HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL AND OTHER METALS

INTRODUCTION:

The properties of plain carbon containing more than about 0.3% carbon

can be modified by heat treatment. Heat treatment is a process of heating

the metal to a pre-determined temperature, followed by a cooling at

controlled rate.

When a 0.3% carbon steel is heated to about 7200C, its structure

undergoes certain changes until a completely new structure is formed at

about 8500C (the nature of this new structure is complex). The

temperature at which change begin is called the lower critical temperature

of the steel and the temperature at which the change is completed is

called the upper critical temperature.

If the steel is heated above its upper critical temperature and then cooled

rapidly by quenching in water, brine or oil, both the hardness and strength

of the metal will be increased. If the steel is cooled slowly from this

temperature, the metal will be softer and more ductile. Thus, maximum

hardness of steel is obtained by rapid cooling from above the upper

critical temperature, and maximum softness is obtained by slow cooling

from the same temperature.

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The lower critical temperature of steel is constant, but the upper critical

temperature varies with the carbon content. The main heat treatment

processes used for plain carbon steels are:

• Hardening

• Tempering

• Annealing

• Normalizing

• Case Hardening

Hardening:

This is a process of heating followed by rapid cooling. The degree of

hardness obtained depends on the speed at which the heat is removed

from the metal b y immersion in a quenching tank or bath. Brine (salt

water) is about twice as effective as water in removing heat quickly, and

thus gives the most severe quench and the greatest hardness of the steel.

Oil quenching is about four times less severe than water, and thus gives

lower values of hardness but reduces distortion, cracking and internal

stresses due to quenching.

The steel is usually heated to about 30 to 500C above the upper critical

temperature before quenching.

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The general effect of the hardening process is a produce a small grain size

in the metal. The strength and hardness of the steel are increased, but its

ductility is reduced. The effectiveness of the process depends on the

carbon content of the steel; steels having less than 0.3% carbon will show

little or no increase in hardness due to quenching.

Tempering:

Fully-hardened high carbon steel is brittle and may be subject to internal

stresses caused by the severity of the quenching operation. If a high

carbon steel cutting tool, such as a chisel, were to be used in the fully

hardened condition, the cutting edge would fracture under the impact

load. The process of tempering is used to reduce brittleness and remove

any quenching stresses in the hardened metal. The hardness of the steel is

reduced by tempering but its toughness is greatly increased.

Tempering is done by heating the hardened steel to some temperature

below the lower critical temperature and then quenching. The tempering

temperature is decided by the final combination of hardness and

toughness required in the component. High values of hardness are

obtained with low tempering temperatures, and high values of toughness

with high tempering temperatures.

A component such as a scriber is required to have a point which is very

hard, but its toughness is relatively less important. In this case a low

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temperature of about 2200C would be used. On the other hand a cold

chisel requires toughness to withstand impact load so some hardness must

be scarified to improve its toughness. In this case, a higher tempering

temperature of about 2800C would be used.

Annealing:

This process is used to obtain the softest state of the metal so that it may

be easily cold-worked by bending, drawing and pressing. The steel is

raised to the same temperature as in the hardening process, but is first

soaked at that temperature and then cooled very slowly. The slow cooling

rate is achieved by allowing the steel to cool either in the furnace or in a

bend of sand, lime or ashes.

Fully annealed steel has a large grain size and is soft and ductile. In this

condition it is too soft to be easily machined as the metal may tear during

cutting and leave a poor surface finish on the work piece.

Normalizing:

This process consists of heating steel to a temperature of about 30 to

500C above the upper critical temperature followed by cooling in air.

Normalizing is a softening process but, because the cooling rate is faster

than in annealing, the grain size of the steel is smaller. Normalize steels

are stronger, harder and less ductile than annealed steels, and are more

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suitable for machining operations. Steel forgings are usually normalized

before machining to improve their cutting properties and to relieve any

internal stresses set up by the forging operation.

The general effects of heat treatment on the properties of carbon steel are

summarized in table.

Case Hardening:

Often steel components, such as shafts, pins and screws, are required

which have the low cost, ease of forming and toughness of low carbon

steel combined with a hard wear-resistant surface. However, steels

containing less than about 0.3% carbon cannot be quench hardened. For

this reason case hardening is used to provide a hard surface or case on a

low carbon steel component. This process is carried out in two stages:

Stage 1: Carburising which is a process of increasing the carbon content

in the outer layers of the component.

Stage 2: Heat Treatment to harden and temper the case and to refine and

toughen the soft core.

Carburising is achieved by prolonged heating of the component while in

contact with a carbon-rich material, liquid or gas. In the pack carburising

method, the component is packed in a steel box with carbon-rich powder

or granules. Charcoal or bone may be used. The box is heated slowly to

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about 9500C and soaked at this temperature for 3 to 5 hours depending on

the depth of case required. The box is then allowed to cool slowly.

