THE GLOBAL CITY: A RESEARCH PAPER

By: Brix Brethart James Castro

A global city or world city are a concept which postulates that globalisation can
be broken down in terms of strategic geographic locales that see global processes
being created, facilitated and enacted. The most complex of these entities is the "global
city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on global
affairs through more than just socio-economic means, with influence in terms of culture,
or politics. The terminology of "global city", as opposed to megacity, is thought to have
been first coined by Saskia Sassen in reference to London, New York and Tokyo in her
1991 work The Global City

Another famous definition was a 1999 research paper called A Roster of World
Cities. The authors, Jon Beaverstock, Richard G. Smith and Peter J. Taylor, explicitly
reference Sassen’s work, seeking to define global cities in terms of advanced producer
services.

Taking our cue from Sassen (1991, 126), we treat world cities as particular
‘postindustrial production sites’ where innovations in corporate services and
finance have been integral to the recent restructuring of the world-economy now
widely known as globalization. Services, both directly for consumers and for firms
producing other goods for consumers, are common to all cities of course, what
we are dealing with here are generally referred to as advanced producer services
or corporate services. The key point is that many of these services are by no
means so ubiquitous; for Sassen they provide a limited number of leading cities
with ‘a specific role in the current phase of the world economy’ (p. 126).

ATTRIBUTES OF GLOBAL CITY

It has been argued that global cities are those sharing the following
characteristics:

 International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognised without the need

for a political subdivision. For example. although there are numerous cities and
other political entities with the name Paris or variations on it, one would say
"Paris", not "Paris, France".
 Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs; for
example, New York City is home to the United Nations headquarters complex
and consequently contains a vast majority of the permanent missions to the UN.
  A fairly large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at
least one million, typically several million).
 A major international airport (for example, London Heathrow Airport) that serves
as an established hub for several international airlines.
 An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large
mass transit network offering multiple modes of transportation ( rapid transit, light
rail, regional rail, ferry, or bus).
 In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a
Chinatown, a Little Italy, or other immigrant communities). In other parts of the
world, cities which attract large foreign businesses and related expatriate
communities; for example, Singapore, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and
Moscow.
 International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters (especially
conglomerates), and stock exchanges (for example the London Stock Exchange,
the New York Stock Exchange or the Tokyo Stock Exchange) that have influence
over the world economy.
 An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national
corporations rely, such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone services,
and other high-speed lines of communications.
 World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.
 A lively cultural scene, including film festivals (for example the Toronto
International Film Festival), premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for
example, West End theatre and Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company, art
galleries, and street performers.
 Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach, such
as the BBC, Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times, The Times, or
Agence France-Presse.
 A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in
major league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international
sporting events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam
tennis events.

In summary, we can deduce them to the following:

 Home to major stock exchanges and indexes

 Influential in international political affairs
 Home to world-renowned cultural institutions
 Service a major media hub
 Large mass transit networks
 Home to a large international airport
 Having a prominent skyline

Cities as Engines of Globalization

 Cities are the engines of globalization. They are social magnets, growing faster
and faster. In the current generation urban life has become the dominant form of human
life throughout the world. The problems generated by the present rate of urban growth
are new, and cannot be solved on the basis of the lessons of the past. Our historical
urban institutions are not adapting fast enough to the pace of growth. As countries
move through the development process, agriculture declines as a share of gross
domestic product and manufacturing and services begin to dominate the
economy.Goods and services are often produced most efficiently in densely populated
areas that provide access to a pool of skilled labor, a network of complementary firms
that act as suppliers, and a critical mass of customers. Hence, cities were essential for
culture and civilization; they allowed a centralization of power and knowledge, and they
were crucial for the division of labor and for organizing the demand of the people, on
which economic development rests. And if we adopt a view of globalization that allows
for a history in the longue durée, then cities emerge as the places people traveled to
and from, where people exchanged news and goods, and where people could develop
a view of a wider world, particularly if the city was located at the sea-shore.

Demographic Transition and Global Population

Theory of Demographic Transition is a theory that throws light on changes in birth rate
and death rate and consequently on the growth-rate of population.

Along with the economic development, tendencies of birth-rate and death rate are
different.

Because of it, growth rate of population is also different.

“Demographic transition refers to a population cycle that begins with a fall in the
death rate, continues with a phase of rapid population growth and concludes with a
decline in the birth rate”-E.G. Dolan.

According to this theory, economic development has the effect of bringing about
a reduction in the death rate.

The relationship between birth and death rates changes with economic
development and a country has to pass through different stages of population growth.
C.P. Blacker divided population into five types as high, stationary, early expanding, low
stationary and diminishing. According to the theory of demographic transition,
population growth will have to pass through these different stages during the course of
economic development

First Stage:
This stage has been called high population growth potential stage. It is characterised by
high and fluctuating birth and death rates which will almost neutralize each other.
People mostly live in rural areas and their main occupation is agriculture which is in the
stage of backwardness. The tertiary sector consisting of transport, commerce banking
and insurance is underdeveloped.

All these factors are responsible for low income and poverty of the masses. Social
beliefs and customs play an important role in keeping birth rate high. Death rate is also
high because of primitive sanitation and absence of medical facilities. People live in dirty
and unhealthy surroundings.

As a result, they are disease ridden and the absence of proper medical care results in
large deaths. The mortality rate is highest among the poor. Thus, high birth rates and
death rates remain approximately equal over time so that a static equilibrium with zero
population growth prevails.

