10 Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration 16.1 INTRODUCTION Measurement of vibration is done in many situations, some of which have been listed below. reciprocating machines vibrate. The vibration of these machines are Rotating and able problems that may occur. measured, which in turn gives information about probs Vibration monitoring is done on turbines of power station to detect early problem. Wear and tear of machine parts depend on the level of vibration they are subjected 5 done on many machines to take action for to. Hence vibration measurement i reducing vibration and thus control wear and tear. Vibration affects the accuracy ofan equipment. Hence vibrations are to be controlled. Due to vibration, a lot of noise will be created which becomes adisturbance. Hence vibration is to be controlled. Some important terms with respect to acceleration/ vibration have been explained. VIBRATION Ifthe dynamic displacement-time variation is continuous and repetitive in nature, it is termed as vibration. Also, repeated cyclic oscillations of a system is termed as vibration. When the machine is subjected to acceleration alternately in two directions, vibration occurs.YSTEMS: ) MEASURE IN VIBRA sto be measured in vibrating systernsare Ue lacement, velocity the other two can b ind the output of tl «WHA The quantities leration, ‘The variable’s displ \d if one of them is known, ced to measure one of these variables a yeasured, peak values of displacement, and acceleration are related ¢ determined easily. A he transducer will velocity and act to each other, transducer is be pulsating and hence frequency is m ¢ PIEZO-ELECTRIC EFFECT ‘ain materials possess the ability to generate an ange dimensions W! electric potential when subjected hen subjected to voltage. This to mechanical strain or conversely to ch iezo-electric effect” istermedas illed as vibrometer or NOTE: An instrument used to measure vibration or acceleration is accelerometer. 16.2. INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE VIBRATION/ACCELERATION /16.2.1. Piezo-electric accelerometer. : 16.2.2. Seismic-displacement sensing accelerometer. | /16.2.3. Strain gauge accelerometer, | 16.2.4 Capacitance vibration sensor/accelerometer. \, 16.2.5. Variable induction type accelerometer (Inductive vibrational sensor) or variable reluctance accelerometer. ~ 7 ~ 16.2.6 LVDT-Accelerometer. / ¥ 16.2.7 Reed type vibrometer. Ye i. 16.2.8 Vibration measurement using a stroboscope. ! 16.2.1 Piezo-Electric accelerometer BASIC PRINCIPLE + Thisaceclerometer is based on the Piezo-electric effect. That is, when a piezo— electric erysta is subjected to a mechanical force or stresses along specific planes, voltage is generated across the crystal. If the force on the crystal is due to an acceleration, a measure of the volta; tion, ige across the crystal becomes: acceleration when calibrated. BIDDLE163 MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION AND VIBRATION % % DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts o ic crystal placed between two electrodes. fa Piezo — electric accelerometer are as follows: » Apiezo- electri shown in figure 16.1. «A massis placed on the crystal ~electrodes combination 2S “The erysta is loaded using a spring plate rode—mass-— spring plate arrangement is « Theerystal — elect ‘SPRING PLATE contained ina housing. COVER HOUSING \ FRAME 1. OKO -o OO SERRAARR { VIBRATION Figure 16.1: Piezo-electric accelerometer OPERATION « The accelerometers fitted on thes «Due to the acceleration, the spring presses the mass piezo-electric crystal. We know, FORCE = MASS ACCELERATION 1, the generated force is proportional to the acceleration. tructure whose acceleration is to be measured. anda force is exerted on the Asthe mass is constant ee <.lt—~te MEASUREMENTS AND. CONTROL SYSTEMS d up by the the crystal, which is pic! voltage is generated acre © Due to the force, v electrodes. Jeration when calibrated. © This voltage becomes a measure of: ADVANTAGES Theaccelerometer is small in size. The instrument is rugged and costs less. « Asits natural frequency is high, it can be used on a wide range of applications. The crystal hasa high output impedance. © The sensitivity of the instrument is high. LIMITATIONS The instruments sensitive to changes in temperature. * Inorder to avoid loading effect, a voltage monitoring source should be used. © The instrument is subjected to hysteresis errors. 16.2.2 Seismic-Displacement sensing accelerometer BASIC PRINCIPLE « Whena spring — mass — damper system is subjected to an acceleration, the mass is displaced and this displacement of the mass is proportional to the acceleration. Hence a measure of displacement of the mass becomes a measure of acceleration. DESCRIPTION The main parts of a seismic accelerometer are as follows: « Aseismic mass is suspended from the housing of the accelerometer through a spring. + A damper is connected between the seismic mass and the housing of the accelerometer. The seismic mass is connected to an electric displacement transducer.a measuR EMENT OF ACCELERATIONAND VIBRATION 16.5 HOUSING / FRAME aL, / DAMPER, - TT siISING MASS \ ELECTRIC | 1° DISPLACEMENT,_{-7 weap “TRANSDUCER (POTENTIOMETER) SPRING os { VIBRATION Figure 16.2: Linear seismic displacement sensing accelerometer ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT ‘TRANSDUCER (POTENTIOMETER) DAMPER HOUSING / FRAME Figure 16.3: Rotational seismic displacement sensing accelerometer NOTE: There are two types of seismic~displacement sensing accelerometers namely. awMEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS ‘rr “EE SFA Ser Aavtotometer & Sacognnat wate atevelerometer, . e principle seve. adwve mentioned seismic accelerometers work on the same PI ipl Awe wend woe Swan in figures 16,2 and 16.3. OER ATION Dheacvelerometeris fitted on to the structure whose accelerati the seismic mass experience a displacement and this ion isto be measured. © Due to the acceleration, : displacement of the mass is proportional to the acceleration. ¢ Asthe mass is connected to an electric displacement transducer, the output of the transducer depends on the extent to which the mass is displaced. «Hence the output of the transducer is calibrated to give a direct indication of the acceleration characteristics of the structure. 16.2.3 Strain gauge accelerometer BASIC PRINCIPLE ¢ Whenacantilever beam attached with a mass at its free end is subjected to vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass takes place. Depending on the displacement of the mass, the beam deflects and hence the beam is strained. The resulting strain is proportional to the vibrational displacement of the mass and hence the vibration/ acceleration that is being measured when calibrated. DESCRIPTION The main parts ofa strain gauge accelerometer are as. follows: * A cantilever beam fixed to the housing of the iustrument, + A™massis fixed to the free end of the cantilever beam. * Two bounded strain gauges are i owen Ig mounted on the cantilever beam as shown in + Damping is provided bya viscous fluid filled inside the housing.- MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION AND VIBRATION 167 K BRATION HOUSING FRAME, 4 a 3 a » CANTILEVER BEAM 3 \t = ee | Pvassnon’” \uceene oD Figure 16.4: Strain gauge accelerometer OPERATION The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be measured. Due tothe vibration, vibrational displacementof the mass occurs, causing the cantilever beam to be strained. Hence the strain gauges mounted on the cantilever beam are also strained and due to this, their resistance changes Hence a measure of this change in resistance of the strain gauges becomes a measure ofthe extent to which the cantilever beam is strained. But the resulting strain of the cantilever beam is proportional to the vibration/ acceleration and hence a measure of the change in resistance of the strain gauges becomes a measure of vibration/acceleration. The leads of the strain gauges are connected to a wheatstone bridge whose output is calibrated in terms of vibration/acceleration. 16.2.4 Capacitance vibration sensor / accelerometer BASIC PRINCIPLE © The output of parallel plate capacitor depends on the gap between its movable and fixed plates. Due to vibration, if the gap between the plates is altered, its capacitance also changes. This change in capacitance becomes a measure of vibration/ acceleration.16. MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS en DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of a capacitance vibration sensor are as follows: s fixed to the instrument housing and its other A flexible reed, one end of which (free) end carries HOUSING / FRAME S Tw FLERBLEREER mss |f iS ‘oO ao OUTPUT VALLES. o S veraron} House pure Sad ton endorse sie cabt petonate PLATE CAPACITOR Figure 16.5: Capacitance accelerometer « Themass carries the movable plate of a parallel plate capacitor. «The fixed plate of the parallel plate capacitor is placed in the housing as shown in the figure 16.5. OPERATION Theaccelerometer is fitted onto the structure whose acceleration is to be measured. «© Dueto vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass takes place. This displacement is proportional to the vibration/acceleration. # When the mass is displaced, the gap between the fixed and movable plates of the parallel plate capacitor is altered. * This change in the gap between the plates of the parallel plate capacitor changes the Pa output of the capacitor. This change in capacitor output becomes a measure of vibration/acceleration when calibrated. AfMEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATIONAND VIBRATION 16.9 Se duction type accelerometer BASIC. PRINCIPLE 16.2.5 Variable «The output voltage (magnitude of inductance) froma field coil is proportional to the amount by which a magnet is dipped into the field coil. If this dipping of the magnet isdueto the vibrational displacement (caused due to vibration), then the output voltage from the field coil will be proportional to the vibration/acceleration when calibrated. DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of an induction accelerometer are as follows: uspended on a flexible reed as shown in the figure 16.6. « Amas eA magnet is connected at the center of this flexible reed. A field coil is placed just below the magnet. Suitable devices are connected to the field coil to measure the induced voltage. OPERATION «The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be measured. » Due to vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass takes place. This displacement is proportional to the vibration/acceleration. HOUSING / FRAME FLEXIBLE REED oureut VOLTAGE { woranon colt Figure 16.6: Variable induction accelerometer laced, the magnet attached tothe reed is also displaced by the When the mass is displ (magnet) to dip itselfin the field coil. same amount causing it1p HEIN, peer ALS RHEL! eytyeesd tt tna, 190 etn i vl ahve rent rot oot be Ave hele oval Ai etd ae Het Jo lead nthe Be sv tp oe bie tte a Whee bie nant slave do tbls see tb al olrvil yap ae ae tie Hee the Aupoaksealtye: bo pare sath oe Phiew vilypatianianee nnies wn enventaire OF ce Fhe dantinewad vedio: 8 ane nui valle lilinated b cilyationnigee etalon 12H EVDE Ave WARIO PING TELE fe He aiitorenata yan’ oli uvgfin aver) ea garegque diene peated she tov ary wien Heer mnnea jurado peri veer sannelingeent ne ESET nest lhe erst tie onboard syyatieniacen le genase ta / et ya enol patient Whe Aifferentiael Herat shfterntial ay dlve: enn sin CEE snp sq le et shun elated signs writ Lit dl darrbrene ial me manne ‘nnn ” ' pa “ q sin meaner yan Figure 10,7) LVDT - Avoeleromater alta eZ wNGTH a ome orn LO) mgr et — < a ‘emer voanaron [| | LENGTH OF ABED Figure 1 Reed type vibrometerpena -toct DESCRIPTION The main parts of a LVDT-accelerometer are as follows: * A sensing mass (core) attached between two flexible reeds as shown in the figure 16.7. © The reeds are attached to the housing of the instrument. © Primary & secondary windings are placed as shown in the above figure. The secondary windings have equal number of tums and are identically placed on either side of the primary windings. OPERATION The accelerometer is fitted onto the structure whose acceleration is to be measured. Due to vibration, vibrational displacement of the sensing mass (core) takes place. This displacement is proportional to the vibration/acceleration. ‘As the core moves up and down due to vibration, the secondary windings give a differential output voltage. © This differential output is proportional to the displacement of the mass (core) and hence the vibration/acceleration. The differential output of the secondary windings is measured and when calibrated. becomes a measure of vibration/acceleration. 16.2.7 Reed type vibrometer ‘The main parts of this vibrometerare a flexible reed, aknob to adjust the reed length and a calibrated scale. «This reed vibrometer is attached to the structure whose vibration characteristics is to be measured. «Now the length of the reed is adjusted until the frequency of the reed is equal to the frequency ofthe vibrating structure. Inthis condition, the reed vibrates with maximum amplitude. ¢ Thereed length is calibrated to give a direct indication of its frequency and hence the frequency of the vibrating structure. 16.2.8 Vibration measurement using Stroboscope « Inthis method of measuring vibration, a pointer is attached to the ‘vibrating structure. «Now the flashing light from the stroboscope is made to fall on the pointer. 2 %MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL gy, ment using Stroboscope «9: vibration measure Figure 16. from the stroboscope 1S adjusted until a Stationay, The frequency of light ° oe - isot image of the pointer is 0 7 spe FORCE STRUCTU UNDER STUDY Figure 17.4: 4: Semiconductor stam gaugeMEASUREMENT OF STRAIN +19 \ OPERATION «With the help of an adhesive material, the ae strain gauge is pasted (bonded) to the Now the structure is subjected to a force (tensile or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will change in dimension. As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the Strain gauge also will undergo change both in length and cross-section (that is, itis strained). When the sensing element (crystal) of the semiconductor strain gauge is strained, its resistivity changes contributing to a change in the resistance of the strain gauge. ‘The change in resistance of the strain gauge is measured using a wheatstone bridge. This change in resistance of the strain gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is strained and a measure of the applied force when calibrated. ADVANTAGES « These gauges have a high gauge factor and hence they can measure very small strains. «They can be manufactured to very small sizes. « They have an accuracy of 2.3%. « They have excellent hysteresis characteristics. + They have a good frequency of response. « They have a good fatigue lite. LIMITATIONS «These gauges are brittle and hence they cannot be used for measuring large strain. « The gauge factor is not constant. © These gauges have poor linearity. © These gauges are very costly and are difficult to be bonded onto the structure under study, © These gauges are sensitive to changes in temperature.1 17.3 SURFACE PREPA! «Surface preparation and three topies namel), ing, base or cartier material. 