Lesson No.

1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

LESSON NO. 1 IN MACHINE DESIGN 1 - BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF

STATIC EXTERNAL LOAD.

In engineering practice, the machine parts are subjected to various forces which may be due to
either one or more of the following:
1. Energy transmitted,
2. Weight of machine,
3. Frictional resistances,
4. Inertia of reciprocating parts,
5. Change of temperature, and
6. Lack of balance of moving parts.

LOAD

A load is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following four types
of loads are important from the subject point of view:

1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not
change in magnitude or direction.
2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock
load, when it is suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial
velocity.

Note: A machine part resists a dead load more easily than a live load and a live load more
easily than a shock load.

STRESS

When some external system of forces or loads act on a body, the internal forces (equal and
opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces. This internal
force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or simply a stress. Various
types of stresses and the behavior of certain materials under their influence will be discussed in
this section.
Ferrous or iron-based metals are widely used in machine components because of their strength,
stiffness, hardness, and abundance. However, some materials for a certain machine element are
selected based not only on strength but on some desired physical properties, such as weight,
color, electrical and thermal conductivity, thermal expansivity, friction properties, etc. Others are
chosen because of some desirable chemical properties, such as none reactivity to chemicals
where they are exposed to. Of paramount importance to designers are the mechanical properties
of these materials, such as strength and hardness or resistance to penetration, ductility, and
machinability. Special properties such as resistance to wear, embedability and conformability
are special properties considered in the selection of materials for bearing sleeves.
Metallic materials are also classified as having brittle or ductile behavior under the influence
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

of mechanical forces. Brittle materials2 are those whose resistance to sliding along certain
angular planes in the material is greater than its resistance to separation. Failure of brittle
materials occurs by separation or fracture. Oppose to this are those ductile materials which is
defined as one whose resistance to sliding along certain angular planes in the material is less
than its resistance to separation. Failure of ductile materials occurs by yielding. Also
important is the property of a metallic material known as percent elongation at fracture (or at
Breaking Point) , measured during the standard tension test conducted on a material
specimen of standard dimensions and conditions. Brittle materials have elongation at
fracture of less than 5.0 % (ϵ f <0.05 ¿, commonly in 2-inch gage lengths. Ductile materials
have percent elongation more than 5%. Most ductile materials exhibit the same strength in
tension and in compression.

Static, dead, or steady loads are externally applied forces that more or less do not vary with time.
According to Newton, F net ¿ mass x acceleration, or the presence of a net force ( F 2−F 1) acting
V́ 2−V́ 1
on a body produces an acceleration
t 2−t 1 ( )
in the direction of the net force. When the speed is

constant, or when the body is at rest, there is no net force acting on the body and so
there will be no acceleration. Loading therefore is static or steady. A fine example of static
loading is that of a static tension test performed on a material to ascertain its strength. Results
obtained from tests (according to certain standard, authoritative Code) are two typical stress-
strain curves, one for brittle materials and one for ductile materials. From the stress-strain plot of
the test data, important parameters of use for designers are the following:
2
Definitions from Design of Machine Elements by M. F. Spotts, 6th ed.
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

a. Proportional Limit. Up to this point, the stress S is proportional to the strainϵ pl . In

reality, the Proportional Limit is the limit of the validity of Hooke’s Law, which states
that: WITHIN THE PROPORTIONAL LIMIT, THE STRESS IS PROPORTIONAL
TO THE STRAIN. In mathematical statement,

S ∞ Є , or S = E Є , where E is a constant of proportionality which is

called Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.
b. Modulus of Elasticity. The slope of the stress- Strain Curve up to the Proportional Limit
is referred to as the Modulus of Elasticity and is mathematically
defined as
F
S stress A F L 2 N
E = =¿ = = , lb/¿ ∨ or MPa.
ϵ strain δ A δ mm 2
L

An important measure of the behavior of a material, Modulus of Elasticity is

employed by designers to predict the deflection or deformation of a stressed machine
member. However, we should always keep in mind the limit of Hooke’s Law. M. F.
Spotts (Design of Machine Elements, 6th ed., 1991) described Modulus of Elasticity
as that Tensile stress that would cause a body to double in length, ( ε=1), provided
the material would remain elastic with such excessive loading.

