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Unit II: VOLTAGE SAGS AND INTERRUPTIONS

Sources of sags and interruptions – Estimating voltage sag performance – Motor starting sags – Estimating the
sag severity – Mitigation of voltage sags – Active series compensators – Static transfer switches and fast transfer
switches
Part A
1. List the sources of sag and interruptions.
 Rural location remote from power source
 Long distance from a distribution transformer with interposed loads
 Unreliable grid system
 Power distributors tolerances not suitable for voltage sensitive equipment
 Switching of heavy loads
 Unbalanced load on a three phase system
 Equipment not suitable for local supply
2. Mention the methods to improve voltage sags in utility system.
a. Reduce faults: Tree trimming, tree wire, animal guards, arresters, circuit patrols
b. Trip faster : Smaller fuses, instantaneous trip, faster transmission relays
c. Support voltage during faults: Raising the nominal voltage, current limiting fuses, larger station
transformers, line reactors
3. Define the depth of the voltage dip.
The depth of the voltage dip is defined as the difference between the reference voltage and the residual
voltage during voltage dip often expressed as a value in volts or as a percentage or per unit value of the
reference voltage.
4. Define the duration of the voltage dip.
The duration of a voltage dip is the time between the instant at which the voltage at a particular point on a
supply system falls below the voltage dip start threshold and the instant at which it rises to the voltage dip end
threshold.
5. Explain the area of vulnerability.
The concept of an area of vulnerability has been developed to help evaluate the likelihood of sensitive
equipment being subjected to voltage lower than its minimum voltage sag ride-through capability(the minimum
voltage magnitude a piece of equipment can withstand or tolerate without misoperation or failure).
6. What are the factors affecting equipment sensitivity to the voltage sag?
The Factors affecting equipment sensitivity are specific load type, control settings, and applications.
7. What are the three categories of equipment sensitivity?
 Equipment sensitive to only the magnitude of voltage sag.
 Equipment sensitive to both the magnitude and duration of voltage sag.
 Equipment sensitive to characteristics other than magnitude and duration.
8. What is the use of estimation of voltage sag?
The estimation of voltage sag performance is used to determine the need for power conditioning
components at sensitive loads in the plant.
9. List the devices used to reduce the voltage sag.
a. Ferroresonance Transformer
b. Magnetic Synthesizers
c. On-line UPS
d. Stand by UPS
e. Hybrid UPS
f. Motor-Generator Set
g. Super Conducting Magnetic Energy Storage Device.
h. End user equipment with suitable specifications.
10. Mention the types of compensations.
a. Surge impedance compensation
b. Line length compensation

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c. Compensation by sectioning
i. Active compensation
ii. Passive Compensation
11. What is STS (Static Transfer Switch)?
STS is an electrical device that allows instantaneous transfer of power sources to the load. If one power
source fails, the STS switch to back up power source so quickly that the load never recognizes the transfer
made.
12. What are the classifications of STS?
a. Low Voltage STS ( Upto 600V, 200A-4000A)
b. Medium Voltage STS ( 4.16kV – 34.5kV)
13. Define about Fast Transfer Switch (FTS).
Fast transfer switch is used to obtain the minimal time of switch between two sources of power. This can be
achieved by analysing the phase shift between sine waves of two power sources. The components of FTS
are,
a. Zero detector units
b. Phase lock loop systems (PLL).
PART B
1. Discuss about the sources of sags and interruption.(16)
 Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short circuits) on the utility system.

Fig.2.1: Fault locations on the utility power system.

Fig.2.2: Voltage sag due to a short-circuit fault on a parallel utility feeder.

Fig.2.3: Utility short-circuit fault event with two fast trip operations of utility line recloser
 Consider a customer that is supplied from the feeder supplied by circuit breaker 1 on the diagram shown in
Fig.2.1. If there is a fault on the same feeder, the customer will experience a voltage-sag during the fault
followed by an interruption when the breaker opens to clear the fault. If the fault is temporary in nature, a