17.3.1 Backi 173.2 Bonding material or cement surface preparation and mounting of Stain gauges. 17335 173:1 Backing, base or Carrier material ‘The purpose of providing the carrier/backing material. inastrain gauge arrangement has been listed as follows: «The backingmatrial provides supporto the resistance wire (grid) of the strain gauge arrangement. © The backing material provides protection to the sensing resistance wire of the strain, gauge arrangement. Italso provides dimensional stability for the resistance wire of the strain gauge arrangement. CHARACTERISTICS REQUIRED FOR BACKING MATERIALS, * The backing material should be an insulator of electricity, + Thebacking material should not absorb humidity, thatisitshould be non-hygroscopic. ~ © The backing material should be: ‘very thin. . * Itshould go along with the adhesive me fi 7 iso «sive material used to fix (bond) it on to the structure © Ish Should not be affected by temperature changes, © Itshouldbe stron, | \genough to transmit sensing resistance wire, smitthe force ftom the structure under study to theadhesive, that Is. Bonding material ponition poxttton ‘or temperatures hemo plasticcement | Cetfuloiddinsatvedinacet 1 au fedinacetone| Upto 75°C Fann settinzcement | Phen ein oT From 150°C 10 210°C ceramic cement _ ——_—__—__—— ‘Above 175°C Special CHARACTERISTICS REQUIRED The characteristics requuived fora boned “The bonding material should be an insulator of electricity «4 The bonding materia’ should not absorl hunnidity, that is, it shoul be non hygroscopic «+ Ttshould go along with the backing material so that the backing material is fixed * (bonded) rigidly on the structure under stay «+ Teshould not be affected by temperature changes. Itshould have good shear strength to transmit the force from the structure under study to the sensing resistance wire, «It should be easy to apply, spread easily and should provide good bonding adhesion. « The bonding material should have a high creep resistance. 1733 Surface preparation and mounting of strain gauges ge is listed as follows: ‘4 The steps involved in preparing asurface to mounta strain gaus «The structure under study is made even and free from dustand dirt by rubbing with i} anemery sheet or by sand blasting. iy jon (acetone) using a cloth to j; «+ Theeven surfaces then cleaned by a volatile solu remove oil/grease. «© The bottom side of the backing (gauge carrier) isalso cleaned by asolventusing a cloth. © Then the strain gauge is mounted on the struct following table: as described in the ture under studyNTROL SYSTEMS, 47.42, — 7 [.! : ay THE SURFACE 7 7 BONDING a GAUGE ON ae cl NTOR STRAIN ANDER STUDY r i rhe adhesive on the sad a thin layer of the a ” ilos a)Spread seen re as cleaned even surface of the siric 0S e e sul BackD sent b) The strain gauge with its backing is pI ee on the surface and is pressed gently a the excessadhesive is wiped with a cloth. covered with a soft pad ¢) Now the gauge is N f and pressure is applied by placing a weight of around 2 kgs. ‘The required bondage is achieved after 8 hours. _. d) Now the electrical continuity of the gauge is checked and leads are soldered to the sensing resistance wire of the gauge. «The same procedure as in paper backed F BAKELITE | Phenolicresin gauges is adopted. GAUGE | cement : NOTE: To attain the required bondage, a clamping pressure of 2 Kgf/cm? is applied and the arrangement is heated to 80°C and held for hours, Then the pressure is removed and the arrangement is heated to 150°C for one hour. EPOXY —_| Epoxy cement * The same procedure as in paper backed a Saugesis adopted, |AUGE NOTE: To attain the required bondage, a clamping pressure 0.5 Kgf/em? is applied and the arrangement is heated to 75°C and held for 3 hours. 17.4 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT * The Wheatstone: bridge is strain in this a _ in fe See Most common wheatstone bridge is the « ie ‘anced bridge has been explained as follows. . mt ‘anced bridge . hit "F ich vl nett has been shown inf nee igure 17,5, i resistance R, (whi “mien eben : eostat) ‘Null balanced|p SUREMENT OF STRAIN stra ® GA ATA3. Figure 17.5: Wheatstone bridge circuit and two standard resistance R, and R,, whose resistance are known. (R, is the strain gauge inthis case). « “WHEN RESISTANCE R, ISNOT STRAINED”, the resistance arrangement is such that the potential at B equals the potential at D and the galvanometer gives sae fenton, thats, no current isindicated by the alvanometer connected baween the bridge points. R, That RR ® RR R; Therefore, R, = RR + “WHENRESISTANCER, IS STRAINED” its resistance will change by an amount €R,, This change in resistance (oF will unbalance the bridge causing a deech® AR, to bring back the bridge to sts balanced position (Null position). é The rebalance d condition gives: RrdR R,+dR, Ry ofthe galvanometer. Now the resistance R, (Rheostat) is adjusted by an amount i ae| | MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL sys, Rs Therefore, RdR, = RFER RE R, gets cancelled on both sides. Ry 2, dR,= dR, ne Ifall resistances are equal in the bridge (that is, R, = R,=R,=R, ). then, dR, = R,. Thus the caange in the value of resistance R, isa direct measure of strain ‘+ Thenull balance bridge is used to measure static strain and is an accurate method to ‘measure change in resistance. 17.5 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION ‘Temperature acts as an interfering input and causes a change in the resistance of the Strain gauge even without an input strain, To eliminate this effect, the common arrangements used are listed. naman 17.5.1 Temperature compensation using an adjacent arm Compensating gauge 175.1.1 Method (1) —Usinga dummy gauge, 17.5.1.2 Method (II) ~Poisson’s method, 175.1.3 Method (Il) -Use of two active gauges on acantilever. 175.2 Selftemperature compensation, ' 17.5.2.1 Selected melt gauge. 17.5.2.2 Dual element gauge.~~ yeASUREMENT OF STRAIN ATAS 1st Temperature compensation using an adjacent arm compensating gauge 175L1 Method - (1) - Temperature compensation using a dummy gauge a inthisarrangement, the effect of temperature has been eliminated using a “DUMMY GAUGE”, inthe adjacent arm of the wheat stone bridge. w LIKE PIECI * DUMMY GAUGE ACTWE GAUGE ISNoT SUBJECTED TO STRAIN STRUCTURE UNDER STUDY WHEAT STONE BRIDGE qi Figure 17.6: Temperature compensation using @ dummy gauge + The arrangement consists of an“ACTIVE STRAIN GAUGE” installed on the structure under study and a“DUMMY GAUGE” installed on alike piece of ‘material ‘which is not strained. Itshould be noted that both, the active and dummy gauges are tobe placed close to each other S0 that they are influenced equally by the ambient temperature changes. « Let R, = Resistance of the active strain gauge. R, =Resistance of the dummy strain gauge. R,,R, = Standard resistances. Initially the bridge is balanced. ‘Thatis, RL& R, Ry xeROL SYSTEMS resistance of the and the the bridge to be 17.46 ius jn temy ature a change in te™MPCT "respectively: For » Now Tet us assume that petiveandaummy gauges change PY Es balanced, R, dR, R, dR, Re , ; dR, = dR, as both the: ‘activeand dummy gaugesarepiaced in the same conditions, . Thus the bridge remains in tion and its output is not affected by the Thus pensation is achieved usinga dummy change in temperature- gauge. I7SL2 Method - (1) - Poisson's method ine effect of temperature has beet ‘¢ Inthisarrangement, gauge” in the adjacent ‘arm of the wheat stone bridge. « Thearrangement consists of an active strain gauge installed on the structure under respect to the active gauge on study, A poisson gauge is placed at right angles with the same piece, (that is, dy). As both the gauges lie on the mn structure under stu same piece, they are influenced equally by the ambient temperature changes. + Let R,= Resistance of theactive strain gauge. R, = Resistance of the poisson’s gauge- R,, R, = Standard resistances. inated using a “Poisson’s thy —-4.-------E SS WHEATSTONE BRIDGE th Fi igure 17.7: Poisson’s methodwel the Poi tio of the material), paupe i aa eeperndinyg on the HOI’ poctnt chung FETIP, the active gauge will undergo change in resistance jnone direction and at the same time the poisson gauge will undergo change in ance inthe opposite direction and thus they nullity the effect of temperature changes. 513 Method - (IIT) - use of two active gauges on a cantilever + In this arrangement, the effect of temperature has been eliminated using a compensating gauge inthe adjacent arm of the wheatstone bridge. |. Thearrangement consists of an active strain gauge bonded to the top surface ofa cantilever (structure under study). On the other hand, acompensating gauge is bonded to the bottom surface. As both the gauges are bonded to the same piece, they are’ influenced equally by the ambient temperature changes. ACTIVE GAUGE WHEATSTONE, ‘BRIDGE 2 COMPENSATING GAUGE iy Figure 17.8: Two gauges on 2 cantilever * Let R, = Resistance of the active strain gauge. R, = Resistance’ of the compensating gauge R,,R, = Standard resistances: © Dueto the applied force, the active gaue° isin tension and the compensating gauge isin compression. = re 1) aeons’ YSTEMS gauges are affected equally And hence i, error is caused by resistance change duc to temperature variation, 17.5.2 Self temperature compensation In some casi . the adjacent arm compensating methods (used for temperature Compensation) cannot be used due to the following reasons: * When the measuring gauge and the compensating gauge cannot be kept at the same temperature, © Whenitis necessary to use the ballast circuit in place of the bridge circuit, In the above situations, the ‘self temperature compensating gauges” are used, which are of two types namely the“ selected melt gauge” and the “dual element gauge”, 17.5.2.1 Selected melt gauge ¢ Inthis method, the alloy and Processing (usually cold working) are manipulated and control over the temperature: sensitivity of the strain gauge grid material is obtain © Thus the strain gauge grid is produced in such a wz ay that it gives a very low strain variation with temperature, over a certain range of temperature. ned. 17.5.2.2 Dual element gauge * Inthis method, two wire elements are joined in series to get one strain gauge assembly, © The two wire elements have different temperature characteristics. © The two wire elements are selected so that the net strain produced due to ‘temperature change is minimized when the gauges are fixed on the surface under study. 17.6 GAUGE ROSETTES (MULTIPLE GRID) © Ingeneral, a single strain gauge is used when the structure under study is loaded unidirectionally and more over the direction of loading is known (that is, tension, compression or bending). ¢ Ingeneral, Stress (S)= Strain (E,) * Modules of elasticity (E,,) ¢ The results of the strain Sauges are correct only when the strain gauge is oriented exactly with the principal stress axis. ¢ Inpractice, the structure under study may be subjected to stresses in any direction and itis not possible to find the exact direction of the Principal stresses and hence it is not possible to orient the strain gauges along the direction of principal stresses.> STRAIN’, FS GAUGE -1 Figure 17.9: Two element rosettes STRAIN GAUGE-1 Figure 17.10: Rectangular rosettes STRAIN GAUGE - 4 Figure 17.11: Delta rosettescl MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS * Inorder to overcome this difficulty, a strain gauge measurement system called “ROSETTE” is used which measures the values of principal strains and stresses without actually knowing their direction. Therefore, rosette is a strain gauge measurement system consisting ofa combination of strain gauges (usually two or three gauges) placed at specific angles with respect to each other in order to measure the values of principal strains and stresses without actually knowing the direction of principal stresses. It should be noted that, ina rosette, the strain gauges are insulated from touching each other, and all the strain gauges are bonded to the same supporting (backing) material. The common types of rosettes are listed: — Two elementrosette — Rectangular rosette (three element) — Delta rosette (three element) The arrangement of all these rosettes have been shown in figures 17.9, 17.10 and 17.11. Inatwo element rosette, the two strain gauges are placed at 90° to each other. — Principal strain = E,, or E,, — Principal stresses, E, 8\= 7~ty (Es + VEn) E 8, = iv (VEs, + Es2) Maximum shear stress, E Taw = AI) (Es -Es:) Where V=Poisson’s ratio. ¢ Ina rectangular rosette, the three strain gauges are oriented as shown in figure. The strain measured by the three strain gauges are E,, E,, and E,,. - Principal strains E, +E, 1 Es. max? Es-nin = ae tepeace . nadeltarosette te three _ Principal stains, genentoe STRAIN am where __ principal stesseS+ ECE ) s oy 2 Eset) Es ™ 2(1-V) Pay Q — Maxisnum shear stress: Ton = Ew a (+V)-Q orientation ‘of principal stresses, tan 2 = 2B Ey “Ess Eg — Ey in figure 17.11. strain gauges are oriented as shown Eg nee? Esme slat Es +Ey)P] (En Bo) +21E oF ey Where, p=[2(Es -Eq) +2 ~ Principal stresses, + ww 1 = Maximum shear stress, teen? ww = 3(1+V) ~ Orientation 6 of principal stress, 4 3 (Ess — Ey). tand = 3p -En EwAe REVIEW ONT VIONS SHORT ANSWEREUE PRTIONS ' Define ttre rein strait Whoa cae stein pte” Ie} strain. aye posing tai aul negative vad resistivity? Whar Whatis Poisson's ratio! What is gauge ftetor Ifa strain gauge has What isa bonded strain gauge? List the materials used for fine wire strain gauges, |. Whats the purpose of providing backing for bonded strain gaug Lista few bonding adhesives used for bonding strain gauges to the test surtiace. Jow gauge factor, what does it indicate? ‘Whats temperature compensation with respect to strain gauges? ‘Whe is self temperature compensation? ‘Wha is 2 gauge rosette? 15. Where is a gauge rosette used? LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS Explzis how an unbonded strain gauge is used to measure strain? ‘Lis the advantages and limitations of unbonded strain gauges. Pepe Drees briefly on the various bonded strain gauges. icrentiaie the n—type and p —type sensing elements of a semi— age. Briefly discuss on the surface bonded strain gauzes. List the essential characteristics required for the backing material ofa bondi gauge. conductor strain Preparation and bonding techniques for mounting led strain- % 18 Measurement of Pressure 181 INTRODUCTION ¢ is represented as force per unit area. The measurement of 2 Ingeneral, pressur ents, as it is used in almost all industries a jg one of the most important measurem Someimportant applications of pressure measur « Thepressure of steam in a boierismeasures ofthe boiler. «Pressure measurem manufacturing and chemical industries ‘ment is listed as follows: for ensuring safe operating conditions ent is done in continuous processing industries such as Pressure measurement helps in determining the liquid level in tanks and containers «Pressure measurement helps in determining the density of liquids. « Inmany flowmeters' (suchas venturime! indication of flow rate, ser orifice meter. flow nozzle ete.) Pressure ‘measurement serves as anil «Measurement of pressure change becomes 2° indication of temperature (2s used in pressure thermometers-fluid! expansion type) Apart from this, pressure measurement is also required in day-to-day situations: J such as maintaining optimal pressurein tubes of vehicle tyres. » 182 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE ' uid) ona unit area due to the interaction. «Pressure isthe force exerted bya medium (i of uid particles amongst themselves.4g AND CONTROL SYSTEMS ng are ahererms afated to pressure: « Followin 4) Aamospherie PRESSE ee) by Absolute pressure sssure sssure) ) Gauge Pre ) Vacuum pressure ©) Static pressure 1) Total or stagnation pressure (Rare fraction oF negative Pre ) Dynamic or impactor velocity pressure The following diagrams show the relationship between various pressures. ql Pn ee be nue vant {|_—__¥ —_— “~ 7 é sume La ic \BSOLUTE preseune ae Fi ‘igure 18.2: wt between Absol ()ATMOSPHERIC -. =n ~ Atm upheric an and Vacuum pressure The Pressure, Pressure due to the air surro vindin theca surface ical ace is called as atmospheri spheric (b) S38 aE is « w a aterur um prose » 0s or. ‘ . 