25 mm/minute. The load values to cause 2.5 mm and 5 mm
penetration are recorded. These loads are expressed as percentages of standard load
values at respective deformation levels to obtain CBR value. The standard load
values obtained from the average of a large number of tests on crushed stones are
1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5mm penetration respectively.
Laboratory CBR tests:
The CBR value of a soil was considered to be an index which is related to its
strength. The value is highly dependent on the condition of the material at the
time of testing. CBR value has been correlated with the modulus of sub-grade
reaction, modulus of resilience and plastic index.
CBR definition: it is a ratio of the load taken by soil at 2.5 mm or 5mm
penetration by a plunger of 50mm diameter at the rate of 1.25mm per minute to the
load taken by standard crushed stone at the same penetration.
CBR2.5mm= load taken by soil at 2.5 m * 100
Load taken by standard aggregate at 2.5mm

Penetration load taken by aggregate

2.5mm 1370 kg
5mm 2055kg
APPARATUS:
1. Moulds with base plate:
2. Collar
3. Spacer discs
4. Metal rammer.
a. 2.5kg 31cms fall.
b. 4.89kg 45 cms fall
5. Adjustable stem with perforated plates and tripod stand.
6. Annular weights of 2.5 kgs each,
7. Loading machine with 500 kg capacity, rate of deformation is equal to 1.25
mm per minute.
8. 50 mm diameter plunger
9. Dial gauge least count=0.01mm.
10. Sieves 19, 4.75 mm sieve.
11. Measuring jar, filter paper, and oven.

Preparation of test specimen:

� Undisturbed specimen; push the mould inside, remove the mould by digging away
the soil surrounding it. If the specimen is loose in the mould, the annular cavity
may be filled with paraffin wax. Find the density and the water content.

� Re-moulded specimen; sieve the soil on a 19mm sieve. Take the soil that
passes through 19mm sieve, allowance for larger material is made by replacing it by
an equal amount of material which passes the 19mm sieve but is restrained on the
4.75mm sieve.

Mould by static compaction:

Volume of mould=2209 cc
Weight of dry soil =2209.d gm
D= dry density or field density by proctor test or sand replacement test
M= moisture content (filed) or OMC

Weight of wet soil= (100+m)*(2209)*(d) gm

100
Amount of water= 2209*(d)*(m) ml
100
� Mix the soil with water required
� Fill it in the mould and tamp it with a steel rod
� Place a filter paper on top of the soil
� Place the spacer disc
� Compress it with a compression testing machine
� Wait for 5 mines. The spacer disc should flush with the top of the mould
� Before testing soak it for 4 days
[For existing roads, d and m are obtained by sand and replacement method. For new
roads d and m are obtained by proctor density test.]

Dynamic compaction

Find d and m by proctor test.

Find the weight of soil to be taken.
Weight of soil=volume* dry density.
Add the amount of water.
Amount of water= weight of soil* m/100

� Fix the mould to the base plate.

� Place the spacer disc.
� Place a coarse filter paper over the disc.
� Take 50gm of soil to find the moisture content.
� Fill the soil in the mould and compact it as per compaction used in proctor
test.
� Remove the extension collar.
� Level the soil surface by trimming and filling it if necessary.
� Again take 50gm of soil to find the moisture content.
� Remove the spacer disc.
� Weigh the mould with the soil.
� Remove the mould from the base plate.
� Place a filter paper on base plate.
� The compacted mould is inverted and placed on the base plate with the filter
paper.
� It is then soaked for 4 days.

PROCEDURE FOR SOAKING;

1. Place filter paper on the soil.

2. Place perforated plate and adjustable stem on the specimen.
3. Keep the surcharge weight of 2.5 kgs.
4. Keep the assembly in water tank.
5. Keep the gauge.
6. Fix the dial gauge.
7. Note the initial readings.
8. Record the readings for every 24 hours.
� After 4 days record the final reading.
� Then remove the dial gauge, perforated plate, adjustable stem, tripod and
surcharge weight. Drain the water for 15 mins.
� Weigh the mould with the base plate.

Swelling= final reading - initial reading *100

Height of specimen in mm

Penetration test:

1. Place the surcharge weight in soil specimen.

2. Keep the mould in the machine.
3. Apply 4kg seating load to ensure the plunger is fully in contact with the
soil.
4. The load and penetration dial gauges are set to zero.
5. Load is applied such that the penetration of the plunger is 1.25 mm per
minute.
6. Note down the value of load at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 4.0, 5.07, 5.10, 0 and
12.5 mm penetration.
7. Remove the load and take 50 gm of soil to find the moisture content.
8. The mould is reversed and the test is repeated as a check test.
[In case of undisturbed samples, the soil below the plunger is carefully examined
for the presence of any oversized particles which affect the results.]

RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS:

1. Soil identification.
2. Amount of soil fraction above 20mm that has been replaced.
3. Density.
4. Moisture content.
5. Expansion ratio.
6. Penetration test readings.
7. Surcharge wt used.
8. Plot load penetration curve.
9. Apply correction to curve if necessary.
10. Find the CBR value.
 6. BIBILIOGRAPHY

1. Highway Engineering
By Khanna S.K. & Justo C E G

2. Highway Engineering
By Kadiyali L.R.

3. Transport Engineering 1
By K.P Subramanyam.

4. Principles Of Transport Engineering

By Partha Chakra Borthy.