c. Ultimate Strength Su. Ultimate strength is the maximum stress (either in tension or in
compression) a material experienced during tension tests without fracture. Brittle
materials such as gray cast iron exhibit a much higher value of ultimate strength in
compression than ultimate strength in tension. A ductile material generally has the same
value of ultimate strengths in compression and in tension. Ultimate strength in tension at
different temperatures can be estimated from the table Values:
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

d. Yield Point Strength S y - Yield Strength is the stress value in the Stress-strain curve
beyond which a ductile material continue to elongate (up to a certain point) without
increase in the applied load. For those ductile materials with no well-defined yield point,
an arbitrary yield point is in order which stems from the reasoning that yielding is
cumulative. The process of finding this arbitrary yield point is called offsetting.

e. Elastic limit. Elastic limit is the value of stress beyond which plastic deformation will
occur on a material subjected to static tension test. Values of elastic limit stress ranges
between the proportional limit and the upper yield point.

f. Modulus of Resilience. Modulus of Resilience is a measure of energy-absorbing

capacity of a material within the elastic range. On the stress-strain curve, this is
represented by the triangular area below the proportional limit. Modulus of Resilience
commonly expressed in inch-pound per cubic inch or newton-millimeter per cubic
millimeter unit.

g. Modulus of Toughness. The measure of the total energy-absorbing capacity of a

material is known as Modulus of Toughness. This is represented by the area below the
stress-strain curve up to the breaking point. The same unit of measurement as that of
Modulus of Resilience also applies for modulus of Toughness. Measurement of area
under the stress-strain curve is done by using an instrument called planimeter.

h. Tensile Stress. A type of axial stress mathematically defined as force divided by the area
normal to the direction of the force. In this study, if needed, we will sometimes refer to
this stress as Direct Tensile Stress. A tensile stress causes a material to increase in length.

i. Compressive stress. A compressive stress is much the same as a tensile stress in the sense
that the stressed area is also normal to the direction of the applied force. Because it
causes a material to decrease in length, it is appropriate to consider it as negative
quantity. It will also be referred to in this book as direct compression stress, if needed.

j. Strain. Also called Engineering Strain, it is defined as the total deformation divided by
the original length.
l
dl
f
l
k. True Strain. Mathematically defined as ∫
l
l
o
( ) ()
=ln f . Although a true measure of
lo
a material’s behavior, formulas in use for design purposes ordinarily employs the
Engineering Strain.

l. Engineering Strain. Defined as the ratio of the Stress applied and the total unit strain
experienced by a material.

l f −l o mm
ϵ= *** ¿¿ ∨ and are usually expressed in per cent
lo mm
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

m. Poisson’s Ratio. Poisson’s Ratio μ is defined as the ratio of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain of a test specimen subjected to tensile force.

ε w δ y /l y
μ= =
ε l δ x /l x

= 0.30 for most steels.

 Strength of Materials and the Design Process.

A. STRENGTHS AND STRESSES

Although Strength and stress have the same unit, we will henceforth use Strength S as the
internal resistance of a material opposing that externally applied stressσ ∨τ . Strength is a
material property built into it as a result of some process or processes the material went through.
Ultimate Strength in tension Sut , Ultimate strength in compression Suc , are some of the
mechanical properties of brittle material of interest to designers. Ductile materials generally have
the same mechanical properties obtained from tension and compression tests, such that
Sut =−S uc ( ¿ simply S u )∧S yt =−S yc ,(or simplyS y ), Exception to these are the materials considered
to be ductile (ε f >0.05 ¿ but have unequal values of Yield strength in tension S yt and Yield
strength in compression S yc .