Carburizing has the effect of producing a component having a high

carbon steel case and a low carbon steel core. Typically values of carbon

content are core 0.15%, case 0.8% Heat treatment of the carburized

component is carried out by:

(a) Heating to above the upper critical temperature of the core

(about 8700C) and quenching. This is done to refine and

toughen the core which has suffered grain growth due to

prolonged heating when carburizing.

(b) Reheating to just above the upper critical temperature of the

case (about 7600C) and quenching. This refines the grain of the

case and hardens it.

(c) Reheating to about 2000C and quenching. This is done to

temper the case and remove any internal stresses.

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WORK HARDENING OF COPPER AND ALUMINIUM

Copper and aluminium and many of their alloys are soft, ductile metals

which are easily cold-worked by rolling, hammering, pressing and

drawing. Cold-working has an effect on the structure of these metals

similar to that described for steel. The grain of the metal becomes

distorted and elongates in the direction of work. Internal stresses are set

up and the metal becomes harder and more brittle. In this condition the

metal is liable to crack and fail if further cold-working is carried out. The

metal is said to be work hardened.

The effects of work hardening can be removed by annealing. In this heat

treatment process, the work hardened metal is heated to a sufficiently

high temperature to allow recrystallisation to take place. The metal must

be held at the temperature long enough to allow new small crystals to

form and replace the distorted grains throughout the thickness of the

metal. The cooling rate is not important and the metal may be quenched

to same time or allowed to cool naturally. After annealing, the metal is

soft and ductile again and further cold-work may be carried out. In a deep

drawing process, the metal may be annealed several times between cold-

working stages. This is sometimes referred to as process annealing.

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 Table General Effects of Heat Treatment of Steel

Original Heat Strength Hardness Ductility Toughness Other Effects

Condition Treatment
Soft Hardening Increased Increased Decreased Decreased Produces small
grain size
Hard Annealing Decreased Decreased Increased Increased Easiest state to
cold work
Hard Tempering Increased Small decrease No effect Increased Prevents brittle
Soft Normalising Increased Small Increase Decreased Increased Improves
machinability

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The correct annealing temperature to ensure recrystallisation depends on

the amount of cold work that has been carried out on the metal and the

extent to which the grain have become distorted. Severe cold-work will

generally lower the temperature at which recrystallisation takes places.

The pure metals have lower recrystallisation temperatures than their

alloys. Pure copper recrystallises at 2000C while cold-worked brass is

annealed upto about 6000C and aluminium based alloys in the range

3500C to 4000C. if the metal is heated above the recrystallisation

temperature, then grain growth may occur which weakens the metal, and

it may be necessary to remelt the metal to restore the grain.

The corrosion resistance of copper based alloys such as 70/30 brass can

be affected by the internal stresses set up during cold working. This effect

is known as season cracking and is a form of stress induced corrosion. If

a cold-worked brass component is in contact with a corrosive atmosphere

during its operating life, cracks may appear on the metal due to internal

stresses left by the cold-work, and the part may fail. This effect is often

noticed on old brass switch casings or other pressed fittings which have

been subjected to moist conditions. Season cracking of brass may be

prevented by heating the cold-worked metal to about 2800C in order to

relieve the internal stresses. This process is sometimes referred to as

stress relief annealing.

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AGE HARDENING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

The strength and hardness of aluminium cooper alloys such as duralumin

may be increased by heat treatment. The process used consists of three

stages:

Stage 1: The duralumin is heated to a temperature of about 5100C and

held at that temperature until the copper content is taken into solid

solution with the aluminium.

Stage 2: The alloy is cooled rapidly by quenching in water, causing the

copper to be trapped in solution and leaving the metal slightly stronger

and harder, but in a ductile and workable condition.

Stage 3: The ally ages naturally over a period of days during which the

copper atoms are rearranged and the metal grains in hardness and

strength.

Stages 1 and 2 taken together are known as solution treatment. Stage 3

can be accelerated and the properties further improved by reheating the

quenched alloy to lower temperature (about 1750C) for several hours.

This process is known as precipitation treatment and is a form of artificial

ageing. The temperature and the heating time of this process depends on

the composition of the alloy and must be accurately controlled to give the

alloy maximum strength in its final condition.

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The effect of natural ageing after solution treatment can be delayed by

storing components, such as duralumin rivets and pressings, in a

refrigerator at about -200C. This method keeps the components in a

ductile and easy-to-work state until they are required to be used. When

the rivets are removed from the refrigerator, they must be used almost

immediately because the natural ageing process will commence at room

temperature and the rivets will become harder and stronger. This method

is widely used in the aircraft industry for riveted airframes to ensure that

the rivets are formed while having their greatest ductility and then attain

their maximum strength in the finished joint.

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