483 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE (by ABSOLUTE PRESSURE rtisknowm that pressures free per unitaea. When the interaction of iid particles %, among themselves is zero, a zero pressure intensity will occur. This is possible only when q the population of molecules is negligibly small ‘Which isnothing but perfect vacuum. Hence the pressure intensity measured froma state of perfect vacuum 5 calledas absolute presste- (9 GAUGE PRESSURE (P>P,) ‘A pressure measuring instrument generally measures the difference between the unknown pressure (P) and the atmospherie pressure (P,)- When he unknown pressure (P)is greater than the atmospheric pressure (P,)-the pressure ‘measured by the instrument iscalled as the gauge pressure, (@) VACUUM PRESSURE (P,P) .e difference between the A pressure measuring instrument generally measures th unknown pressure (P) and the atmospheric pressure (P,). ‘When the atmospheric pressure (P,) isereater than the unknown pressure (P),the Pressure measured by the instrument is called as the vacuum pressure (@ STATIC PRESSURE “The pressure caused onthe wallsofa pipe due toa fluid at ret inside the pipe or dueto the flow of a fluid parallel tothe walls ofthe pipe is called as St pressure. This static pressure is measured by inserting pressure ‘measuring tube into the pipe carrying sractuid, so tat the tube isat right angle tothe uid low path (f) TOTALor STAGNATION PRESSURE The pressure whichis obtained by bringing he flowing fluid torestisentropically is called as total or stagnation pressure. Hence the pressure willbe the sum of static pressure and impact pressure. (g DYNAMIC - or-IMPACT- or- VELOCITY PRESSURE ‘The pressure due to uid velocity (Flow speed) is called as impact pressure. Impact pressure = Total pressure static pressure, 18.3 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE PRESSURE 18.3.1 Gravitational transducers 18.3,1.1 Adead weight tester 18,3.1.2 ManometerMEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL gy Ely RCE SUMMING TRANSDUCERS) FO! S gauge pressure differential pressure. tp) Bellows gauze a ressure cells — ae be pes (PINCHED TUBE) sure cell. 1833Srrain 1833.1 Flatt tindrical type PPE 18.34 Mcleod vacuum gauge- 183. Thermal conductivity g2uzes- 183.51 Pirani-gauge Thermocouple type conductivity gauge. 183.6 Ionisation gauge 18.3.7 Bull: modulus or electrical resistance pressure gauge. The above instruments are used in the following situations: TYPE OFPRESSURETO: BE PRESSURE MEASURING "ASURED INSTRUMENT TO BE USED oe © Manometer ich and medi medium pressures * Bourdon tube pressure gauge . Diaphragm gauge a . lows. Low vacuum and ultra a hvacuum | “Mcleod vacuum gauge 7 . Thermal conductivity gauges 5 Very high pressures * Tonisation gauge * Bourdon tube : Pressure gauge | : plarhragm gauge ulk modulus Pressure gatot MEASUREMENT OF PR' 18.3.1 Gravitational transducers ; 18.3.1.1 A dead weight tester “ue DESCRIPTION 2% of the following parts: The dead weight tester appa is filled with ol free of impurities: cis fitted above the charm Acghamber whi Apiston-cylinder combination whi per as shown in diagram sched with a platform to carry weights sure of oil in the chamber. The top portion of the piston whic _Applunger with a handle has been Prov ided to vary the press The pressure gauge to be tested which is fitted at an appropriate place. PLATFORM Figure 18.3: Dead Weight Tester OPERATION device. It is us The dead weight tester is basically a pressure producing and pressure measuring, sed to calibrate pressure gauges. The following procedure is adopted for calibrating pressure gauges: ‘urately known sample of Calibration of pressure gauge means introducing an pressure to the gauge under test and then observing the response of the gauge. In orton to create this accurately known pressure, the following steps are followed: }) The valve of the apparatus is closed. i) Aknownweightis placed on the platform. i) Nowby operating the plunger, uid pressure is applied to the other side of the piston until enough force is developed to lift the piston - weight combination. When: thishappens, the piston—weight combination floats freely within the cylinder between limit stops. LT TTSy 186 7 MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS (iv) In this condition of equilibrium, the pressure force of fluid is balanced against the gravitational force of the weights plus the friction drag. ‘Therefore, PA=Mg +F Hence,- p = Me+F A Where, P= Pressure M= Mass, kg g = Acceleration due to gravity, nvs? F = Friction drag, N ‘A = Equivalentarea ofpiston-cylinder combination, m? Thus the pressure ‘P’ which is caused due to the weights placed on the platform is calculated. © After calculating ‘P’, the plunger is released. «Now the pressure gauge to be calibrated is fitted at an appropriate place on the dead weight tester. The same known weight which was used to calculate ‘P’ is placed on the platform. Due to the weight, the piston moves downwards and exerts a pressure ‘P’ on the fluid. Now the valve in the apparatus is opened so that the fluid pressure ‘P’ is transmitted to the gauge, which makes the gauge indicate a pressure value. This pressure value shown by the gauge should be equal to the known input pressure ‘P’. If the gauge indicates some other value other than ‘P”, the gauge is adjusted so that it reads a value equal to ‘P’. Thus the gauge is calibrated. APPLICATIONS « Itis used to calibrate all kind of pressure gauges such as industrial pressure gauges, engine indicators and piezoelectric transducers. © Itisused to teach what calibration is. ADVANTAGES © Itissimple in construction and easy to use. « Itcan be used to calibrate a wide range of pressure measuring devices. «Fluid pressure can be easily varied by adding weights or by changing the piston— cylinder combination. LIMITATIONS e The accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected due to the friction between the piston and cylinder, and due to the uncertainty of the value of gravitational constant ‘g’.Mee yn Manometer poodle z ; x : gscRIPT TON ag » rhinthe most simple and preci eviews ned for the meanurement of presse 7 onsists of u transparent tube conntructed in the form of an elongated ‘U’, and tially filled with the manometric Hud such ax mercury, ‘The purpose of using mercury asthe manometric (utd in that, their specific gravity at various temperatures: are known exactly and they do not stick to the tube. ‘The two common types of Menomerersare the equal fim type and unequal limb type, « ite MANOMETRIC ae nUD MANOMETRIC + FLUID Figure 48.4; Unequal Limb Manometer Figure 18.5: Equal Limb Manometer OPERATION ¢ Tomeasure the press manometric fluid, it is applied t areference fluid pressure (gene! let P= Unknown pressure with specific weight @,. P, = Reference pressure with specific weight o,. and a= Specific weight ofmanometric fluid. © Thedifference between the pressures on the two limbs of the manometer isa function of ‘h’, the difference between the levels of the manometric fluid in the two limbs. “h’ can be read directly by placing a scale near ‘the manometer. FOREQUAL LIMB TYPE The pressure balance equation is: P.+gh - @, =P, +gh-o, Therefore, differential pressure P= P,-P,= gh(o,- ©) ure of a fluid which is less dense and immiscible with the 10 the top of one of the limbs of the manometer while rally atmospheric) is applied to the other limb.Ng MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE pEsCRIPT! ION “The main parts of tis instrument ane as Fallows « Anelastic transducer, that is, Bourdon tube whieh is fixed and open alone end ter , jeceive the pressure which is to be measured, ‘The other end of the Hourtton tube R free and closed, The cross-section of the Bourdon tube is elliptical, ‘The Bourdon tube is ina bent form that look likeacireular are « Tothe free end of the Bourdon tube is attached an adjustable fink, which isin turn connected to a sector and pinion as shown in figure 18.6. « To the shaft of the pinion is connected a pointer which sweeps over a pressure calibrated scale. GROSS. SECTION OF TUBE AFTER ~~ SECTION X= ‘APPLICATION OF PRESSURE - ELLIPTICAL ‘ CROSS-SECTION GROSS. SECTION (BOURDON TUBE) OF TUBE BEFORE — PRESSURE ci ‘APPLICATION CALIBRATED. “Fi 7 OF PRESSURE —— ‘SCALE x A A CASE. x->| A Paion FREE END OF ‘BOURDON TUBE to: Fs POINTER a 5 5 : ADJUSTABLE m7 NK FIXED END OF SECTOR BOURDON TUBE WITH TEETH Z APPLIED PRESSURE (PRESSURE ‘TO BE MEASURED) Figure 18.6: Bourdon tube pressure gaugethe Bourdon OPERATION The pressure! pe measure isconne’ mn walls of the lon eto the re apotiod PC re acts of ME imer® a al oman ube tends 10 ti ple er te BO the Bourdo orngaaispiacement ofthe tocircular iocireutgendotthe Bow jon tube- / fn of the rdonabeis ropes } . rac eee e Bourdon tube is connected to ailink - applied pressure: 4 s the wor ws arange™ ment, the displacement mplifie’ ‘ed and conv’ werted toa rotary sor tei 4. Asthe pinion 11a"es J. it makes «the pointer 0 as anew position on a pressure calibrated sc on gro indicate the app pressure dire’ rectly. As the P! pressure in the case esting the Bourdon tube ‘easually amosPher the pointer indicates 8aUB° pressure. ery high pressures. i APPLICATIONS « They are used to measure medium to V ADVANTAGES «These pressure gauges give accurate results. Theycost low. « Theyare simple in construction. ¢ Theycan be: modified to give’ electrical outputs. «They are safe even for high pressure ‘measurement. ‘Accuracy is high especially at high pressures. LIMITATIONS «They respond slowly to changes in pressure. They are subjected to hysteresis. , Theyre sensitive to shocks and vibrations. « Amplification is i amustas the displacement of the free end of the B of the Bourdon tube islow. Itcanno! t be used for precision measurement.MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE. 18.44 1.2 Elastic diaphragm gauges PRINCIPLI 18.3 BASI «When an clastic transducer (Diaphragm in this case) deflects. This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure ron hey es, S © SEN riRmy FIXED EDGE OF THE ‘DIAPHRAGM s subjected toa pressure. it when calibrated. sector ATMOSPHERIC ‘CORRUGATED DIAPHRAGM [APPLIED PRESSURE P Figure 18.7: Elastic diaphragm gauge (Diaphragm displacement sensed by mechanical means) FED pure. Je. \ wowste | ' CAPACITOR PLATE —— oureur aTwospHEnic z [ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE et oss PRESSURE eo) 8 e FIRMLY FIXED EDGE OF THE. DIAPHRAGM APPLIED PRESSURE P Figure 18.8: Elastic diaphragm gauge (Diaphragm displacement sensed by Secondary Transducer)mene p CONTROL SYSTEMs * oom) measUREMENTSAS 18.12 DESCRIPTION sere gage are a5 fOllOWS ~ fsprinay metal) 1 fixed firmly The main : tor corrugated. A corrugated « Ad ragm which is ‘ther be fla ; aes The diaphragm Tener displacement ofthe diaphragm “taphragm hasbeen show? in the figure " aie apheogm has a ae tied by mechanical means Oy is sensed by a second, imaged by mea ce daphraem sensed asesoney figure 18.8 where on s ate capacitor. transducer such asa parallel pI ss seweight Ths + Thetop vron ofthe dap is xed widaboss orneBisble WEgHY Y sho inten eonnected to link-sector-pinion arrangement In COS i phragm ‘hanial means fr displacement magnification. A pointer sconnected Sie aia fer a pressure calibrated scale. (If the to the pinion which makes it sweep OV i fen issensed by a secondary transducer such as a parallel plate capacitor, its movable plate is connected to the boss). OPERATION « Thebottom side ofthe diaphragm is exposed to the pressure which is to be measured. + Dueto the applied pressure, the diaphragm deforms. That is, the diaphragm tends tomove upwards. * This deformation of the diaphragm is proportional to the applied pressure. * Inamechanical system, this deformation is magnified by the link — sector — pinion arrangement, That is, the linear displacement of the diaphragm is covered toa magnified rotary motion of the pinion. When the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer attached to it to assume a new Position on the pressure calibrated scale which er ¢ Asthe top side of the diay is phragm is usually subj (generally less than, applied Pressure), elastic di eee atmospheric pressure Pressure, ‘aphragm gauges usually read gaugeNr » es Le 8 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 18.13 APPLICATIONS . « Theyare used to measure medium pressures. Ge $ «But they can also be used to measure low pressures including vacuum. They are used to measure draft in chimneys of boilers. ADVANTAGES « They cost less. «They havea liner scale for a wide range. ‘They can withstand high pressures and hence they are safe to be used. « Nopermanent zero shift. + They can measure both absolute and gauge pressure, that is, differential pressure. LIMITATIONS «Shocks and vibration affect their performance and hence they are to be protected. ? «When used for high pressure measurement, the diaphragm gets damaged. «These gauges are difficult to be repaired. NOTE: Diaphragm materials: . METALS: Stainless stee!, inconel, monel, nickel and beryllium copper. NON-METALS : Nylon, Teflon and buna N rubber. 