TOPIC: Cell

Outline:
I. Descriptions of Cell
II. Prokaryotic VS Eukaryotic Cell
III. Origin of Eukaryotes: Endosymbiotic Theory
IV. Cell Structures/ Organelles and their Functions

I. Descriptions of Cell

Cell- simplest biological unit

- basic unit of life
- Based on the postulates of the
Cell Theory:
(1) All organisms are made of cells
(2) Cell come from a pre-existing cell
(3) Cell is the structural and functional unit of all organisms
- etymology: kytos (grk) ; cella- hollow space
- First person who used the term cell : Robert Hooke
- Cell is compartmentalized: Cell has many compartments due to organelles/ structures bounded by
membrane with own function and different substance contained in them.

*Biochemical processes must be viewed in the context of the cell structure. All chemical transformations in
cell is catalyzed by enzymes, knowledge in biochemistry is essential to understand interrelationships that
exists among these various biochemical processes and appreciate the mechanisms that regulate these.

II. Prokaryotic VS Eukaryotic Cell

• Prokaryotes- pro (latin) : before ; karyo/karyon: nucleus ---Before Nucleus which means no nucleus
e.g. bacteria
• Eukaryotes- eu (grk): true ; karyo/karyon: nucleus---True Nucleus which means with nucleus e.g.
protist, fungi, plants and animals

Basis of Comparison Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Nuclear Membrane absent present
Nucleus Nucleoid-aggregated DNA of present
bacterium
* Plasmid- circular rings of DNA
Chromosome Single composed of nucleic acid Multiple composed of nucleic
acid and proteins
Golgi Apparatus, absent present
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Mitochondria Mesosomes present
Photosynthetic No chloroplast but chlorophyll Chlorophyll in chloroplast
Apparatus contained mainly at the cell (Plant cell)
membrane
Ribosomes small large
Microtubules Usually absent Present
Flagella Lack 9 + 2 tubular arrangement Have 9+ 2 tubular structure
* Pilus- used for attachment on
host cell
Cell Wall Contain murein, peptidoglycan Plant Cell- contain cellulose,
cutin, pectic substances,
lignin, suberin
PLANT VS ANIMAL

Basis of Comparison Plants Animals

Mode of Nutrition Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Flagella Absent (9+2 microfibril) Present
Nervous System Absent Present
Motility Stationary Capable of Locomotion
Green Pigment/ Chlorophyll Present Absent
Cellulose in Structural Framework Present Absent
Mode of Reproduction Most Produce Spores Lack/ Absent
As to Cell Structure:
Cell Wall Present Absent
Chloroplast Present Absent
Plastids Present Absent
Vacuoles Large Small or Absent
Centrioles Absent (MTOC- Microtubule Organizing Centers) Present
Lysosomes Usually absent Present

Anatomy of a Simple Bacterium

Bacteria cells typically are surrounded by a rigid, protective cell wall. The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, regulates passage of
materials into and out of the cytoplasm, the semi-fluid that fills the cell. The DNA, located in the nucleoid region, contains the genetic information for
the cell. Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis. Many baceteria contain a pilus (plural pili), a structure that extends out of the cell to transfer DNA to
another bacterium. The flagellum, found in numerous species, is used for locomotion. Some bacteria contain a plasmid, a small chromososme with
extra genes. Others have a capsule, a sticky substance external to the cell wall that protects bacteria from attack by white blood cells. Mesosomes
were formerly thought to be structures with unknown functions, but now are know to be artifacts created when cells are prepared for viewing with
electron microscopes.Size: 0.0001 to 0.003 mm
Animal Cell
An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane-bound organs, or organelles. The nucleus directs activities of the cell and carries
genetic information from generation to generation. The mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured by ribosomes, which
are bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or float free in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus modifies, packages, and distributes proteins while
lysosomes store enzymes for digesting food. The entire cell is wrapped in a lipid membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in and out of
the cytoplasm.

Plant Cell
Plant cells contain a variety of membrane-bound structures called organelles. These include a nucleus that carries genetic material; mitochondria
that generate energy; ribosomes that manufacture proteins; smooth endoplasmic reticulum that manufactures lipids used for making membranes
and storing energy; and a thin lipid membrane that surrounds the cell. Plant cells also contain chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and a
single fluid-filled vacuole that stores compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall that protects the cell and
maintains its shape.
III. Origin of Eukaryotes: Endosymbiotic Theory
Endosymbiotic Theory
- Explains how eukaryotes have evolved. Prokaryotic cells thought to have evolved into eukaryotic cells which
are complex and larger.
- According to this theory, prokaryotic host cells are pre-eukaryotes lacking specific internal organelles that
have experienced inpouching of cell membrane and may have merged with symbiotic bacteria that began to
survive in the host cell’s cytoplasm.
- The inpouching may have given rise to endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear membrane. The non
photosynthetic symbionts evolved into mitochondria while photosynthetic invaders give rise to chloroplast.
* Cyanobacteria/ Blue green algae- descended from early oxygen producing bacteria.

IV. Cell Structures/ Organelles and their Functions

(1) Cell/ Plasma Membrane- has a fluid mosaic model. It consists of a bi layer of phospholipids with their
hydrophilic heads oriented towards the surface of the membrane and hydrophobic tails toward the interior
(amphipathic) .

