Machine, Plant & Systems Monitor

Turbo-compressors
Accelerometer selection for high frequency A turbo-compressor is a machine which is
used to compress a gas. The machine gen-

measurements erally consists of three major mechanical

components including a motor, a gearbox
and the compressor itself. There are also
Eric Saller and Duane Brzezowski of Industrial Monitoring Instrumentation, a divi- other components such as variable speed
sion of PCB Piezotronics Inc, New York, USA, discuss the sensor requirements for moni- drives, solenoid valves, piping, oil coolers,
toring the harmonics of gear-mesh frequencies which occur in turbo-compressors at and heat exchangers. All of these compo-
very high frequencies. Particular attention is given to sensor selection and mounting nents together make analysing a turbo-
techniques to ensure that valid and repeatable data is obtained. It is important to focus compressor very complex, but it is the main
on all these factors before introducing any new machinery because improper sensor three components which are most impor-
selection and mounting techniques can either obscure data that may be indicative of a tant to the analyst (Figure 1).
fault condition or enhance false data that may lead to erroneous conclusions. A turbo-compressor is one of the most
widely-used machines in industrial proc-
A s the field of predictive maintenance remaining 20% of the industrial machin- ess applications. It is often one of the most
matures and continues to prove successful ery that falls outside of the frequency range essential pieces of equipment used as a
in today’s industrial markets, most facili- of these sensors, it may be necessary to source of compressed gas to run other
ties are faced with expanding their pro- incorporate either special low-frequency or machines, or as a resource for different
grammes to encompass more and more high-frequency accelerometers. manufacturing processes. Processes like gas
equipment. The implementation of this Applications using slow-speed equipment separation and the manufacture of indus-
additional machinery can produce new and such as very large mixers, grinders and trial gases use turbo-compressors to
unique monitoring and analysis opportu- cooling towers may require the use of low- achieve the purity levels and quantities re-
nities as well as some unforeseen difficulties. frequency accelerometers. These sensors quired in today’s industries.
However, before any additions can be are typically larger in size and will provide The most common drive mechanism which
made to a programme, it is important to a higher sensitivity and a lower-frequency is used by a turbo-compressor is the elec-
carefully evaluate each machine. Complex response than general purpose sensors. trical motor or some sort of internal com-
machines, such as high-speed turbo-com- These characteristics better enhance the bustion engine. Electrical motors are more
pressors, require a thorough understand- low-level, low-frequency vibrations gener- versatile drives, and can be easily control-
ing of their operation and design before ated by this slow-speed equipment to sup- led with variable speed drives to match
potential faults can be detected using vi- ply more precise data on potential machin- performance or energy conservation crite-
bration analysis. One particular fault in- ery faults. ria. These motors can vary in size. They
dicator occurs at very high frequencies and At the other end of the spectrum, gearboxes range from 20 HP to 1500 HP, and larger
can only be measured using specific moni- and high-speed spindles demand high-fre- ones are available for special applications.
toring tools such as high-frequency accel- quency accelerometers capable of supply- The motor is usually coupled to a gearbox
erometers. ing a maximum frequency range which can or some other sort of gearing system. The
match the faults being monitored. For ex- gearing system usually includes a motor-
ample, the harmonics of bearing fault fre- driven bull gear that is attached to a fly
General purpose quencies of high-speed spindles may be wheel, or the bull gear may have enough
accelerometers over 10 kHz, and particular types of turbo- mass itself to act as its own fly wheel. The
machinery produce gear mesh fault fre- bull gear usually drives two or more fixed
General purpose accelerometers, when quencies higher than 20 kHz. In both ap- pinion gears that correspond to each of the
used with data collectors, can handle 80% plications, the frequency range to be moni- stages of the compressor. Each stage is gen-
of the applications normally encountered tored is well beyond the capabilities of gen- erally oriented so that the bull gear will
in predictive maintenance programmes. eral purpose accelerometers. To accom- drive the stages simultaneously at a ratio
When used to monitor equipment such as plish such measurements, high-frequency that will allow the pinions to have a higher
motors, pumps and fans, general purpose sensors are typically smaller and lighter in rpm. In most cases, the pinion gears for
sensors can detect faults such as imbalance weight, they have a higher mounted reso- the rotors are different sizes to allow for
and misalignment. nance, and an output sensitivity that is different revolution rates. The variation in
These sensors can also detect bearing faults lower than the general purpose sensor. revolution rates is based on the particular
such as cracks on the inner and outer race,
and spalls or pits in the bearings them-
selves. Each of these faults manifest itself
at a specific frequency where the frequency
content of the vibration data is related to
the type of fault, and the amplitude of the
vibration at a specific fault frequency is re-
lated to the severity of the fault condition.