18,3.2.3 Bellows gauges BASIC PRINCIPLE «When anelastic transducer (Bellows in this case) is subjected to a pressure, it deflects. This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when calibrated. Generally there are two types of bellows gauges namely, a) Bellows gauges to measure gauge pressure. b) Bellows gauges to measure differential pressure. The bellows element is cylindrical in shape and the wall of this cylinderisthin and corrugated. The wall of the bellow is: about 0.1 mm thick and is made of some springy material such as stainless steel, brass or phosphore bronze. This bellows' elementis openat one end to receive the applied pressure and is closed at its other end. This other end is usually attached with arod. In many cases, a spring is placed inside the bellows to enable the bellows to regain its original shape when the applied pressure isrelieved, re ———————MEASURE ME? | @ BELLOWS GAUGETO . (b) BELL a ure is as follows, nae | scRIPTIO : DESCRIPTI ve used 107 ; rrr paso tows ene ye the applied Pres sure. The other Th tm dis fixed and o7en (9 receive He ernally- A spring is placed «-nabellows.one end STS aah # are end of the bellowsis ¢ yw s figure 18. eth iit ection rangement aaron gure 18.9, ™ fo the rodisattached Tink essure calibrated scale « Totherodis: eda pointer which sweePs Ove PET _ a - PRES: «+ Tothe pinion sat GaLIBRATED _ pone c1oseo ED END. END OF POINT ER ofberows "peuLows ne 2 By V7; zi 2 : Q Pr Sector ge" RODON ae ‘CLOSED END spake SF'ecuLows seLlows Figure 18.9: Bellows gauge to measure gauge pressure OPERATION «The pressure to be measured is applied to the fixed open side of the bellows. + Due to the applied pressure, the bellows expands lengthwise causing a linear displacement ofthe rod fixed at its closed free end. OPER * This inear displacement is proportional to the applied pressure. © Asthe is in : }erodis connected toa link-sector-pinion arrangement, the linear displacement i. | of the rod is ‘tod is magnified and converted to rotary motion of the pinion. | As the pinior it i | pal ae ve Pointer attached to it to sweep over a scale ! rectly. As the pressure outside the bellows is usually . | atmospheric (P_) and | i amos, ss than the applied pressure, the bellows gauge reads gauge18.15 ~ SUREMENT OF PRESSURE MEAS (by BELLOWS GAUGE TO MEASURE DIFFERENTIAL PRE om DESCRIPTION 4 ‘The main parts of a bellows gauge used to measure differential pressure is as follows: «+ Itconsists of two bellows as shown in figure 18.10. . « Therods on the closed end of these two bellows are attached to an equal arm lever as shown in diagram. «To the equal arm lever is attached a link-sector-pinion arrangement. + Tothe pinion is attached a pointer which sweeps over & scale. ROD ON ‘CLOSED END BELLOWS OF BELLOWS SCALE TO READ DIFFERENTIAL : / PRESSURE PINION y 32> — WWwy POINTER E yo AE SPRING wr : FIXED END Y SECTOR veo enn OF BELLOWS U OF BELLOWS Uk” SPRING EQUAL ARM LEVER ecressune Os) ROD ON! CLOSED END OF BELLOWS BELLOWS Figure 18.10: Bellows gauge to measure differential pressure OPERATION «The pressures P, and P, are connected to the bellows as shown. + When, = P,, both the bellows will expand by the same amount causing the equal arm lever to rotate. But this will not cause any movement of the sector — pinion arrangement. The pointer will read zero on the scale. ¢ When P, is greater than P, orP, is greater than P,,, that is under differential pressure, the two bellows will expand by unequal amounts causing the equal arm lever to (eee perme TS TIT,CONTROL SYSTEMS the link pushes the sector inter attached to it covenant oe ‘es. the pointer a it rotate, Now due to the more i ii no rotate ‘magni the pinio’ Ine scae indicating DO sweeps over the: pressure. ys GAUGES APPLICATIONS | OF BELLOWS GAU «They are generally wide application in ADVANTAGES OF BELLOWS GA’ «They can mes They arenot medium and 1Ow Pressures They havea ring. ssed for meast ce rement. ow pressure meas UGES ferential pressures- asure both gaugeand dif very costly: «Theyre simple and ruggedin construction. LIMITATIONS OF BEL] > «Zero shiftproblems exist A « Cannotbe used forhigh pressure measurement. mom «The springs used inthe bellows are difficult to be designed. «Temperature compensation is a must. LOWS GAUGES 18.3.3 Strain-gauge pressure cells BASIC PRINCIPLE: «When aclosed container is subjected to the applied pressure, it is strained (that is, | | its dimension chan, ges). Meas rad Nn astrain gauge (metalic es ‘ahasecondary oertike measure of the applied pressure. © Thatis, ifstrain gauges are attached tothe container subj ‘ jected to the applied pressure. the strain gauges also wil | Iso will change in dit . imension dependin, . g on the expansion or18.17 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 18.3.3.1 Flattened tube pressure cell: (Pinched tube) DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of this arrangement are as follows: ‘Anelastic tube which is flat and pinched at its two ends as shown in figure 18.10. one is on the top and the other is « Twostrain gauges are placed on this elastic tube; at the bottom of this elastic tube. «Onc end of the elastic tube is open to receive isclosed. the applied pressure and its other end RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES (TOP & BOTTOM) \ INCI PINCHED END ne 2 y : 38 9 aa 3 a8 3 = 3 a 1 I ELASTIC PRESSURE X—> PINCHED END TUBE WHICH IS FLAT SECTION -xx BEFORE APPLYING \ AFTER APPLYING PRESSURE ——— | 1 PRESSURE - ~~~ Figure 18.10: Flattened tube pressure cell OPERATION The pressure to be measured is applied to the open end of the tube. ure, the tube tends to round off, that is, its dimension changes onthe tube, the dimension of the strain ge in dimension of the tube, causing a ¢ Due to the presst (strained). As the strain gauges are mounted: gauges also change proportional to the chan; resistance change of the strain gauges. © The change in dimension of the tube is proportional to the applied pressure. «Hence the measurement of the resistance change of the strain gauges bec measure of the applied pressure when calibrated. comes aIR332 DESCRIPTION The msin| 2 Actinincal tt ivi The bortom portion receive the pressure t' ‘this cylindrical © #Thetop portion of sells Cutindricel oe Presa parts of this pewithanesaenntl thisdevive 00) rangement ae totheplave whe this fo be measured. (CYLINDRICAL, TUBE HEXAGONA STEP yoo OPEN ENt 4 N APPLIED PRESSURE bumay. Gauces as Hallows cylindrica tube is ube is el DUMMY GAUGES (COMPENSATION) STRAIN GAUGES THREADS, SENSING RESIS) 5 STRAIN GAUGE Ce Figure 49.44: 1 Coindicay type press, ure cell _-Thishexagonal step helps in stepat its \ pe sures to be measured: re pressure i readed at its external and is open to josed and has a cap screwed to it, (FOR TEMPERATURE op AP 18. BAMEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE sing © Onthe periphery of the top portion of the cylindrical tube are placed two sens resistance strain gauges. «On the cap (unstrained location) are placed two temperature compensating strain gauges. OPERATION «The pressure to be measured is applied to the open end of the cylindrical tube. + Dueto the pressure, the cylindrical tube is strained, that is its dimension changes. [As the strain gauges are mounted on the cylindrical tube, the dimension of the sensing strain gauges also change which is proportional to the change in dimension of the cylindrical tube, causing a resistance change of the strain gauges. « Thechange in dimension of the cylindrical tube is proportional to the applied pressure. Hence the measurement of the resistance change of the sensing strain gauges becomes ameasure of the applied pressure when calibrated. APPLICATIONS OF STRAIN GAUGE PRESSURE CELLS The flattened tube pressure cell is used for low pressure measurement. « Thecylindrical type pressure cell is used for medium and high pressure measurement, 18.3.4 McLeod Vacuum gauge BASIC PRINCIPLE « Aknown volume gas is compressed to a smaller volume whose final value provides an indication of the applied pressure. The gas used must obey Boyle’s law given by: PV, =2Y; Where, P, = Pressure of gas at initial condition (applied pressure) P, = Pressure of gas at final condition. V, = Volume of gas at initial condition. V, =Volume of gas at final condition. Initial condition > Before compression. Final condition —> After compression.onTROL SYSTEMS pac ASUREMENTS ANS. cS 18.20 - 2iessune oe e mo OY —a | | 3 } CAPLLARY an 3 INDICATION gs oe 5OTH =3 V28P2 33 ze —) ‘CAPILLARY. MEASURING. canoer tose ".MERCURY MERCURY > RESERVOIR <5, a tee Fo oo CONDITION - 2 Figure 18.12: McLeod vacuum gauge e Aknown volume gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller volume (with high pressure), ard using the resulting volume and pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated. This is the principle behind the Mcleod gauge operation. DESCRIPTION The main parts ofa Mcleod gauge are as follows: Areference column with a reference capillary tube. The reference capillary tube has. point called zero reference point. . This reference column is connected toabulb and measuring capillary and the place of connection of the bulb with the reference coiumn is called as cut off point. (Itis called the cut off point since ifthe mercury level is raised above this point, it will cut off the entry of the applied Pressure to the bulb & measuring capillary.MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 18.21 ated by ave Below the reference column and the ‘bulb, there is a mercury’ reservoir operé apiston. OPERATION ‘The Mcleod gauge is operated as follows: ‘The pressure to be measured (P, )is applied tothe top of the reference column of * the Mcleod gauge as shown in figure 18.12. “The mercury level in the gauge is raised by operating the piston to fill the volume ® shown by the dark shade inthe figure 18.12. When thisis the ease (condition D, the applied pressure fills the bulb and the capillary. so that the mercury level in the gauge ‘increases. known volume of gas (V,) is Now again the piston is operated - ‘When the mercury level reaches the cutoff point, a trapped in the bulb and measuring capillary tube. Lis farther raised by operating the piston so that the trapped gas in ressed. This is done until the mereury ed on the reference capillary The mercury leve |___thebulband measuring capillary tube are comp evel reaches the “Zero reference point” marki (condition—2). Inthis condition, the volume of gas in the measuring capillary tube isread directly by resides it, That is the difference in height “h” of the measuring capillary and easure of the volume (V,) and pressure (P,) of . ascale the reference capillary becomes am the trapped gas. \V, and P, are known, the applied pressure P, can be calculated using ¢ NowasV,, : Boyle’s law given by: PV, = PV2 (Letthe volume of the bulb from the cut off point upto the beginning, ofthe measuring capillary tube) = V Let area of cross-section of the measuring capillary tube =a Let height of measuring capillary tube=h, Therefore, Initial volume of gas entrapped in the bulb plus measuring: capillary tube=V, = V+ ah,ROL SYSTEMS CONT! asuREMENTS px 7 e point in ro referenct 82 vardsto reach the Ze rood UpwareS oh has been for er ; (When the mere final volume oF) ” ring capil be the reference capillary. on the comy = heightofthe co = where, h eee | presst of gas! unkno’ ne opt conion tats after compression sure of gas at p. = Pressureofss =Prh Wehave. P,V,= P:¥: (Boyle's law) Therefore. PV, = (P, *h)ab PV, = P,ah+abe PV, -P,ah = ab PV, -ah) = ah? FW ah) Since ‘ah’ is very very small when compared to V, , it can be neglected. ah? Therefore, P, = — v, Thus the applied pressure is calculated using the Mcleod gauge. APPLICATIONS ¢ Used to measure vacuum Pressure. ADVANTAGES © Itisindependent of the gas composition, “e Itserv il * ltserves as a reference standard to. Calibrate other low Pressure gauges * Ali i ip exi , linear relationship exists between the applied pressure and ‘h’ © There is no need to apply corrections to the Medeod gauge readings,_ 18.23 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE. LIMITATIONS «The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle's law. 4s Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any considerable vapour into the gauge. «It measures only on a sampling basis. Itcannot give acontinuous output. 18.3.5 Thermal conductivity gauges BASIC PRINCIPLE «A conducting wire gets heated when electric current flows through it. The rate at ‘which heat is dissipated from this wire depends on the conductivity of the surrounding ‘nedia, The conductivity ofthe surrounding media in turn depends on the density of the surrounding media (that is, lower the pressure of the surrounding media, lower ‘will be its density). Ifthe density of the surrounding media is low, its conductivity will also be low causing the wire to become hotter fora given current flow, and vice versa. The two important thermal conductivity gauges are as follows: 18.3.5.1 The pirani gauge 18.3.5.2 Thermocouple type conductivity gauge. 18.3.5.1 Pirani-gauge DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of the arrangement are as follows: Apirani gauge chamber: euclosing aplatinum filament. « Acompensating cell to minimize variation caused due to ambient temperature changes. Thepirani gauge chamber and the compensating cell is housed ona wheat stone bridge circuit as shown in figure 18.13. OPERATION Aconstant current is passed through the filament in the pirani gauge chamber. Due to this current, the filament gets heated and assumes a resistance which is measured using the bridge.APPLIED PRESSURE (UNKNOWN) ‘VACUUM, MEASURING CELL (PIRANI GAUGE CHAMBER) FILAMENT (PLATINUM) SUPPLY A ‘TO RECORDER ni gauge ressure) iS connected to the pirani Figure 48.13: Piral applied pr he pir ae, the density of the surrounding of the ‘change in density of the surrounding of ing the temperature of the filament to Now the pressure to be measured gauge chamber. Due to the applied pressut pirani gauge: filament changes. Due to this: the filament, its conductivity changes, caus change. ¢ When the tem] changes. Now the change in resistance of the filament is determined using the bridge. jperature of the filament changes, the resistance of the filament also This change in resistance of the pirani gauge filament becomes a measure of the applied pressure when calibrated. Note: {Higher pressure — higher density — higher conduetivity — reduced filament temperature —less resistance of filament] and vice versa. APPLICATION © Used te i 'sed to measure low vacuum and ultra high vacuum pressures. ADVANTAGES They are rugged and inexpensive. ¢ Give accurate results, ¢ Good response to pressure changes, Relation between Pressure and resistance is linear. fc ; or ¢ Readings can be taken from adistance. the range of use.a * Vo WP as ceraeies MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 18.25 — LIMITATIONS «They must be checked frequently. s They must be calibrated for different gases, xy e «Electric power is a must for its operation. 18.3.5.2 Thermocouple type conductivity gauge DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of ‘this arrangement are as follows: ¢ Achamber whose one side is open to receive the applied Inside the chamber, a filament is placed which jsintum ammeter and battery. ‘« Onthe filamentis welded: thermocouple, to: The thermocouple is connected toa millivolt meter. pressure (usually vacuum). connected. to arheostat, measure the temperature ofthe filament. APPLIED PRESSURE (UNKNOWN) VACUUM _| om : : a RHEOSTAT MILLI |VOLTMETER} AMMETER = {it BATTERY THERMOCOUPLE FIXED ON FILAMENT FILAMENT Figure 18.14: Thermocouple type conductivity gauge OPERATION Aconstant current is passed through the filament in the: chamber. Due to this current, the filament gets heated and the filament temperature is sensed by the thermocouple welded to the filament.NSO TTT UU TROL SYSTEMS NTS AND CO! 18.26 MEASUREME! ber. ed pressure) is eonnes' 1d to the Now the wressure to be measured (apP! ithe filament changes. Due isthe applied pressure, the dens! ofthe surrounding of the 1 conduct | Due to this change in density of the yf he pg or the filament its conductivity changes causing the temperature of the filament to change. sed by the thermocoup! ‘i je welded to «4 Thischange in temperature of the filament 8 the filament. ment becomes a measure ofthe applied pressure ‘¢ Thischange in temperature of the fil when calibrated. ¢ Themillivoltmeter can be calibrated to directly read the applied pressure. APPLICATION «Used to measure low vacuum and ultra high vacuum Pressures. ADVANTAGES «They are rugged and inexpensive. ¢ Relation between pressure and temperature is linear for the range of use. 7 «Readings can be taken from a distance. «Easy touse. LIMITATIONS ¢ Filament gets bumtout frequently. «They must be calibrated for different gases, : Electrical power is a must for its operation. 