Second Stage:

It is called the stage of Population Explosion. In this stage the death rate is decreasing
while the birth rate remains constant at a high level. Agricultural and industrial
productivity increases, means of transport and communication develops. There is great
mobility of labour. Education expands. Income also increases. People get more and
better quality of food products. Medical and health facilities are expanded.

During the stage economic development is speeded up due to individual and

government efforts. Increased use of better technology, mechanization and urbanisation
takes place. But there is no substantial change in the men, attitude of the people and
hence birth rate stays high i.e., economic development has not yet started affecting the
birth rate.

Due to the widening gap between the birth and death rates, population grows at an
exceptionally high rate and that is why it has been called the population explosion
stage. This is an “Expanding” stage in population development where population grows
at an increasing rate, as shown in figure, with the decline in death rate and no change in
birth rate.

Third Stage:

It is also characterised as a population stage because the population continues to grow

at a fast rate. In this stage, birth rate as compared to the death rate declines more
rapidly. As a result, population grows at a diminishing rate. This stage witnesses a fall in
the birth rate while the death rate stays constant because it has already declined to the
lowest minimum. Birth rate declines due to the impact of economic development,
changed social attitudes and increased facilities for family planning. Population
continues to grow fast because death rate stops falling whereas birth rate though
declining but remains higher than death rate.
Fourth Stage:

It is called the stage of stationary population. Birch rate and death rate are both at a low
level and they are again near balance. Birth rate is approximately equal to death rate
and there is little growth in population. It becomes more or less stationary at a low level.

These stages of demographic transition can be explained with the help of

diagram 3 given below:

Stage I is characterised by high birth rate, death rate and low rate of population growth.

Stage II is characterised by high and stationary birth rate, rapidly declining death rate
and very rapid increase in population.

Stage III is characterised by a falling birth rate, low and stationary death rate and rapidly
rising population.

Stage IV is characterised by low birth rate and low death rate with stationary population
at a low level.

Globalization and the Government

Globalization restrains governments by inducing increased budgetary pressure.

As a consequence, governments shift their expenditures in favour of transfers and
subsidies and away from capital expenditures. This expenditure shift is potentially
enhanced by citizens’ preferences to be compensated for the risks of globalization.

As countries have become more interconnected, they have needed to work

together more. For example, countries work together to protect the environment or to
fight terrorism. This has led to the development of world government. After WWII, the
United Nations (UN) was formed as a kind of world government. But the UN can't really
govern the world. It needs local governments to turn their policies into realities on the
ground.

Institutions that govern International Relations

International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in

contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

 The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

 The nature and exercise of power within the global system
 The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in
international decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological
reasoning behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their
international studies on the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and
behaviors of states. Ultimately, the area of international relations studied depends on
the goals or objectives of the organization.

 Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
 Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
 International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
 Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
 Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
 International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
 Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute
Associations

 Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA)

 Global Studies Consortium
 International Studies Association
 The Jadavpur Association of International Relations
 Swedish Association of International Affairs

Institutes

 The European Institute for International Law and International Relations

(Brussels)
 ISPI Istituto per gli Studi di Politica Internazionale (Italian Institute for
International Political Studies) Milan, Italy
 Institute of World Politics (Washington, D.C.)
 Department of International Studies (Centro Universitario de Ciencias Sociales y
Humanidades) at University of Guadalajara located in Guadalajara, Mexico
 Department of Asia-Pacific Studies (Centro Universitario de Ciencias Sociales y
Humanidades) at University of Guadalajara located in Guadalajara, Mexico
 Department of Latin American Studies (Centro Universitario de Ciencias Sociales
y Humanidades) at University of Guadalajara located in Guadalajara, Mexico
 The Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) (London, United
Kingdom)
 The Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, (PIIA) Karachi, Pakistan.
 The New Zealand Institute of International Affairs (Wellington, New Zealand)
 The Australian Institute of International Affairs (Deakin, ACT, Australia)
 The Canadian Institute of International Affairs (Toronto, ON, Canada)
 Geneva School of Diplomacy and International Relations Geneva, Switzerland
 Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Geneva,
Switzerland
 International Strategic Research Organization (ISRO/USAK)[1]
 EGMONT - Royal Institute for International Relations (Egmont), Brussels,
Belgium
 University of Florida International Center
 Center for International Affairs, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka,
Bangladesh.
 South American Institute for Policy and Strategy Porto Alegre, Brazil
 Politics, Administration & International Relations at Zeppelin University, Germany

References:

Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (1989): Before European Hegemony: The World System, A. D.

1250 – 1350. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Braudel, Fernand (1984): Civilization and Capitalism, 15th – 18th Centuries, Volume 3:
The Perspective of the World. New York: Harper & Row.

Castells, Manuel (1996): The Rise of the Network Society. Oxford: Blackwell.
DOI : 10.1002/9781444319514

Castells, Manuel, ed. (2004): The Network Society: A Cross-Cultural Perspective.

Cheltenham: Elgar.

Axel Dreher, Jan-Egbert Sturm and Heinrich Ursprung, The Impact of Globalization on
the Composition of Government Expenditures: Evidence from Panel Data, July 2006

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_relations_institutes_and_organisations

https://www.internationalrelationsedu.org/what-is-international-relations/

http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/population/theory-of-demographic-transition-with-
diagram/4479