When these general-purpose sensors are
mounted with industrial magnets during
predictive maintenance routes, they have
a limited frequency range up to 5 kHz. Un-
fortunately, many industrial machines
which require vibration monitoring may
have faults that generate fault frequencies
outside the bandwidth of these general pur-
pose sensors. To accurately monitor the Figure 1. Outline of a typical gas turbo-compressor.

24
 May/June 1999
Figure 2. General purpose sensor, stud-mounted.
Figure 3. General purpose sensor, magnetically mounted.
Figure 4. High-frequency industrial sensor, stud-mounted.
volume rate and operation pressure re-
quired for an individual process.
The gas is then brought in from an outside
source and pushed into the first stage where
it is compressed. It is then forced into any
of the following stages where its volume is
continually reduced and the pressure rises.
Each stage has a compression chamber and
rotor, vane, or screw that is used to com-
press the gas further. The gas is fed from
stage to stage, and then it is finally fed di-
rectly into some ongoing process or into
an accumulator tank for storage.
Failure modes
The turbo compressor system can have
many different vibration signatures which
25
indicate failures. These failures can occur
in the drive mechanism, the gearing mecha-
nism, the compressor, or in the coupling
mechanism between each of these compo-
nents. In the drive mechanism for an elec-
tric motor, the problems detected by vibra-
tion analysis are the standard problems en-
countered in everyday analysis. These in-
clude bearing problems, rotor dynamics
and electrical phasing problems. These
problems are as typical for compressors as
they are for any other machine driven by
an electric motor.
The next area on the turbo-compressor to
analyse would be the gearbox and its com-
ponents. Usually the gearing between the
drive gear and the driven gears for the dif-
ferent stages is analysed for failures. These
failures are often at very high frequencies
because of the speed of the motor and the
number of gear teeth used in the calcula-
tion of the gear-mesh frequency. Failure
will usually show high amplitudes of 2 to
3 times the gear-mesh frequency. It is also
important to examine the ball or roller pass
frequency of the standard bearings used
to mount the drive gears for each stage of
the compressor.
The analysis of the actual compressor for
the system can yield failure modes of dif-
ferent responses. The most prevalent would
be a bearing or bushing related problem
for the screws or vanes, depending on the
design of the compressor. These failures
can be seen as a raised noise floor with
harmonics of the turning speed of the ro-
tor stage. Also, flow turbulence of the in-
dividual stages of the compressor could be
present and would be shown as a raised
low-frequency amplitude, not necessarily
at a frequency which corresponds to the
rotation speed of the particular stage in
question. There is also an excitation of fre-
quencies greater than the ball-pass fre-
quency of the bearing for the rotor shaft.
Some of the larger compressors may use
tilt-pad bearings and the standard analy-
sis of these bearings should be observed.
One other common failure mode could be
rotor rub. This is characterised by a trun-
cated waveform and raised amplitudes at
harmonics of the running speeds.
The standard soft-foot condition, coupling
wear, and misalignment should also be
taken into account during the analysis.
These can be seen from elevated amplitudes
of 1, 2 and 3 times running speed of the
motor. Since most of the components have
been individually balanced, balance is not
usually a major concern.
Sensor selection
As stated earlier, general purpose sensors,
when used with data collectors and
mounted with industrial magnets, provide
a upper frequency range of approximately

Figure 5. High-frequency industrial sensor, magnetically mounted.