18.3.6 Ionisation gauge * “Tonisation is the process of knocking offan electron fror a free electron and a positively charged ion”. me DESCRIPTION atom and thus producing Th le main parts of this arrangement are as follows: * Acathode, grid and plate or anode laced in acl rT. cathode, de pl hamber——— - MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 18.27 APPLIED PRESSURE (VACUUM OR cas \Y PLATE a g oo --- 22 SIGNAL CATHODE 3S INPUT eo os it HEATER SUPPLY —|I [If tl BIAS PLATE VOLTAGE SUPPLY Figure 18.15: lonization gauge «The chamber is open at one end to receive the applied pressure. «The grid is maintained at positive potential. The plate (anode) is negatively biased. OPERATION The pressure to be measured is connected to the chamber. © The grid draws electrons from the cathode and these electrons collide with the gas molecules, thereby causing ionization of the gas molecules. « The positively charged molecules are then attracted to the plate (anode), causing a current flow in the external circuit. ¢ The measurement of this current becomes a measure of the applied gas pressure. APPLICATION © They are used to measure low vacuum. and ultra high vacuum pressures.Re memento doe CENT ae coe a ; Cinom my } = a(t besos t i+! anna ’ ~repamivenh Uf 4 Mey: Gunma HERE WEY Dinettes reeteranee pracettre aowae OPERAT: * The ° Due end ° Due lee © This mee APPLIC, © TheSNA ON 18. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE. DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of this arrangement are as follows e a 4 « Ahousing with a chamber. One end of this chamber is open to receive the applied pressure. «Inside the chamber is placed a sensing element which isa loosely wound coil of fine wires. The terminals of this sensing element are taken out of the chamber as shown in figure 18.16. «The applied pressure and the sensing element are separated by a bellows filled with kerosene as shown in the figure 18.16. OPERATION ‘The pressure to be measured is applied to the chamber. % « Due to the applied pressure, the bellows and hence the kerosene in the bellows tends to get compressed. * Due to this bulk compression of the bellows and kerosene, the resistance of the electrical conductor (sensing element) changes. « This change in resistance of the sensing element is measured, which becomes a measure of the applied pressure when calibrated. APPLICATION «They are used for measuring very high pressures.REVIEW QUESTIONS ‘SHORTANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Lista few applications of pressure ™ smospheric pressure and a «pressure and vacuum Pressure yeasurement psolute pressure 2. Differentiate a 3. Differentiate gaus’ 4k Ditfrenate sta pressure and stagnation PreSSu 5. What is dynamic orimpact pressure? 6, Listtwo instruments used to measure low Pressure: 7. Whatisionization? LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. How isa dead weight tester used to calibrate pressure measuring devices? 2. Explain howa manometer is used to measure pressure? 3. Explain the working ofa Bourdon tube pressure gauge 4, Howan elastic diaphragm gauge is used to measure pressure? 5. Explain the bellows gauge used to measure gauge pressure. 6. Explain the bellows arrangement used to measure differential pressure. 7. Howcana strain gauge be used to measure pressure? 8. Explain’ plain the Mcleod vacuum gauges used for pressure measurement and its li limitations, SAND CONTROL SYSTEy4¢ easuREMENTS 18.30 19, ga inc @ 3Measurement of Temperature 20.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Temperature measurement is one of the most common, widely used and important measurements made to control many factors in industries, and day-to-day situations. Some of the areas where temperature measurement is important have been listed below: Inprocess industries which involves chemical operations. Instudying situations in various regions of the earth. In studying the temperature of molten metal in foundries. In studying temperature of planets. Instudying temperature of red hot iron being. rolled, To study temperature of human body. Inhousehold ovens. Instudying temperature of steam boilers and bearings of turbines. In studying temperatures of windings of electrical machines. ‘Temperature is measured through indirect means. That is, change in temperature causes a variety of effects and these effects (changes) are used as a measure of. temperature. Some common effects caused due to change in temperature. Change in dimension (Example: Bimetallic thermometers). Change in electrical properties (Example: Resistance thermometers, thermistors)20.2 fe Creation ofianemt, (Example Thermocouph 4 change in intensity and colour of rnaiation (Example: P »yrometer) Hence the measurement of thes “hangeseases dune crane ETMPSEN rare when eaibeated becomes a meastre of temPe 20.2 DEFINITION OF quantity independ RATU! RE lent orthesize of the system Some definitions of Temperature is temperature have been given Below: ‘ofmolecularactivity ferred to or from other bodies, Temperature is nation ofa body by virtue of whose difference isproportional tothe work from acamot engine operating and a cold reservoir. 2 Act quant etween a hot Soures 20.3 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE TEM! 20.3.1 Bimetallic thermomet 3.1.1 Helix bimetallic thermometer. 3.1.2. Spiral bimetallic thermometer. PERATURE \ 20.3.2. Pressure thermometer (Fluid expansion type) 20.3.3. Resistance thermometer. 20.3.4 Themnistors. 20.3.5. Themocouples. 20.3.6 Pyrometers, 20.3.6.1 Total radiation pyrometer. n , 20.3.6.2 Optical pyrometer (Disappearing filament type). 20.3.1 Bimettalic thermometers BASIC PRINCIPLE © These thermometers use the following two principles: @ oe ion, that is, expand or: w ereisacl A s¢ in dimension, that i the ange , expand or contract whenMEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE, 20.3 () The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on the temperature coefficient of expansion of the metal and this temperature coefficient of expansion is different for different metals. Hence the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections which is proportional to temperature changes. 7 «The bimetallic thermometer consists ofa bimetallic stip. A bimetallic strip is made oftwo thin strips of metal which have different coefficients of expansion. The two metal strips are joined together by brazing, welding or riveting so that the relative motion between them is arrested. HIGHER EXPANSION MATERIAL. LOWER EXPANSION MATERIAL, Figure 20.1: Bimetallic strip The bimetallic strip is in the form ofa cantilever beam. An increase in temperature will result in the deflection of the free end of the strip as shown in figure’ 20.1. This deflection is linear and can be related to temperature change. © The radius of curvature ofa bimetallic strip which was initially flat is determined. using the following relationship. {acm ++) [ae te N 6 (ay —%) (TT) (+m) R= 7 “a NTsANe CONTROL SYSTEMS where 3S xpansion met sigher exPansio” metal Modulus, of. elasticity of lower expansion metal n= “Hfodulus of lasticity higer expansion metal os arose oy teen oF Initial temperature: 1, = Temperature: «+ Thefollowingare the important propertiesamaterial should have to be selected bimetalicermometes (HESS properties sould behigh)- for _ Coefficient of expansion. _ Modulus ofelastcity. _ Blastic limit after cold rolling. — lectrical conductivity. — Ductility — Metallurgical ability. « Different i ttcommon forms of bimetallic sensors are listed below: — Helix type — Spiral type — Cantilever type — Flattype205 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE a a Tye ven : SPIRAL TYPE CANTILEVER TYPE ieee eee FLATTYPE Figure 20.2: Bimetallic sensors «Metals used in bimetallic strips are as follows: HIGH EXPANSION LOW EXPANSION « Brass « Invar (alloy of Nickel & iron). Nickel-ironalloys with chromium & manganese. «. Thecommon bimetallic thermometers are the helix bimetallic thermometer: and the spiral bimetallic thermometer. 20.3.1.1 Helix bimetallic thermometer BASIC PRINCIPLE ‘© When a bimetallic helix fixed at one end and free at the other end is subjected to a temperature change, the free end ofthe bimetallic helix deflects proportional to the change in temperature. This deflection becomes a measure of the change in temperature. DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of a helix bimetallic thermometer are as follows: © A bimetallic helix which is fixed at one end to the body of the instrument and free at its other end. , «To the free end of the bimetallic helix is attached a shaft. © One end of the shaft is mounted in a frictionless arrangement and its other end is connected to a pointer which sweeps over a temperature calibrated circular dial graduated in degrees of temperature.TROL SYSTEMS, Eee cote om cDeNoOF , epee eNoOF HERR NEEin,, SaRG NE REune SN . an Re Filfonsteo euaeTaLtic Ghcuanoime HEL \_ /TIXTL LESS BI-METALLIC LTITKDA a FROTOMESS HELIX SHAFT pointer BODY OF INSTRUMENT | Figure 20.3: Helix bimetallic thermometer i OPERATION: bimetallic thermometer is «When the temperature of'a medium isto be measured, the introduced into the medium fora length “L”. « Thebimetallic helix senses the temperature and expands resulting in a deflection at ~ its free end. ‘© This deflection at the free end of the bimetallic helix rotates the shaft connected to it. When the shaft rotates, the pointer attached to the shaft moves to anew position on 7 the temperature calibrated dial indicating the measured temperature. 20,3.1.2 Spiral bimetallic thermometer BASIC PRINCIPLE * When a bimettalc spiral fixed at one end and free at the other end is subjected to a {emperatur change the re end ofthe bimetallic spiral deflects proportional tothe change in temperature. This deflection becomes a measure of the change in temperature. DESCRIPTION Themain parts of a spiral bimetallic thermometer are as follows: + A bimetallic spiral which isotherend nh fixed atone endothe body ofthe instrumentand fee20.7 yesSUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE LIBRATED EMCEE aime! cal SATA OAL congas, “HRC ctcetinbi. FIXED Zé popyor END 1 INSTRUMENT mona foee ‘SHAFT Figure 20.4: Spiral bimetallic thermometer « Tothe free end of the bimetallic spiralis attached a free floating shaft. « Oneend of the shaft is mounted in a frictionless arrangement and its other end is connected to a pointer which sweeps over a temperature calibrated circular dial graduated in degrees of temperature. OPERATION ‘When the temperature of a me introduced into the medium fora length L. « Thebimetallic spiral senses the temperature and expands resultingina .edium is to be measured, the bimetallic thermometer is deflection at its free end. « This deflection at the free end of the bimetallic spiral rotates the free floating, shaft connected to it. When the free floating shaft rotates, the pointer attached to the shaft moves to anew position on the temperature calibrated dial indicating the measured temperature. APPLICATIONS OF BIMETA) « The bimetallic strip is used in control devices. © The spiral strip is used in air conditioning thermostats. used for process application such as refineries, LLIC STRIPS AND THERMOMETERS oil burners, tyre The helix strip is vulcanisers etc.L SYSTEMS 2.10 MEASUREMENTS AND. CONTRO! din the bulb expand or sre, the bulb and the fu ure, the bulb an as or decreases Which f the fluid in fluid in the bulb. © Due to the change in temperal contract. That is, the volume o| in tum alters the pressure of the .e and pressure of the flui gin the bulb is transmitted to the © This change in volum bourdon tube through the capill uid is now sensed by the inner walls of the bourdon som which was initially elliptical tends to become positive) and this causes & small displacement re filling fluid’s pressure (which is inturn @ Asthe pressure c! tube. the bourdon tube’s cross see" acircle (if temperature change 1S ‘hich is proportional to the change in proportional o change in temperature) 4 Thisdisplacement is amplified using inks and position on a temperature calibrated scale. Thus the position of er rdication of the temperature sensed by the sensing bulb. the links shift the pointer toa new the pointer becomes ADVANTAGES These devices cost less. Speed of response and sensitivity are high. These devices are rugged. . pe driving of recording and controlling devices is possible due to the large force LIMITATIONS « If i long transmitting capillary tubes are used, compensation becomes a must. © The filling fluid and th oe tube are temperature sensitive which may introduce output Auxiliary power source i ary urce is required ifit i a vansmissin gems tt titiscombined with pneumatic or electrical * Ifthe sensing bulb is placed at a considerable eight or lower position when I le hei I it is tem ici e perature. This is called the “Head el Aoi @ greater or smaller indication of © The filing fluid mi ight get decomposed introducit lucing calibratic i ion drift.eASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE 20. NOTE: Thecommonly used liquids in a fi is ina filled sys Loeeenrta a filled system are mercury, acetone, ethyl alcohol, « Thecommont i The commonly used gases in a filled system are nitrogen and helium. «The commonly used fluids in ai B De ene Aiud vapour system are water, toluene, methyl 20.3.3 Resistance thermometers or Resistan TDS, ce temperature detectors - RTDS - € detectors - RTD Whenan electric conductor is subj jected to a temperature chan; jamal ee : change, the resistance of the ae or changes. This change in resistance of the electric conductor becomes ameasure of the change in temperature when calibrated. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE TO MEASURE RESISTANCE CHANGE |——_! 4 LEAD WIRES eo 38 PLATINUM OR 35 COPPER - NICKEL 3 eercimice ne ag (SENSING ELEMENT) 2 BuLBIS Geet EVACUATED MASDREL ORFILLED WITHINERT GAS Figure 20.6: Resistance thermometer © The change in resistance of the electric conductor is due to: — Change in dimension of the conductor, that is, expansion or contraction.20.12 DESCRIPTION — Change in current oPI — Theresistance of the electric and vice-versa. The main parts OF : e Aglass or metal tube wound. The lead wil ment becomes «The leads of the resistance thermom shown in figure 20.6. « Theglass: ‘or metal tube is svire (sensing element) OPERATION ‘The procedure eter is con! for measuring temperature is as « Aknownconstant current is passed’ through the ometer are as oll mandrelon sroject oUF evacuated or filled with han increase in temperature jows: which a resistance wire is tof the ceramic mandrel. nected to a wheat stone bridge as inert gas to protect the resistance follows: resistance wire of the thermometer and the initial resistance of the wire is measured using the wheat stone bridge. .dinto the media whose temperature is smometer is introduce Now the resistance thet to be measured. Due toa change in temperature (28S sume the change is in the positive gets heated and due to this heat direction), the resistance wire of the thermometer ). (It should be noted that the same the resistance of the wire changes (increases) constant current is passed through the resistance thermometer during measurement), Now this change in resistance of the wire is measured using the wheat stone bridge. This change in resistance becomes a measure ‘of temperature when calibrated. NOTE: Usually the null balance bridge is used to measure the change is resistance. In the bridge circuit, it is seen that “B” represents the resistance (unknown) ofthe resistance wire of the thermometer. In the null balance bridge, a balance condition oa daar means that no current flows through the galvanometer “G”. Hence Led peace of element “B” varies, the resistance “C” is so adjusted that no vugh the galvanometer “G”. The condition of balance occurs when; a_¢ b B Since 2 i since . is known, C becomes a measure of B.jeASUREMENT ‘OF TEMPERATURE N AppLICATIONS '«_Itisusually used when temperature measurementis to be done from adistance. This js possible since the sensing element (thermometer) and the indicating element (wheat stone bridge) can be separated as per convenience by increasing the length of lead wires. Used in continuous monitoring situations. ADVANTAGES «These thermometers are simple in construction. « They are accurate is measurement. Average temperature measurement is possible by connecting the temperature sensing elements suitably. Very easy to install and replace the thermometer, Awide range of measuring equipment are available and the thermometer is flexible toaccept the same. The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be checked easily by replacing the thermometer with a standard resistance. Easy reproducability. LIMITATIONS # Slowin response as the sensing wire is covered by a protecting glass or metal tube. Current leakage might take place between the thermometer and the ground. © Lead resistance compensation becomes essential. « Thermoelectric emfmay be generated due to a junction of two dissimilar metals. 