As a result of the externally applied force (or load) on a material, the induced stresses may be
one or combination of the following:

 Axial Stressσ . Axial stresses may be a positive or a negative quantity depending on the
Direction of the applied force (or perhaps also the resultant strain). Axial
Stresses act in the direction normal to the plane of the section.
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

A.1.a. Tensile Stress. A material under tension tends to elongate. A tensile stress is
considered as a positive stress. We shall sometimes refer to this
type of axial stress as Direct Tension, if appropriately needed.
P
σ=
A
A.1.b. Compressive Stress. An axial stress which tend to shorten the length of the material
and is opposite in direction to that of a tensile stress. Compressive stresses may be
viewed as a negative tensile stress and will be treated here as a negative quantity.
To differentiate this type from Bending Stresses, we may sometimes refer to this
type of stress as Direct Compression, if called for.
−P
σ=
A

A.1.c. Bending Stress. Bending stress (theoretically) is a combination of tensile and

compressive stresses the, magnitude of which is proportional to the
distance from the neutral plane.

Mc
σ =± *** psi or MPa unit
I

Important note: Bending have values of stresses either tension (+) or compression (-) at a
distance ν or c from the neutral plane. At the neutral plane the bending
stress is assumed to have a zero value.
A.2. Shear Stress τ . A Shear stress is one whose stressed area is parallel to the applied ν
force. It causes an element in a material either to rotate or be cut.
A.2.1. Torsion stress τ - A type of shear stress which tends to rotate an element in
the direction of the applied torque. Torsion is considered as pure shear.

Tr
A.2.1.a. for a shaft of solid circular section, τ =
J

Where r is the distance from the neutral axis to the point of

interest where the stress is to be determined. J is the polar
moment of Inertia, and T is the applied torque. The Polar Moment
of round sections are as follows:
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

π d3 4
Solid Circular Shaft: J= ¿ ∨mm 4 unit.
32

T r 16T
And τ = J = *** Max. Torsion Stress for Solid Circular Shaft
π d3
π (d 4o −d 4i ) 4
Hollow Circular Shaft: J= ¿ ∨mm 4 unit.
32
32 d o
And so τ = ***Max. Torsional Stress for a Hollow Circular Shaft
π ( d 4o−di4 )

2.1.b. For a shaft of solid rectangular section with dimensions h and b, where
h ≥b,
T T
τ H= 2;
τ B= ;
αH hb α B h b2

and T is the applied torque. (Values of Constants α H ∧α B

for use in these equations can be obtained from the table below.
For intermediate values, interpolate between table values.)

Table values (for h≥b)

h/b 1 .00 1.2 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.0 6.00 8.00 10 ∞
αH 0.208 0.219 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333
αB 0.208 0.235 0.269 0.291 0.309 0.336 0.355 0.378 0.392 0.402 0.414 0.421 …
β 0.141 0.166 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333
T
( Angular deflection Constant β is used in the equation: θ= , deg . radians
0.333 βGh b 3
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

An approximate value of α H is
1
¿
1.8
***, approximate within 5 % for τ H .
α H 3+
( ) h
b
A.2.2. Direct Shear Stress τ ds . A shear stress tends to cut a material at a plane
parallel to the direction of the applied force.

F
τ ds = *** psi or MPa
As

A.2.3. Transverse Shear τ tr - Vertical loads on a horizontal beam has the

tendency to slice the beam longitudinally into laminas. Transverse Shear
stress is sometimes referred to as Longitudinal Shear Stress. The effect of
vertical loads on a beam should be investigated for Transverse shear
stresses especially for short beams.
Lesson No. 1 in Machine Design 1 Week 1

4V
2.3.a. For a solid circular section, ( τ tr )max =
3 A

3V
2.3.b. For a solid rectangular section, ( τ tr )max ¿
2A

V
2.3.c. For circular tubes with very thin walls, ( τ tr )max= 2
A
Where, V is the Vertical shear force at certain location,
to be taken from the shear diagram of a beam subjected to
vertical bending load.
c
V
2.3.d. For other sections,τ tr = ∫ ν dA
Ib v 1

Where ∫ ν dA represents the moment of the area of

v1
the element about the neutral axis.

Note: Transverse shear have the value of zero at the outermost fibers of the section and
maximum at the neutral plane. It is interesting to note that the maximum transverse
shear and maximum bending stresses do not occur on the same location.

prepared by: RBMAGAY

ME Dept. Head