Figure 6. High-frequency, laboratory-style sensor, stud-mounted.
Figure 7. High-frequency, laboratory-style sensor, magnetically mounted.
5 kHz. To accommodate applications re-
quiring vibration monitoring of slow-speed
equipment, special low-frequency sensors
are designed to be larger in size and weight
than general purpose sensors. The addi-
tional mass is necessary to produce greater
stress on the piezoelectric element, me-
chanically gain the vibration signal, and
provide a greater output. By increasing the
Machine, Plant & Systems Monitor
internal seismic mass, the natural reso-
nance of the sensor decreases, thereby lim-
iting the upper frequency that the sensor
can measure.
High-frequency sensors are just the oppo-
site. The internal seismic mass is made
smaller to increase the resonance frequency
of the sensor. This broadens the frequency
range and allows the unit to measure
26
higher frequency vibrations. Incorporating
a smaller seismic mass, high-frequency ac-
celerometers are typically smaller in size
than general purpose sensors. To provide
the ruggedness and durability required in
industrial predictive maintenance applica-
tions, these smaller, high-frequency sensors
are equipped with larger, hermetically-
sealed, military-style connectors. For ap-
plications requiring measurements beyond
20 kHz, very high-frequency accelerom-
eters are even smaller and may require
micro-dot, laboratory-style connectors.
To obtain the broadest frequency response
and the most accurate data, high-frequency
accelerometers should be stud-mounted
directly to the machinery’s surface. How-
ever, most portable data collection involves
periodically mounting the vibration sen-
sors on the machinery using an industrial,
magnetic mounting base. Unfortunately,
these will induce a mounted resonance ear-
lier than the resonance generated by a stud-
mounted sensor. This will result in a re-
duction of the upper frequency range of
the sensor.
Another factor to consider when mount-
ing high-frequency sensors is the prepara-
tion of the machinery surface itself. In or-
der to maintain the highest frequency re-
sponse possible, it is critical that the
mounting surfaces are as clean and smooth
as possible.
A high-frequency sensor can be designed
to have a very high-frequency, stud-
mounted resonance, and at the same time,
have a tailored frequency response to
broaden the frequency range when it is
magnetically mounted. In order to main-
tain a clean, high-frequency response, the
magnetically mounted sensor needs to be
positioned on a smooth and clean surface
coated with a light lubricant such as sili-
cone, vacuum grease. By applying this lu-
bricant the higher frequencies of the vibra-
tion data will be cleanly transmitted and
with greater accuracy.
Three different sensors were used to com-
pare the vibration data collected on a high-
frequency gearbox used in a gas turbo-
compressor. The first sensor was a general
purpose accelerometer mounted using an
industrial magnet, which is the set-up that
is normally performed on most predictive
maintenance routes. The second sensor, an
industrial, high-frequency accelerometer,
was magnetically mounted as well, and
featured a higher frequency response and
a rugged, industrial connector. The third
sensor was a laboratory-style accelerom-
eter with a very high-frequency response
and a smaller, more fragile connector.
Calibration data plots
The following curves represent the three
sensors used to gather high-frequency data
from a turbo-compressor gearbox.
 May/June 1999
The first sensor, the general purpose ac-
celerometer, shows an upper frequency re-
sponse to 8 kHz (3dB) when stud-mounted
(Figure 2), and an upper frequency re-
sponse to 3.5 kHz when magnetically
mounted (Figure 3).
The second sensor, the industrial high-fre-
quency accelerometer, shows an upper fre-
quency response to 15 kHz (3dB) when
stud-mounted (Figure 4), and an upper fre-
quency response to 7 kHz when magneti-
cally mounted (Figure 5).
The third sensor, the high-frequency labo-
ratory-style accelerometer, shows an up-
per frequency response to 18 kHz (3dB)
when stud- mounted, and because of low-
pass filtering internal to the sensor, obtains
an upper frequency response to 30 kHz
when magnetically mounted.
Field data
Each sensor (the general purpose, the in-
dustrial high-frequency, and the labora-
tory-style, high-frequency) was tested in
the field. Each unit was magnetically
mounted at exactly the same location on
the gearbox of a gas turbo-compressor. The
following plots represent the high-fre-
quency data that was collected on a port-
able FFT analyser.