203.4 Thermistors (Thermal Resistors) BASIC PRINCIPLE © Thermistors are non-metallic resistors, that is, semiconductors of ceramic material having negative coefficient of resistance. When the thermistor is subjected to a temperature change, the resistance of the thermistor changes. This change in resistance of the thermistor becomes a measure of the change in temperature when calibrated. * The resistance of the thermistor decreases with an increase in temperature and vice-versa.OL SYSTEMS JON DESCRIP The main part as follows is ofa thermistor are © Ametal tut «Aninsulation separates the ther become a thermistor used to are drawn out from yent and I «Lead wiresa « Themetal tube, sensing elem measure temperature .d to a wheat stone br ‘« Theleadsof the thermistor is connecte OPERATION ridge as shown in figure. WHEATSTONE ORIOGE fo meRsuRe nea Svance OHANCE © ‘ y | exo wes erat Tube ProTECTION INSULATION ise TYPE THERMISTOR (SENSING he ELEMENT) Fi igure 20.7: Thermistor The procedure i for measuring temperature is as foll lows: o * Aknown constant current is intial resistan Passed through the sistance of the thermi ugh the thermistor sensing element and the e bridge, stor sensi ig ‘nsing element is me ae ing the wheat stoneeASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE 20.45 oo «Now the thermistor is introduced into the medium whose temperature is to be measured. Due to change in temperature (assume the change is in the positive direction), the sensing element of the thermistor gets heated and due to this heat the resistance of the sensing element changes (decreases). (It should be noted that the same constant current is passed through the sensing element during measurement). Now this change in resistance of the sensing clement of the thermistor is measured using the wheatstone bridge. This change in resistance becomes a measure of temperature when calibrated. NOTE: Refer the null balance bridge explanation given as anote under the topic “Resistance thermometers”. NOTE: THERMISTOR MATERIALS ‘Thermistors are made of metallic oxides of copper, iron. uranium, nickel etc. These metallic oxides are mixed with binders, pressed to required shapes and then they are sintered. NOTE: TYPES OF THERMISTORS Disc TYPE BEAD TYPE ————° PROTECTIVE GLASS ‘COVERING Tao LEAD WIRES ERMISTOR THERMISTOR ‘BEAD SHER TYP! WAFER TYPE THERMISTOR WASHER TYPE WAFER TYPE THE! T — LEAD WIRES LEAD WIRES \ THERMISTOR LEAD WIRES ROD TYPE THERMISTOR LEAD WIRES- Figure 20.8: Thermistors - Types) ge varying. measuriny cused fi Apri -ATIONS: cl ey ar As the thermistors have good scrisitt ity, they a temperatures. Ce The are used for temperature compensation inetectronic od h They are used in time dela They are used to measure the! to measure pressure circuits. smal conductivity: and flow of liquids. 100°C to 300°C), (in the range of @ They are used t «Usdin precision temperature measuremen ADVANTAGES ¢ The cost of thermistor is low. °C isattainable), igh (measurement upto 0.01 C change in temperature, the resistance changes as far as 6% in certain cases, peratures of the order of 800°C to 1100°C. .d mechanical and electrical stresses. all sizes as the resistivity of thermistors «Accuracy ishi © Forl Can measure high temy They posses the ability to withstan ‘¢ Thermistors can be manufactured to very sm: are very high. resistance. «Simple electric circuits can be used to measure change in LIMITATIONS ‘« Thermistors have a non-linear scale over its range’ of operation. «The resistance of the thermistor increases when time lapses. This is called as “aging effect”. ‘When current passes through the thermistor, it gets heated. This is called as “self heating effect”. 20.3.5 Thermocouples BASIC PRINCIPLE The principle used in thermocouples is cal! “Princi whsrratnceveedty sea i e iscalled as the “Principle of thermo-electricity” The principle states that “when twc Th 0 conductors of two diff ne omy ifferent metals A. a a oe ; one end to form a junction, and this junction is el a = apne soee to the free ends, a voltage is developed at the fr 2 ‘s a conductors of metals at the free ends are o: ree ip will establish a flow of current”. mesa then the emtCONDUCTING METAL -B X AND Y ARE THE JUNCTIONS: eo" Figure 20.9: Thermocouple . “The magnitude of the net emf will pent ragsiebeen e ofthe two junctions and the materials ‘used for the conductors: EMPERATURE THERMOCOUPLE ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURINGT! DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of a therm ocouple arrangement used to measure temperature are aS follows: 4. The thermocouple hot junction J, temperature is to be measured. ld junction J, which is maint nich will be introduced into the place where reference «The thermocouple ained at a constant temperature. « Avvoltage measuring instrument (ovhich s usually arilivoltmn the fiee ends ofthe thermocouple. ter) is connected to OPERATION «| Thethermocouple’shotjunction}, sntroduced into the place where thetemperature js to be measured. ‘CROMEL LEADS | TEMPERATURE| ‘CONTROLLED ‘COLD REFERENCE JUNCTION Je (CE BATH) HOT JUNCTION Ju (MEASURING JUNCTION) mune. FREE END LEADS je - Temperature measurement ntrolled ata constant temperature of OC. Figure 20.10: Thermocoupl The reference temperature is to be col= ) ‘Since the two junctions are at dif ends and since the ft : ich ean be directly meas! a function of the establish a. flow of current whi 4 Since the reference junction is Kept orc, the’ emf measured Sa Temperature of tchot mensainB NSE ‘The millivorimeter is ly tet its reading becomesan ind sion of the remperatre NOTE: Theemfdeveloped ing ds upon the difference Lyte between the hot junction and th « vemperature of ‘the cold junction is may be introduced on account of purposefully kept at 0°C inorderto.avoid change in room temperature: 20.3.5.1 Laws of thermocouples iawsof thermocouples namely. ive or intermediate temperatures. ‘Thereare three a) Lawof thermoelectricity or success b) Lawof intermediate metals. «) Lawofhomogeneous circuit. Oe (a)LAW OF INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURES E, whenits, junctions are at temperatures Ifathermocouple circuit develops an emf T, and T,, itwill develop T, and T,andan emf E, when its junctions ae at temperatures an emf(E, + E,) when its junctions are at temperatures T, and T,. METAL A n i emt, Ee WETAL-B METAL-A OOS rata, ES | METAL -B A 3 METAL -A Tina Emf=E,+E, Ee ———___ J METAL -B Figure 20.11: Li .11: Law of intermediate temperaturesMEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE 20.19 eS (b) LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS, Ifa third metal is introduced into a thermocouple circuit, it will not affeet the net emf ifthe two junctions (q,. q,) introduced by the third metal are at the same temperatures. THIRD METAL -C. METAL -A % n oc, Figure 20.12: Law of intermediate metals , METAL (¢) LAW OF HOMOGENEOUS CIRCUIT The application of heat to a single homogeneous metal is in itself not capable of producing or sustaining an electric current. 20,3.5.2 Thermocouple materials and construction «The common materials used for thermocouple are copper, iron, platinum, rhodium, iridium, constantan, chromel, alumel, rhenium, boron and graphite. «Some common thermocouples and their temperature range have been given below Thermocouple ‘Temperature range °C Chrome! -alumel = 200 to 1100 Iron - constantan = 200 to 850 Chromel - constantan = 200 to 850 Rhodium - iridium Oto 2100 Rhodium - platinum Oto 1400 Tungsten - Rhenium 0 to 2600 Copper - constantan = 250 to 400 « Two homogeneous dissimilar metals in physical contact with each other forma thermocouple. These metals may be twisted or welded or brazed together. The general forms of thermocouples in bare and insulated conditions are shown. ssi MLL mace SOLES eee— NTSAND CONTROL SYSTEM f MeASUREME! [oneenagaep renee? | | BUTT WELDED | Tenn? | | i | | | COUPLE WITH il ‘Le wi THERMO‘ LS _ 4 ‘eer sarees | se | Hap a TenwocouPLe wih euge gue uae sua we | Figure 20.13: Thermocouple construction ; 203.53 Thermopile (Thermocouples connected in series) + When thermocouples are connected in series, they are called as thermopiles. } . These: thermopiles are used to measure small temperature differences between the ‘wo junctions. The series arrangement increases sensitivity and gives a large output even fora small temperature difference. * Inaseries arrangement of thermocouples, the total emfis the sum of the em® developed by individual thermocou . iples. In general, Sao connected inserestheotaemfB is. 8 thermocouplesat +E E=E,+E,+E,+~~ = - MeASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE 20.21 «¢ Itshould be noted that all thermocouples are similar and they work under similar conditions. That is, E, = E, =E,=....=E,, Hence. E = n£,. Thatis, the resulting emfisntimes the emf ofan individual thermocouple. or suNeTIon cov wNcTION oo = * | | _— lg 4 is 3 > a 5 Be a Figure 20.14: Thermopile 203.54 Thermocouples connected in parallel . ven average tmpertre measurement st be done eocowpleserecomects inparallel. TOTAL Em{ = E ETE, t E+E; 3 Figure 20.15: Thermocouples connected in parallel TT‘EMS SYST MEASUREMENTS AND CONTRO! ee 20.15), the total figure . shown it) g connected in parallel (aS « Forthe thermocouples conn emf Eisas follows 5 +E, +B: “age temperature: 4. Enowbecomesameasure of vera tempe ft |-radiation eee sing varius frmsof tera sion ure messin em dis high and Physical contact o " actically not yromety nperat Pyrometry meanstem eae gins ‘edia to be measured is Pr é aoa rument with the process ™ ‘temperature meast possible, pyrometers are used. ‘TYPES OF PYROMETERS Pyrometersare of two types nam 0.3.6.1 Total radiation pyrometer, 30.362 Optical pyrometer (Disappearing filament type). ely, QO) 203.6.1 Total radiation pyrometer BASIC PRINCIPLE + Theradiations fom the radiating object (say hot molten metal ina furnace) whose temperature isto be measured is focused on to aradiation receiving element, such asthe hotjunction ofa thermocouple and the emf developed in the thermocouple becomes a measure of temperature of the radiating object when calibrated. « Theradiation receiving element (that is, radiation detector) can also be a thermopile, bolometer (a thermal device that changes its electrical resistance with temperature), ora Photo-electric transducer (such as photo-emissive cell, photo-conductive cell and photo-voltaic cell). Th 5 F OF a Pyrometer is used to measure the total energy of radiation froma jeated body. The energy is given by “STEFAN Bi i that the total emissive power of a black surface i Fi eae ace is directly proportional to the fo ower of the temperature of the surface expressed in K, wh E,aT*(Tink) E,=oT where o=Stefan Boltzman constant = 4,876 x 10 Keal / hr ~m?_K— - , . ae yy MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERAT ‘URE 20.23 DESCRIPTION me main parts of a total radiation pyrometer are as follows: « Thepyrometercor aera et es ahousing tube. One end of this housing tube hasa sighting \ eee able eye piece. The other end of the housing tube is opened ree “e ‘om the radiating object whose temperature is to be measured ° ¢ the is Inside the honsing tube there is aconcave mirror whose position can be adjusted ip of a rack and pinion provided in the instrument. j wor" MILLI VOLTMETER, prorecrna Cie RADIATION SNe concave wannon ‘SIGHTING HOLE ‘TEMPERATURE SOURCE. ‘THERMOCOUPL RACK & PINION wousING COUPLE ARRANGEMENT RADIATING (BLACKENED) ‘OBJECT Figure 20.16: Total radiation pyrometer mocouple in this case) is provided ata suitable ing radiation shield js provided to see that ing element. ¢ Aradiation receiving element (athe place as shown in figure 20.16. A protec the incoming radiations do not fll directly on the ragiaton receiv . ‘hethermocoupleis connected calbratedmivaunetermeasuing 2752) 9 indicate temperature directly. OPERATION ating object, the open end of the housing e temperature of the radi radiating object so that thermal radiations onto the: Tomeasure th tube of the pyrometer is focused enter the housing tube.Bm MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS tion of the concave mirror is nting hole, the posi a the incoming radiations fall ygement so that «Now by looking through th adjusted using the rack and pinion arran on the coneave mirror. reflected tothe hot junction of the ‘The radiations falling on the concave mirror 2 thermocouple. As the radiations fall on’ the: hot junction | of the! thermocouple, anemf will be setup in the thermocouple which ismeasured using amillivoltmetet. « Thereading of the millivoltmeter becomes ® indication of te measured temperate asthe milivolimeter has been calibrated directly indicate temperature. ‘the thermal radiations on to the radiation receiving clement 9» can also be done usinga lens oF 2 parabolic reflector as shown NOTE: The focussing (thermocouple in this ease in figure 20.17. PARABOLIC ee ere Glee ‘THERMOCOUPLE ‘THERMOCOUPLE Figure 20.17: Focussing of thermal radiations APPLICATION «© Used to measure temperatures ranging from 1200°C to 3500°C. But in general they are used in the range of 700°C to 2000°C. ADVANTAGES # Theycan measure the temperature of radiating object without any physical contact with the radiating object. «They have ahigh speed of response. . They can be ‘used to measure temperatures of stationary and moving objects (even rapid moving objects). : « They have ahigh accuracy of + 2% of the scale range.ris fall he ‘in MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE ‘« Temperature measurementis ind of the field of view is filled. ee LIMITATIONS \ «The pressence of dust, smoke and gases between’ mirror will make the pyrometer to read low. This absorb radiation, thus introducing errors. ‘The presence of hot gases, lames et. between the radiating object and the’ mirror will make the pyrometer to read high. ‘The instrument has low sensititvity in the lower temperature ranges: “These instruments cannot be used for temperatures lower than| 600°C 4s Inmany cases, cooling is required to proteet the instrument from overheating, As the intensity of radiation decreases after a certain distance, the optimal working distance of the pyrometer from the radiating object is to be calculated before the act of measurement. 