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reclosing operation on the breaker should be successful and the interruption will only be temporary. It will
usually require about 5 or 6 cycles for the breaker to operate, during which time a voltage sag occurs. The
breaker will remain open for typically a minimum of 12 cycles up to 5 s depending on utility reclosing
practices. Sensitive equipment will almost surely trip during this interruption.
 A much more common event would be a fault on one of the other feeders from the substation, i.e., a fault on
a parallel feeder, or a fault somewhere on the transmission system (see the fault locations shown in Fig.2.1).
In either of these cases, the customer will experience a voltage-sag during the period that the fault is
actually on the system. As soon as breakers open to clear the fault, normal voltage will be restored at the
customer.
 Note that to clear the fault shown on the transmission system, both breakers A and B must operate.
Transmission breakers will typically clear a fault in 5 or 6 cycles. In this case there are two lines supplying
the distribution substation and only one has a fault. Therefore, customers supplied from the substation
should expect to see only a sag and not an interruption. The distribution fault on feeder 4 may be cleared
either by the lateral fuse or the breaker, depending on the utility’s fuse saving practice.
 Any of these fault locations can cause equipment to misoperate in customer facilities. The relative
importance of faults on the transmission system and the distribution system will depend on the specific
characteristics of the systems (underground versus overhead distribution, lightning flash densities, overhead
exposure, etc.) and the sensitivity of the equipment to voltage sags.
 Figure 2.2 shows the characteristic measured at a customer location on an unfaulted part of the feeder.
Figure 2.3 shows the momentary interruption (actually two separate interruptions) observed downline from
the fault. The interrupting device in this case was a line recloser that was able to interrupt the fault very
quickly in about 2.5 cycles.
2. Explain how the voltage sag performance is estimated? (6)
It is important to understand the expected voltage sag performance of the supply system so that facilities
can be designed and equipment specifications developed to assure the optimum operation of production
facilities. The following is a general procedure for working with industrial customers to assure compatibility
between the supply system characteristics and the facility operation:
i. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from transmission system faults.
ii. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from distribution system faults (for
facilities that are supplied from distribution systems).
iii. Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will determine the actual performance of the
production process based on voltage sag performance calculated in steps 1 and 2.
iv. Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve the performance, either on the supply
system (fewer voltage sags) or within the customer facility (better immunity).
3. Describe the mitigation of voltage sag. (16)
There are many solutions to prevent damage due to voltage dips. Typically, these solutions can be
categorized into three classes:
 Solutions in the manufacturing process itself;
 Solutions between the process and the public electric grid;
 Solutions in the grid.
a. Reduction of the Number of Faults
Short circuits cannot be entirely eliminated. The actions taken are: replacing overhead lines with
cables; the use of insulated conductors on overhead lines; regular tree cutting in the area of the transmission
line; fencing against animals; shielding overhead conductors with additional shield wires; increased insulation
levels; increased frequency of overhaul and periodic maintenance, cleaning insulators, etc.
b. Reduction of the Fault Clearance Time
The duration of a voltage dip is largely determined by the speed at which short circuits are cleared. A
necessary feature of short-circuit protection is the graduation of the operating times of switches, fuses, etc., in
order to ensure that a short circuit is cleared at the most appropriate point in the supply system. This means that
the clearance time and, consequently, the duration of voltage dips and short interruptions depend on the location
where the short circuit has occurred. A reduction in fault-clearance time does not mean a decrease in the number
of faults but only a mitigation of their effects. It also does not influence the number or the duration of supply

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interruptions, for the duration depends solely on the speed of voltage recovery. Fast fault clearing does not
influence the number of voltage dips, but can significantly reduce their duration.
The basic method for reducing fault duration consists of the use of current-limiting fuses. These are capable
of clearing a fault in a very short time. Decreasing the short-circuit current and shortening its duration
significantly limit the duration of a voltage dip to rarely exceeding one cycle.
c. Modification of the Supply System Configuration
These operations allow for a reduction in the severity of the phenomenon, but at a high cost, particularly in
HV systems. The basic method of preventing voltage dips is to install elements of redundancy, as follows:
 Installing generators close to sensitive loads. They support the voltage during distant dips. The voltage
reduction equals the percentage share of the generator current in the short-circuit current.
 Increasing the number of substations and busbars in order to limit the number of customers, who potentially
may be affected by the disturbance.
 Installing current-limiting reactors at strategic points of the system in order to increase electrical distance to
the fault. It should, however, be remembered that this action may make a voltage dip deeper for other
customers.
 Supplying sensitive customer’s busbars from several substations. The effects of a voltage dip on one
substation will be reduced by the influence of the others. The more independent these substations are, the
more effective the measure is. The best reduction effect can be achieved by providing a power supply from
two different supplying systems. The second supply increases the number of dips but reduces their duration
and depth.
d. Voltage Stabilizers
A more sophisticated way to eliminate the negative effects of dips is called custom power technology. This
technology is mainly based on power electronics and also, on some occasions, electrical energy storage.
The most common method for mitigating the effects of the considered disturbances is the use of additional
equipment, namely voltage stabilizers. They can be installed on both the supplier’s or the customer’s side but, as
experience shows, the customer is the one who much more frequently does it, since the improvement in supply
conditions and increasing the equipment’s immunity are beyond the customer’s control.
These systems can be generally termed as systems of improved power parameters.
Two kinds of technical solution can be distinguished:
i. Energy storage systems. The stored energy is utilized to supply a critical load during the disturbance.
These systems can be used in the case of voltage dips with arbitrary residual voltage, as well as during
short supply interruptions. The immunity level of equipment depends on the amount of energy stored
and on the energy requirements of the protected process. In many cases the reaction time of the
compensation equipment should be considered critical. Since the energy storage process is, as a rule,
very costly, it is applied only to particularly sensitive equipment. Examples of energy storage systems
are: uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs), superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), rotating
machines with flywheels, motor–generator systems, etc.
ii. Systems having no energy-storing capability. These can only be used to reduce the effects of voltage
dips (typically up to a maximum of 50 %) but not of supply interruptions. They differ in depth of the
voltage dip, which they are able to compensate. The duration of a dip is not a critical parameter in these
systems. Their cost, as a rule, is smaller than that of the energy-storing systems.
Example of such solutions are:
o Constant voltage transformer (CVT);
o Static fast transfer switching (SFTS);
o Static generators of the fundamental harmonic currents and voltages.
e. Improvement in Equipment Immunity
One of the most advantageous solutions, in both technical and economical terms, is the use of equipment of a
sufficient immunity level that is adequate for the intended operational environment. This is an effective method
which eliminates unwanted disconnections due to voltage dips (short interruptions to a lesser extent). More and
more frequently the immunity to a voltage dip of a specified depth and duration becomes the basis of a
manufacturer’s offer, determining its commercial success.
The level of compatibility of a sensitive load with the supply network is assessed prior to connection. The
possible procedure includes three stages:
i. Acquiring information on system operation. That is, the prospective number of voltage dips. There
are a number of ways to get such data: contacting the electric power supplier, monitoring the power
supply over an extended period of time, analysis of faults, etc. Obtaining credible information requires
the measurements to be performed for a long time. An alternative is the use of statistical methods of
prediction.

