Virtue Ethics
CHAPTER 2
ETHICAL THEORIES
What is ethical
theory?
According to Barbara MacKinnon, (2012) good
reasoning in ethics involves either implicit
or explicit reference to an ethical theory.
An ethical theory is a systematic exposition
of a particular view about what is the nature
and basis of good or right
Types of Ethical
Theories
Based on MacKinnon (2012), she considered
the following types of moral theory:
utilitarianism, Kant’s moral theory,
contractarianism, natural law, virtue
ethics and feminist ethics. However, for
the purpose of us studying ethics, we will
concentrate on these theories of ethical
egoism, utilitarianism, Kant moral theory,
Natural theory and virtue ethics.
Kant’s Moral Theory
Kant’s moral theory is to think about how
he would answer the question,
WHAT GIVES AN ACT MORAL WORTH? It is not
the consequences of the act, according to
Kant.
 According to Kant, because I intended
and tried to do what I thought was
right, I ought not to be blamed for
things having turned out badly.
 The idea is that we generally ought not
to be blamed or praised for what is not
in our control.
 The consequences of our acts are not
always in our control and things do not
always turn out as we want.
 However Kant believed that our motives
are in our control. We are responsible
for our motive to do good or bad, and
thus it is for this that we are held
morally accountable.
(Source : MacKinnon, 2012)
 Virtue ethics is currently one of three major approaches in normative ethics. It may, initially, be identified
as the one that emphasizes the virtues, or moral character, in contrast to the approach which emphasizes duties
or rules (deontology) or that which emphasizes the consequences of actions (consequentialism).
 An ethics focused on virtue encourages us to develop the good traits and get rid of the bad ones.
 Virtue ethics seems more personal. It involves not so much asking which side of some social issue one should
support as what kind of person one wants to be.
 According to MacKinnon, (2012) - a virtuous person is a morally good person, and virtues are good traits. Loyalty
is a virtue and so is honesty. The opposite of virtue is vice. Stinginess is a vice.
 MacKinnon also stresses that moral philosophy that concentrates on the notion of virtue is called virtue ethics.
For virtue ethics, the moral life is about developing good character.
 Aristotle, as mentioned by MacKinnon (2012), distinguished two main basic types of excellence or virtues :
i. Intellectual values
ii. Moral virtues
Natural Law Theory
The natural law, as this term is used in discussions of natural law theory, should not be confused with those

other “laws of nature” that are the generalizations of natural science.
 The laws of
expand with
natural science are descriptive laws. They tell us how scientists believe. Gases, for example,
their containers and when heat is applied.
 Boyle’s law about the behavior of gases does not tell gases how they ought to behave.
 Moral laws, on the other hand, are prescriptive laws. They tell us how we ought to behave.
 What is our good and what we ought to do.
LAWS OF NATURE NATURAL LAW
Universal laws of science understood by Concerned with the moral law of how human
analyzing the physical world. Example, beings should behave. It is understood by
Copernicus’s helioentic universe or reflecting on human nature and rationally
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. working out what leads to hap.
Descriptive Laws Prescriptive law
Simply stating what is scientifically,
factually the case
Recommending a particular way of behaving;
what one OUGHT to do
Ethical Egoism Utilitarianism
 Ethical egoists make moral judgments.  Utilitarianism is a moral theory that advocates
For example, most ethical egoists will judge actions that promote overall happiness or pleasure
the murderer as wrong because it is rarely in and rejects actions that cause unhappiness or harm.
one's long term self-interest to murder. A utilitarian philosophy, when directed to making
Individual ethical egoism is the idea everyone social, economic, or political decisions, aims for
ought to serve my interests. An act is good only the betterment of society.
if it benefits me, and morality dies when I die.  Utilitarians believe that the purpose of morality
is to make life better by increasing the amount of
What are key features of ethical egoism? good things (such as pleasure and happiness) in the
world and decreasing the amount of bad things (such
 Every ethical theory recommends certain actions, as pain and unhappiness).
and prohibits others. In this case, ethical  The opposite of utilitarianism is Deontology.
egoism recommends looking out for one's own
(long-term) self-interest. It also says that we
are morally obligated to avoid being concerned
for others if by doing so it does not further out
own interests.