203.62 Optical pyrometer (Disappe brightness radiation thermometer) BASIC PRINCIPLE « Theprinciple of tery pyrometers. A colour v temperature. The optical pyrometer compares the brightness of the image produced by the temperature source with that of a reference temperature lamp. The current inthe Jamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is equal to the brightness of the image produced by the temperature source, Since the intensity oflightof any wave perature ofthe radiating object, the current passing through length depends on the ter the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature of the source when calibrated. DESCRIPTION The main parts ofan optical pyrometer are as follows: an objective lens at the other end. « Aneye piece at one end and and millivoltmeter (to measure eA power source (battery), theostat toareference temperature bulb. aced in between the object absorption screen is used to increase by the instrument. the radiating objectand the concave is is because dust, smoke and gases concave we saring filament type) (Monochromatic brightness comparison is usedin optical perature measurement by in temperature is taken as an index of fariation with growth current) connected ive lens and reference the range of temperature + An absorption screen is pl temperature lamp. The: which can be measuredRCE ‘TEMPERATURE SO\ Figure 20.18: Optical pyrometer Thered filter between the eye piece and the lamp allows only a narrow band of wavelength of around 0.65}. OPERATION \ «+ When the temperature ofthe temperature source is to be measured, the radiation from the source are focused onto the filament of the reference temperature lamp using the objective lens. 2) FILAMENT (DARK) b) FILAMENT (BRIGHT) | c) FILAMENT (DISAPPEARS) SOOLER THAN HOTTER THAN EQUAL BRIGHTNESS OF mura TEMPERATURE FILAMENT & TEMPERATURE E ‘SOURCE ‘SOURCE Fi : igure 20.19; Image of temperature sourceean» ——————————=—$———————— + Now the eye piece is adjusted so that the filament of the reference temperature lamp is in sharp focus and the filament is seen superimposed on the image of the temperature source. Now the observer starts controlling the lamp current and the filament will appear dark asin figure (a) if the filament is cooler than the temperature source, the filament will appear bright asin figure (b) ifthe filament is hotter than the temperature source, and the filament will not be seen (disappear) as in figure (c) ifthe filament and the temperature source are in the same temperature. Hence the observer should control the lamp current until the filament and temperature source have the same brightness which will be noticed when the filament disappears (asin figure (c)) in the superimposed image of the temperature source [that is, the brightness of the lamp and the temperature source are same.] Atthis instance, the current flowing through the lamp which is indicated by the millivoltmeter connected to the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature ofthe temperature source when calibrated. APPLICATIONS « Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of molten metals and heated. materials. © Used to measure temperature of furnaces. ADVANTAGES Physical contact of the instrument is not required to measure temperature of the temperature source. Accuracy is high+5°C. «Provided a proper sized image of the temperature source is obtained in the instrument, the distance between the instrument and the temperature source does not matter. The instrument is easy to operate. LIMITATIONS Temperature of more than 700°C can only be measured since illumination of the temperature source isa must for measurement. Since it is manually operated, it cannot be used for continuous monitoring and controlling purposes. NOTE: BLACK BODY: An ideal thermal radiator iscalied'a black body. A body which absorbs all the radiations falling on itis called a black body, regardless of its colour. For a black body, absorptivity = 1, and, reflectivity = Transmittivity = 0. eeesenreting trermmoccempies 19 parallel21 Measurement of Flow 21.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Themeasurement of flow is important ina number of situations such as Rate of flow in and out of engines, turbines, pumps ete cesses and operations in industries such as rayon For controlling of proc: industries, chemical plants ete.. ‘To calculate the cost of commodity used in ease of water, fuel/gasete., supplied for domestic purposes. To account and calculate fuel sold in petrol bunks. “To measure blood flow rate in human veins. {characteristics suchas pressure, conductivity, temperature, ‘A good knowledge of fui density, viscosity etc, is required to selecta proper device to measure flow rate. 312 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE FLOW een listed below: “The important instruments used to measure flowhave bi 21.2.1 Secondary or Rate Meters 21.2.1.1 Obstruction Meters a) Orifice meter c) Venturi meter b)Flownozzle 4) Rotameter (Variable area meter)SONTROL SYSTES { MEASUREMENTS AND ci 2 eee got Tube (Total PI ial ‘Methods: ¢ flow meter thod and the a) Magne’ é b) Ul flow meter (Travel time difference metl ‘oscillating loop system) ' ¢) Turbine type: anemometer or Turbine meter @) Hotwire anemometet (Constant current and constant temperature methods). jantity of fluid that 2.2.1.2 Pi 2.2.1.3 Spee 21.2.1 Secondary or Rate meters sure the rate of flow: ‘ntat any particular instant. secondary metersas they thing which is associated Rate of flow means the at © Ratem flows across a poil Rate meters arealso called do not measure flow directly. That is. they measure some’ with flow such as pressure, velocity. position, remperature etc. locity probes an earlier are the «The obstruction meters, vel dd special methods liste jmportant secondary oF rate meters. ‘2.24.1 Obstruction - Meters BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OBSTRUCTION METERS Whena ixedarea flow restriction (Example: Venturi, orifice, nozzle) of some kind is placed ina pipe caring the fluid whose rate of flow ist be measured, the flow restriction caneesa pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated, this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate. (a) ORIFICE METER BASIC PRINCIPLE e When is inapi i an a ee is — ina pipe carrying the fluid whose rate of flow is to be Fee ns Plate causes.a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. i aad baa using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate. The flow rate is given by I CA: . fR=P) ay YeFasarace Oot ce fad tani 9 i 4 \ Tae fiend eve opening hs pee ecm ee et secon of te fond sar ss the upsreaen of te once. Ot fieed (Ps eo poeemuc: i edengs. Whee presexe=ey ECCENTRIC ORIICE PLATE Figure 21.1: Shape of orifice plate ORIFICE PLATE - | SECTION -2 PIPE | section -1 = ~ DOWN STREAM UPSTREAM ~~ 0 CONVERGING DIVERGING om FLUID AREA FLUID AREA ! —~t _ = aaa a Ke aa FLANGES TAP i ! \VENA-CONTRACTA : ! i MINIMUM FLOW AREA i i DIFFERENTIAL \ - PRESSURE Pt SENSOR | 7 1 i k 980) PERMANENT PRESSURE DROP STATIC pressure | I MEASURED PRESSURE Loss Figure 21 ;MEASUREMENT OF FLOW m5 APPLICATIONS e the concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has wide applicability as it has been standardised. e The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of fluids containing suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and wet steam. ADVANTAGES, Itisa very cheap and easy method to measure flow rate. # I has predictable characteristics and occupies less space. «Can be used to measure flow rates in large pipes. LIMITATIONS « ‘The vena-contracta length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the pipe and sharpness of the orifice plate. In certain cases, it becomes difficult to tap the minimum pressure (P,) due to the above factor. «Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss varies from 40 to 90% of the differential pressure. In the upstream, straightening vanes are a must to obtain laminar flow conditions. Gets clogged when suspended fluids flow. The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this, after sometime, inaccuracy occurs. Moreover the orifice plate has low physical strength. The coefficient of discharge is low. NOTE: The materials used for: manufacturing orifice plates are stainless steel, steel, phosphor bronze, nickel and monel. (b) FLOW NOZZLE BASIC PRINCIPLE Whena flow nozzle is placed inapipe carrying the fluid whose rate of flow is to be measured, the flow nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. This pressure drop is measured using adifferential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.JonveRaine EERECTION } FLOW ~~ ee a? PERMANENT | oe yt PRESSURE DROP ; ensured oxtStune Loss Figure 21.3: Flow nozzle arrangement DESCRIPTION The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used to measure flow rate are as follows: . A flow nozzle which is held between flanges own ofa pipe carrying the fluid whose flow tate is being measured, The flow nozzle’ Sareais minimum at its throat. © Openings are provided at tw sensor (U-tube vO Places land 2 for attaching a differential pressure manometer, differential pressure gauge etc.,) as shown in figure 213. opt © BAS Mea: this; SeMEASUREMENT OF FLOW 24.7 OPERATION « The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the section called throat where the area is minimum. Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is P,..Asthe fluid enters the nozzle, the fluid converges and due to this, its pressure keeps on reducing until it reaches the minimum cross section area called throat. This minimum pressure P, at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the fluid fora small length after being discharged in the down stream also, 2 z ‘The differential pressure sensor attached between points | and 2,records the pressure difference (P, ~ P,) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated. APPLICATIONS «+ Itisused to measure flow rates of liquids discharged into the atmosphere. « Itisusually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of settling. « Itis widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows. ADVANTAGES «Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meters. « Itis very compact. «Has ahigh coefficient of discharge. LIMITATIONS «Pressure recovery is low. * Maintenance ishigh. «Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meters. (C) VENTURI METER BASIC PRINCIPLE Whena venturi meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venturimeter. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated, this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.J MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTEMs , (PRESSURE | REDUCES) | Paw | CONVERGING | ata SECTION : Y |, see DIVERGING ‘SECTION FLOW DIFFERENTIAL, PRESSURE | SENSOR i NOTE: a, =19!t0.23° 1 a= Sho 15° Figure 21.4: Venturi meter DESCRIPTION The following are the main Parts and areas of a venturi meter: * The entry of the venturi is cylindrical in Shape to match the size of the pipe through which fluid flows. This enables the ‘Venturi to be fitted to the Pipe. © After the entry, there is a converging conical section with an included angle! 19° to.23° © Following the: Converging section, there isa cylindrical section with a minimuma® called as the throat. ¢ After the throat, there is a diverging conical section with an included angle” 5° to 15°, weMEASUREMENT OF FLOW 21.9 . cesne sees at the entry and throat (at sections 1 and 2 in diagram) of the venturimeter for attaching a differential pressure sensor (U-tube manometer, differential pressure gauge etc.,) as shown in figure 21.4. OPERATION © The fluid whose flow rate isto be measured enters the entry section of the venturimeter with a pressure P, As the fluid from the entry section of the venturimeter flows into the converging section, its pressure keeps ‘on reducing and attains a minimum value P, when it enters the throat. That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P, will be minimum. The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat section ofthe venturimeter records the pressure difference (P,—P,) which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated. The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain is pressure and hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of the diverging section, greater is the recovery. APPLICATIONS @ Itisused where high pressure recovery is required. + Can be sed for measuring flow rates of water, wastes, gases, suspended solids slurries and dirty liquids. «Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in the range of few meters. ADVANTAGES «Less chances of getting clogged with sediments. © Coefficient of discharge is high. «Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly. © Can be installed vertically, horizontally or inclined. LIMITATIONS © They are large in size and hence whe Expensive initial cost, installation and maintenance. re space is limited, they cannot be used.a _ _ LL 21.10 MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL SYSTE 4, Require long laying length. That is, the eee eee isatignmen pipe which is free from fittings and misaligni satisfactory operation. Therefore, straightening vanes are a must. venturimeter has to be proceeded by a straiys, ts, to avoid turbulence in flow fy * Cannot be use in pipes below 7.5em diameter. (@) ROTAMETER (VARIABLE-AREA METER) DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of a rotameter are as follows: «A tapered transparent glass tube graduated to read flow rate directly. + A float whose density is greater than that of the flowing fluid. The float diameter ig such that it completely blocks the inlet of the tapered transparent glass tube. OPERATION « Asthe fluid whose flow rate is being measured comes and touches the bottom portion of the float blocking the inlet of the tapered transparent glass tube, the flog starts to rise when the following happens: Downward pressure Pressure of flowing fluid] _ is greater than + fluid buoyancy due to weight of float When the float rises, an annular space is created between the periphery of the flog and the inner wall of the tapered transparent glass tube. This annular space whichis aconcentric opening through which the fluid passes to the other side of the instrument keeps on increasing until the following happens: Pressure of flowing fluid )}+ (Fluid buoyancy) = (Downward pressure due to weight of the float) When this happens, the float stops rising further and stops at a particular position, thatis, the float comes to equilibrium, © Thus, increase inflow rate will make the float to rise higher and vice versa. Thatis the position of the float becomes a direct indication of flow rate. Hence the tapered feats fibe can be graduated suitably by Proper calibration to get# 1on of flow rate by noting the positi i the ea fae ig the position of the float with Tespect to . vot menthas tobe designed in such amanne so thatthe effects of hang viscosit i *y are minimised leaving only the pressure of the flowing