Normal data, collected on predictive main-
tenance routes is a provided by a general
purpose industrial accelerometer with a
large dual-rail magnet. This combination
results in a linear frequency response to
only 3 kHz or 4 kHz. Figure 8 shows high-
frequency, gearbox vibration data ob-
scured above the mounted resonance of the
sensor/magnet mounting combination.
Gathering high-frequency, gear-mesh vi-
bration data is not possible with this data.
Using a high-frequency, industrial sensor
with a smaller magnet may increase the
frequency range of the measurement, but
Figure 8. Turbo-compressor gearbox with
a general purpose, magnetically-mounted
sensor.
Figure 9. Turbo-compressor gearbox
with an industrial, high-frequency,
magnetically-mounted sensor.
Figure 9 shows high-frequency, gearbox
vibration data again obscured above 25
kHz.
Figure 10 shows the vibration data of the
turbo-compressor collected using a modi-
fied high-frequency, laboratory-style sen-
sor. This sensor has a flat linear response
to 30 kHz. The high-frequency, gearbox
vibration data in the gear-mesh frequency
range is more pronounced than in the other
Figure 10. Turbo-compressor gearbox with
a laboratory-style, high-frequency,
magnetically mounted sensor.
plots. Gear mesh frequencies and their side-
bands can be analysed using this data.
Conclusion
The predictive maintenance of rotating
equipment using vibration monitoring is a
very effective technique for diagnosing
machinery faults. Typical faults such as oil
whip, misalignment, and imbalance all
occur at the lower frequencies – at less than
27
a few hundred hertz. Bearing faults mani-
fest themselves at higher frequencies. How-
ever, they are often occur at less than
1 kHz.
High-frequency equipment such as
high-speed spindles and turbo-compressor
gearboxes generate fault frequencies
at much higher levels, usually above
20 kHz. Gathering very high-frequency
vibration data with general purpose
accelerometers and industrial magnets will
not provide accurate information at the
higher frequencies of interest. Amplitudes
may be exaggerated because of the ampli-
fication of the signals occurring at the
mounted resonance or they may be ob-
scured if the vibrations are above the
mounted resonance.
When performing vibration monitoring, it
is critical that the application is thoroughly
reviewed. The frequency range of the sen-
sor needs to be considered, particularly the
response of the accelerometer with respect
to its mounting. Sensor selection for the
measurement depends on the individual
fault frequencies that are anticipated. By
matching the accelerometer’s mounted,
high-frequency response with that of the
upper fault frequencies of the apparatus,
more accurate data can be collected and
then analysed.
Eric Saller graduated from Shippensburg
University in Shippensburg, Pennsylvania,
USA, during 1983 with a Bachelor’s de-
gree in Physics and a minor in Mathemat-
ics. He has been involved in vibration
monitoring for over 15 years and has held
the positions of Senior Applications Engi-
neer at Wilcoxin Research, and Assistant
Product Manager/Vibration Products
Group for Computational Systems Inc
(CSI). He is currently employed as the
Product Manager for the Industrial Moni-
toring Instrumentation (IMI) division of
PCB Piezotronics Inc in Depew, New
York.
Duane Brzezowski is a design engineer
with the Industrial Monitoring Instrumen-
tation (IMI) division of PCB Piezotronics.
He is a 1991 graduate of the University of
Buffalo and holds an associate’s degree in
Engineering Technology and a BS in Me-
chanical Engineering. Before joining IMI,
he was a Maintenance Engineer at Sorrento
Cheese in Buffalo, New York. He is cur-
rently a certified vibration specialist with
the National Vibration Institute (USA) and
is a board member for the Niagara Fron-
tier Chapter.
Eric Saller and Duane Brzezowski,
Industrial Monitoring Instrumentation
(IMI), a division of PCB Piezotronics Inc,
3425 Walden Avenue, Depew, New York
14043, USA; tel: +1-716-684-0003; fax:
+1-716-684-3823.
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