-Chemical Traffic of the Cell-regulates the movement of

materials between the interior and exterior envt’s. Hence, is semi-
permeable. Thus, allows subs. to pass through will excluding others.
It is permeable to water, sugars, amino acids and lipid soluble
substances. It is impermeable to polysaccharides, proteins and very
large particles.
-Outer boundary of the cell, serve as permeability barrier
between the cytoplasm and the surrounding chemical environment.
It provides protection to the cell.
-Consists of 4 major phospholipids: phosphatidylcholine,
phosphatidyl serine,phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingomyelin.
-Cholesterol in animal membranes determine the fluidity of
the membrane. It regulates fluidity and enhances mechanical stability
of the bilayers. It prevents hydrocarbon chains from coming together
and crystallizing.
 Other Functions: Sensitive to hormones and other regulatory chemicals, plays role in cell or organelle
identification.
(2) Cell Wall- protects the cell from mechanical damage as well as osmotic shock. It prevents the cell membrane
from swelling to the point where it ruptures.
(3) Flagella- filamentous appendage attached to the cell membrane. It rotates/moves the cell towards nutrients and
away from toxins.
*Chemotaxis- process by which bacteria move toward or away from a particular chemical.

(4) Mitochondria- power house of the cell. Site for ATP production. It has 2 membranes a relatively porous
outermembrane and a non porous inner membrane. The cristae
(infoldings) provide large surface area.

(5) Lysosomes- suicide bags of the cell. It can digest intracellular organelles and destroy the cell. Intracellular
digestive organelles. Has high H ion concentration. Membrane
enclosed vesicles of various size and shape that contain hydrolytic
enzymes. These membranous vesicles pinch off from the golgi
apparatus. It contains 40 enzymes which are acid hydrolases e.g
acid ribonuclease, acid deoxyribonuclease , acid phosphatase etc.
It functions for intracellular digestion. Play major role in the cellular
events that follows endocytosis. Lysosomal enzymes hydrolyze
large molecules and even microorganisms in endocytic vesicle. The
hydrolysis process supplies the cell with nutrients and destroy
potentially harmful microbial invaders. Hence, also called security
guards of the cell due to their defense in function.

(6) Endoplasmic Reticulum – highly convoluted membrane channel that has a net like appearance and extends
throughout the cytoplasm. Rough ER- functions for protein
synthesis while Smooth ER- functions for lipid synthesis e.g.
phospholipids (phosphatidylcholine) and cholesterol. Other
functions are e.g. in hepatocytes, contain enzymes that detoxify
harmful organic molecules.

* Proteins produced by RER have non cytoplasmic destination.

(7) P
(8) N

(7) Peroxisomes- membrane enclosed vesicles contain enzymes that catalyze reaction of oxygen with organic
molecules producing a toxic chemical hydrogen peroxide. Small membranous vesivles that bud off from the ER.
Catalase and Peroxidase are peroxisomal enzymes that destroy this toxic chemical. Known as detoxifying sacs carry
enzymes that can break down fatty acids, alcohol and amino acids. It guards the body from toxic substances.
(8) Nucleus- contain the cell’s genetic material and information. The control center of the cell. Approximately 5 um. Its
outernuclear membrane is continuous with the ER and ribosomes are bound to its cytoplasmic surface.

• Nuclear Pores- permit materials to be exchanged between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. There are
3,000-4,000 pores with 9 nm opening size. Also a means of communication of the nucleus with the
rest of the cell.
• Histones- proteins associated with the nuclear DNA molecule.
• Nucleolus- responsible for the synthesis of ribonuclear protein precursors of cytoplasmic ribosomes.
Site for ribosomal and RNA synthesis.

(9) Golgi Apparatus –storage, modification and packaging unit of the cell, composed of 6-30 small membraned
delimited sacs/ compartments resembles stacks of plates. Each compartment is 1 um in diameter. Also, produces
carbohydrates.

• Golgi and ER differ in their chemistry and function, CHON’s produced in the RER are transported to
the golgi which chemically modify and sort the CHON’s and direct their final destination.
• Exocytosis- important in the secretion of digestive enzymes, protein hormones and neurotransmitters.

(10) Chloroplast -2-10 micrometers in diameter and each is bounded by an envelope consisting of two delicate
membranes: Outer Membrane derived from the ER while an Inner membrane believed to have originated from cell
membrane. The matrix which a colorless fluid is known as stroma that contains enzymes. Contains small circular
molecule of DNA that encodes instructions for production of proteins related to photosynthesis and other activities
in the chloroplast and cell. Grana are formed from membranes having the appearance of independent stacks of
 coins with double membranes within each chloroplast. Each granum may contain 2 or 3 to more than 100 stacked
thylakoids. The thylakoid membranes contain green chlorophyll and other pigments.

Cell Fractionation – separation and analyzation of different organelles using centrifuge. Cells are suspended in
aqueous medium usually with sucrose. Cell is disrupted to isolate organelles. During the procedure, 4 deg. C and
optimal solute concentration is maintained.

Other Shearing Forces:

(1) Homogenizer
(2) Grinding using mortar and pestle
(3) Sonifiers- generate ultrasonic vibrations in probe that are placed in a cell suspension. The
shockwaves tear the cell apart. Probes produces bubbles that generate shear forces as they pass
the cell.
(4) Enzymes

Prepared By:
Ms. Racquel T. Chua
Biochemistry Instructor