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ii. Acquiring information on equipment sensitivity. This information can be obtained from the
manufacturer, by conducting tests or assuming typical sensitivity characteristics. In practice, it
frequently happens that the user learns about the limited immunity of the equipment only after
installing it.
iii. Determination of the potential effect. If the foregoing information is available, thereis the possibility
to assess the potential threat of equipment failure (failure rate) and evaluate the economic effect of its
occurrence (Section 4.6.1). On that basis a method of proceeding can be chosen: improvement of
supply conditions, better (i.e. less sensitive) equipment and application of a stabilizer or acceptance of
the existing situation.
4. Discuss the role of Active Series Compensators in power quality improvement.(8)
Advances in power electronic technologies and new topologies for these devices have resulted in new
options for providing voltage sag ride-through support to critical loads. One of the important new options is a
device that can boost the voltage by injecting a voltage in series with the remaining voltage during a voltage sag
condition. These are referred to as active series compensation devices. They are available in size ranges from
small single-phase devices (1 to 5 kVA) to very large devices that can be applied on the medium-voltage
systems (2 MVA and larger).

Fig 2.4: Active Series Compensator

A one-line diagram illustrating the power electronics that are used to achieve the compensation is shown in
Fig. 2.4. When a disturbance to the input voltage is detected, a fast switch opens and the power is supplied
through the series-connected electronics. This circuit adds or subtracts a voltage signal to the input voltage so
that the output voltage remains within a specified tolerance during the disturbance. The switch is very fast so
that the disturbance seen by the load is less than a quarter cycle in duration. This is fast enough to avoid
problems with almost all sensitive loads. The circuit can provide voltage boosting of about 50 percent, which is
sufficient for almost all voltage sag conditions.
5. Write notes on Static transfer switches and Fast transfer switches.
There are a number of alternatives for protection of an entire facility that may be sensitive to voltage sags.
These include dynamic voltage restorers (DVRs) and UPS systems that use technology similar to the systems
described previously but applied at the medium-voltage level.
Another alternative that can be applied at either the low-voltage level or the medium-voltage level is the
automatic transfer switch. Automatic transfer switches can be of various technologies, ranging from
conventional breakers to static switches. Conventional transfer switches will switch from the primary supply to
a backup supply in seconds. Fast transfer switches that use vacuum breaker technology are available that can
transfer in about 2 electrical cycles. This can be fast enough to protect many sensitive loads. Static switches use
power electronic switches to accomplish the transfer within about a quarter of an electrical cycle. The transfer
switch configuration is shown in Fig. 3.28. An example medium-voltage installation is shown in Fig. 3.29. The
most important consideration in the effectiveness of a transfer switch for protection of sensitive loads is that it
requires two independent supplies to the facility. For instance, if both supplies come from the same substation
bus, then they will both be exposed to the same voltage sags when there is a fault condition somewhere in the
supply system. If a significant percentage of the events affecting the facility are caused by faults on the
transmission system, the fast transfer switch might have little benefit for protection of the equipment in the
facility.

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Fig.2.5: Configuration of a static transfer switch used to switch between a primary supply and a backup supply
in the event of a disturbance. The controls would switch back to the primary supply after normal power is
restored.

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