fhidss?SYSTEMS —s astraight 1 flow for ottom e float float ich is ment ‘ion, tis, ta ng sa 1 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW 2144 tu Figure 2.15: Rotameter APPLICATIONS © Can be used to measure flow rates of corrosive fluids. «Particularly useful to measure low flow rates. ADVANTAGES * Flowconditionsare visible. Flowrateisa linear function(uniform flow scale). * Can be used to measure flow rates of liquids, gases and vapours. © Bychanging the float, tapered tube or both, the capacity of the rotometer can be changed. LIMITATIONS «They should be installed vertically, ¢ They cannot be used for measurement in moving objects. ‘© The float will not be visible when coloured fluids are used, that is, when opaque fluid are used. © Forhigh pressure and temperature fluid flow measurements, they are expensive. © They cannot be used for fluids containing high percentage of solids in suspension.ry ‘Tg AND CONTROL SYSTEMS MEASUREMEN 24.42 ‘aa.te2 Pitot tube (Total pressure probe) na flowing fluid. This DESCRIPTION rement i i sure measure A probe isadeviee used for point pressure flow rate. The most popular point measurement of Pres s. The pitot tube probe is the “PITOT TUBE omvessure + impact Pres tot tube has ned pressure (static Pressu! pe tg. Theimpact opening measures the combi ‘one impact opening and ieprovided to sense impact pressure pressure OPERATION 4 Thepitottube is introduced in the ud Tow SFO where point pressure details is required (which isan indirect measure of OW Fate ) tube isthe static pressure inthe ine. The total pressure in pressure. That is, total pressure is the static ‘The differential pressure (P,~P, ) is measured ‘ferential pressure becomes a measure of ings as shown in figure ihe static openings are PI en rovide to sense static and t « Thepressure in the outel the innertube is greater than static pressure plus the impact pressure. usinga differential pressure sensor. This i flow rate at that point where the pitot tube is present inthe flowing fluid. rowmpact DIFFERENTIAL on STRENATTON PRESSURE PRESSURE TAP ‘SENSORS eG PPD To stan PRESSURE TAP. a eo Ve OPENING 1 meacr x OFENNG md stane OPENING Figure 21.6: Pitot tube EIGHTHOLES EQUI-SPACED a MEASUREM — APPLICAT © Pitott * flowr ADVANTA © Caus: © Costs LIMITAT: # htisc © Canr « The! 21.213 § (a) MAG? BASIC PI wh flowing co induced vc DESCRII The 2 Aw flov « Tw flui ° The21.13 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW ‘APPLICATIONS «Pitot tubes are extensively used in laboratories to measure vel flow rates of fluids. Jocity, pressure and ADVANTAGES «Causes no pressure loss in the flowing fluid. ‘« Costs less and very easy to install LIMITATIONS 4. Itisdifficutto obtain proper alignment ofthe pitot tube with the flowing direction «Cannot be used in fluids with suspended solids and impurities. « Thefluid velocity should be high in order to geta measurable pressure difference 21.2.1.3 Special methods (2) MAGNETIC FLOW METER BASIC PRINCIPLE When a flowing conducting fluid is subjected to a transverse flowing conducting fluid cuts the magnetic field and causes a voltage to be induced, This induced voltage is proportional to the fluid velocity, thatis, flow rate. ‘magnetic field, the DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of this instrument are as follows: «+ Aconducting fluid flowing through a non-magnetic and non-conducting pipe, whose flow rate is to be measured. « ‘Twoelectrodes are attached in opposite sides of the pipe carrying the conducting, fluid, These electrodes are in contact with the flowing conducting fluid. «The pipeis surrounded by an electromagnet which produces a magnetic field. wrLt NON-MAGNETIC & NON-CONDUCTING PIPE Figure 24.7; Magnetic flow meter MEASUR! OPERA’ eth fol wt ow fie APPLIC2LSYSTEM, —Steus wu (MEASUREMENT OF FLOW 24.165 OPERATION + This flow meters based on Faraday’s law of induced voltage which is given as \ follows: e=BLV where, €= Induced voltage (volts) B=Flux density Gauss) L=Length of conductor which is the diameter of the pipe (em) V = Average velocity of conductor (fluid) in cm/sec. + When the conducting fluid flows through the pipe which is subjected to a magnetic field, the conducting fluid cuts the magnetic field and due to this a voltagei induced. AAs the magnetic field is constant, the voltage obtained across the electrodes will be directly proportional to the average fluid velocity and diameter (length) and hence becomes a measure of volume flowrate APPLICATIONS © Used to measure flow rates of conducting fluids. rw ¢ Used to measure flow rates of slurries, corrosive and abrasive fluids. © Used to measure bidirectional flows by reversing connections which can be done automatically. ADVANTAGES #- These meters do not cause obstruction to flow and hence cause no pressure drop. For measurement, it does not matter whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Itgives accurate results. Itsreliability is high, thats, it gives a standard performance for an elongated period oftime. Itcan handle greasy materials and fluids containing suspended solids, «The measurement is independent of viscosity, density, temperature and pressure. LIMITATIONS © The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured should satisfy certain conduction conditions. © The fluid should be full in the pipe to get accurate results.) — ee 5 AND. CONTROL SYSTEMS MEASU ee cause eo" .d with scales and strodes might Bet coate this a i pe taken care off by cleaning the ) UL METI « Airand jn fluids are «When certai e he output sig will affect U electrodes. many eases te outPl METER is requires amplification. cn i voltage is low’ and hene (ULTRASONIC FLOW BASIC PRINCIPLE The velocity of PM sina fluid is affected BY the velocity of he basic principle has been shown id flow. The figure c ; the id eon trans tream iS energised byanelectronic oscillator to emit ultrasonic waves. Areceiver| (receiving transducer) “R’ placed down ves: emitted by the’ transmitter’ «T”, This time taken by the n calibrated. stream receives the ultrasonic wa" “prt “R” becomesa measure of flow whe! waves to travel from: yund wavs pagation ofS ; 21,8(@) for understanding t oT" R= orvibrationsto travel from “T” to “Thetime taken by the ultrasonic waves = Distance between the transmitter “7” and receiver “R”. where Velocity of sound inthe fluid. Flow velocity inthe pipe. x(Vs—s) vi-Ve ‘The value ofVisnegligible when compared to V, i Therefore, t = x(Vs=¥) _*(\M Vv = -—tl|= at Vs VL Vs u\! %| where, t,= (Time teken by y the ultrasoni flow conditions. rasonic waves to travel from “T” to “R” under zet0 x V. v, t The measurement of ime ‘t” ofthe fluid durin ime “t” and “t,” are not done si i flow and ion (zen ne simultaneous! iti rae Vise eee cee Morar de oe culties, the following two me by temperature and pressure. In ord ver the vel thods are employed: : ler to eliminate su“! 4) Ultrasonic flow meter using travel ime difference metho ; ic flor sing travel time differ iethod. Irasonic flow meter using the osci Op syst fl ig the oscillating lo P syste mM.sand this aning the locity of shown, ectronic ddown nby the x itions of 2A7 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW j) ULTRASONIC FLOW METER USING THE TRAVEL TIME DIFFERENCE METHOD: > Termalourren ne nEcENER _—— (raTraa t)--)- 9-1-4 now S\_ fe. - _sownstrcan.|. Yo > v aDx-¢--¢-¢-Gh }-——+ | k : \ [22777 ZZ) a= VZZZMMLZZZZZ) (c) OSCILLATING LOOP SYSTEM v Figure 21.8: Ultrasonic flow meter [AMPLIFIERano CONTROL SYSTEMS meaSUREMENTS. ne Gatupaream which MEASURE e itter is placed at UP ‘smitte! eh eet renner a stream. 0 re eas APPLICAT se omen oe upstream 2 Used Let, User te senate bernie eme TE . oa yr Tne pelosi TT eae x ADVANT —X and ty= ‘Therefore, to vet anc V-Ve = The travel time difference =ty-t « its one oat Vive .T 7 ‘ste valuof Vs negligible when compared 10 Vs LIMIT = : eT ‘The travel time difference = oa af Vs oF Tr a aT LOOrSNoTe (@ULTRASONIC FLO’ () TU / reasoner up ne laa a ©) isam ich ; . : ngsnannctesoteeeiemamminciemied . fs igure 21.8.Asitcanbe are two self excited oscillating syste ‘ : seen that there , feedback ee easy pulse is received by the receiver, amplifier and rotatic Ai Therepetiti : ina generation ofa train of pulses. field repetition frequency is given by, pulse - 4st f beco’ = ‘or transmitter placed at upstream) DES =v (For transmitter placed at down: stream) Therefor i re frequency difference (F)=F,-F, = 2Ve i x This frequency difference comes a measure of fluid flow rate when calibrate freq diffe becor ibrated.‘STEMS, icsound laced at eratthe ited. TEM laced there rand eASUREMENT OF FLOW nA9 [APPLICATIONS «+ Used to measure flow of liquids and gases through which sound can be transmitted. & 4. Used to measure rapidly varying lows. «Used to measure bidirectional flows. \ «+ Usedin situations where the measurement should be insensitveto variations viscosity, density and temperature. \ ‘ADVANTAGES « Iteauses negligible flow obstruction ww ¢ Itsaccuracy is very high. ‘¢. The instrument's outputhas a linear relationship with fluid velocity. «There are no moving parts in this arrangement. «They have an excellent dynamic response. LIMITATIONS « Thearrangementis complex. «High cost ofthe instrument. «sThetravel time difference and frequency difference is very small. (TURBINE TYPE ANEMOMETER or TURBINE METER BASIC PRINCIPLE shed to a permanent magnet polarised at 90° to the axis of When a rotor is attac! rotation, and ifthe rotors made to rotate due tothe fluid velocity Vy the rotating magnetic Feld will be cut by the pickup coil generating voltage pulses. The frequency of voltage pulse is proportional to flow rate. Hence the measure of frequency of voltage pulses becomes a measure of flow rate. DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of a turbit «A turbine wheel (rotor). « Apermanent: magnet polarised at 90° one of the blades of the rotor. -xternal to the meter housing. ached to the pickup coil. ine meter are as follows: ‘to the axis of rotation whichis: attached to ‘Apickup coil placed e A frequency meter or: ‘counter att:enTs AND CONTROL SYSTEMS TROL SYSTEMS 21.20 MEASUREM SON OPERATION 7 p a i id whose volume low rate is. | . ye neere meester me w Taleisto {i bbe measured. . ‘The fluid strikes the rotates, the permanent! produces a rotating «Each time the magnet passes a voltage pulse. The frequency sitto rotate, When the rotor and makes jade also rotates, whic! ich in tum, the rotor bl blades of the rotor ched t0 wgnetic field. he pickupeoilthemagnetic field is being cut generating pr oltage pulsesis indicated By @ frequency meter UENGY METER PREG Se COUNTER a) _ pickuP col . (WAGNETIC PICK UP) (aga0) PERMANENT nes FIMAGNET row __-- ix , © ---- eres USING } ‘TURBINE WHEEL (ROTOR) | BLADES | This frequ . Figure 21.9: Turbine Meter lency of *y of voltage pulses becomes a measure of fl low rate when calibrated. © Th 1¢ Volume flow rate “Q” is, given by, a-E na : ere, F =Total number of Pulses C=Flow coefficient MEA APE @) BA fror Tesi off DE(STEMS MEASUREMENT OF FLOW 24.24 ‘ate isto APPLICATIONS i «They are extensively used in weather stations to measure wind velocity. vin turn ¢ They are used to measure water flow in rivers and streams. = ‘+ Compact models are used to measure flow in tubes and pipes. meter. ADVANTAGES ‘¢ Recording and controlling can be done from a distance (telemetry). «High accuracy (Error is + 0.5%). + Has good dynamic response. «The pressure drop in the fluid is low. ¢ Itiseasy to install and maintain, LIMITATIONS 7 «Error increases if the flow rate is low. «Bearing friction and wear may alter the linear output of the instrument, « For-a-distance, a straight run of pipe ahead of the instrumentis required. (HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER (THERMALMETHOD) BASIC PRINCIPLE When an electrically heated wire is placed ina flowing gas stream, heat is transfered from the wire to the gas and hence the temperature of the wire reduces, and due to this, the resistance of the wire also changes. This change in resistance of the wire becomes ameasure ated. of flow rate. DESCRIPTION ‘The main parts of the arrangement are as follows: © Conducting wires placed ina ceramic body. Leads are taken from the conducting wires and they are connected to one of the limbs of the wheatstone bridge to enable the measurement of change in resistane of the wire. rwseme NTS AND. CONTROL SYSTEMS 2022 caSUREMENT OPERATION | There are WO anettents of ameaseiring HON rate USINE. setenv . Canstane current med ® oust eneranre mentes es, a CONSTANT CURREN TMETHOD | fe Tebentge arranger sy ite anette TES shown in figure 21.1] Treancernumeteris Ke vn de thawing gas see ‘measure TOW Tate. 8 Aconsanrourrenr is psc! enough the sensing WATE That is the Voltage ACTOSS the pride cits nt RELATES thatis nocyaniad, R, 4 Duennthe gas os heat aster place from the sensing Wie (© the flowing pasar henge the RAPETAUE vie sons Wire TAMUCES CAUSTNE achange inte sean scares BSNS TESST 5 Ke meh E a 4 Doemthis shegalvanometer Wh WBS jnitially at zero position deflects and this “deflection of the galvansmeter BECOME 8 MEBSUTE of flow rate of the gas when , G=GAL cen ee a cr 3 \_f i Ss =T_EL__ of’ (CONSTA THE ts = By + Thebri - e° Thean © Acum ‘eum © Duet cupecraswenes CERAMIC a = ALLL + Mey sensit Row 7 . : a ee * Thee ge ofthe calib: APPLICA © Inte are _—Tidge 1, ss the wing nthe flow I this vhen CIRCUIT — HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER RHEOSTAT G = GALVANOMETER RHEOSTAT Figure 21.11: Constant current Figure 21.12: Constant temperature method method (i) CONSTANT TEMPERATURE METHOD «The bridge arrangement along with the anemometer has been shownin figure 21.12. The anemometer is kept in the flowing gas stream to measure flow rate. ¢ Acurrentis initially passed through the wire. ¢ Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing wire to the flowing gas and this tends to change the temperature and hence the resistance of the wire. + (The principle in this method is to maintain the temperature and resistance of the sensing wire ata constant level). Therefore, the current through the sensing wire is increased to bring back the sensing wire to have its initial resistance and temperature, ¢ The electrical current required to bring back the resistance and hence the temperature of the wire to its initial condition becomes a measure of flow rate of the gas when calibrated. APPLICATION © Inresearch applications, they are extensively used to study varying flow conditions.nTSAND CONTROL SYSTEMS MEASUREME! 21.24 REVIEW QUESTIONS SHORT ANSWER QU 1, Why flowmeasurement or rate meters? STIONS isimportant? 2, What are secondary 5 yn meter work? 3. Onwhat basic principle does an obstruet0 flow meters’ used? 4, Where are magnetic flowmeter? 5, Whatisan ultrasonic LONGANSWER QUESTIONS struction and working ofan orif and working of a flow nozzle. ‘used to measure flow? smitations ofa flow nozzle and venturi flow mete 1, Explain the co i a 2. Explain the: construction: 3, Howisa venturi flowmeter 4. Listthe applications, advantages and li 5. Describe the working ofa rotameter. 6. How flowrate is measured using a pitot tube? 7. Explain the working of amagnetic flow meter. 8. Explain the ultrasonic flow meter using the travel time difference method. 9. Explain the ultrasonic flow meter using the oscillating loop system. 10. Explain the turbine type anemometer. 11. Explain the construction and working of a hot wire anemometer. aR SRE