Microbial Metabolism Assignment

Submitted To: Dr. Muhammad Ishtiaq Ali

Submitted By: Muhammad Ismail Shah
Registration No: 04051613028
Department: Bs. Microbiology (VI)
Date: May 21, 2019
 Metabolism in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Metabolism:
The sum of all chemical processes occurring in an organism at one time is known as
“metabolism”. It is concerned with the management of material and energy sources within the
cell. Enzymes accelerate each step. Enzyme activity is regulated to maintain a balance of supply
and demand. There are two types of metabolic pathways. Catabolic pathways release energy by
breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds. This energy is stored in organic
molecules until need to do work in the cell. Anabolic pathways consume energy to build
complicated molecules from simpler compounds. The energy released by catabolic pathways is
used to drive anabolic pathways.

Metabolic pathways in prokaryotes:

In prokaryotic cells, all the metabolic pathways occur in the cytoplasm, except for
chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation, which occur on the plasma membrane. Prokaryotic
cells are capable of anaerobic respiration using alternative electron acceptors such as nitrate and
sulfate, although they prefer oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor to drive chemiosmotic
ATP synthesis. In the absence of any suitable electron acceptor, they use fermentation pathways.
In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, which lack mitochondria, the citric acid cycle reaction
sequence is performed in the cytosol with the proton gradient for ATP production being across
the cell's surface (plasma membrane) rather than the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
Prokaryotic photosynthetic organisms have infoldings of the plasma membrane for chlorophyll
attachment and photosynthesis. It is here that organisms like cyanobacteria can carry out Calvin
cycle.

Metabolic pathways in eukaryotes:

In eukaryotic cells, glycolysis and fermentation reactions occur in the cytoplasm. The
remaining pathways, starting with pyruvate oxidation, occur in the mitochondria. Most
eukaryotic mitochondria can use only oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor for respiration. In
the presence of oxygen, pyruvate enters the mitochondrial matrix and is oxidized to acetyl-CoA,
and then to CO2 via the Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle). The electron transport chain and ATP
synthase are located on the mitochondrial inner membrane. Calvin cycle, in eukayotes, takes
place in the stroma (the inner space of chloroplasts).
 Energy metabolism in eukaryotic cells, from Wikipedia.

General overview:

A general overview of different cycles is given as follows:

Fermentation and Glycolysis:

Fermentation reactions occur in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate does not enter mitochondria, but instead undergoes
fermentation to either lactic acid or ethanol. Fermentation and cellular respiration begin the same
way, with glycolysis. In fermentation, however, the pyruvate made in glycolysis does not
continue through oxidation and the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain does not
run. Because the electron transport chain isn't functional, the NADH in glycolysis cannot drop its
electrons off there to turn back into NAD+. The purpose of the extra reactions in fermentation,
then, is to regenerate the electron carrier NAD+ produced in glycolysis. The extra reactions
accomplish this by letting NADH drop its electrons off with an organic molecule (such as
pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis). This drop-off allows glycolysis to keep running by
ensuring a steady supply of NAD+.

Net yield of glycolysis in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is 2 NADH and 2 ATP. The
overall yield of energy-containing compounds from the TCA cycle is three NADH, one FADH2,
and one GTP.
Prurine and pyrimidine biosynthesis:

All but one step in pyrimidine synthesis occurs in the cytosol, and purine synthesis occurs
in the cytosol only. Nucleotides freely diffuse through nuclear pores but are actively transported
through mitochondrial membranes via embedded membrane transport proteins (i.e. ATP-ADP
translocators, GTP transporters, and pyrimidine nucleotide transporters).

Pyrimidine biosynthesis in E. coli is regulated by the feedback inhibition of aspartate

transcarbamoylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the committed step. CTP inhibits
and ATP stimulates this enzyme. The feedback inhibition of glutamine-PRPP amidotransferase
by purine nucleotides is important in regulating their biosynthesis. Unlike the case for
pyrimidines, the purine bases are assembled already attached to the ribose ring.
Alternatively, purine bases, released by the hydrolytic degradation of nucleic acids and
nucleotides, can be salvaged and recycled. Purine salvage pathways are especially noted for the
energy that they save and the remarkable effects of their absence.

Fatty acid synthesis:

Cytosolic fatty acid synthase (FAS) is responsible for the bulk synthesis of fatty acids and

in animals is most active in the “lipogenic tissues” such as liver, adipose, and lactating mammary
glands. The exact role of the mitochondrial FAS is unclear, but it may provide the
octanoyl precursor required for the de novo biosynthesis of lipoyl moieties that are utilized for
the covalent modification of several mitochondrial enzymes, and/or fatty acids required for the
remodeling of mitochondrial lipids. In the mitochondrial system, the enzymes exist as separate,
freestanding proteins (type II) whereas in the cytosolic system, the enzymes are covalently linked
in large multifunctional polypeptides (type I). The mitochondrial proteins closely resemble their
prokaryotic type II counterparts, consistent with the hypothesis that mitochondria originated
from free-living bacteria, but are nuclear encoded and possess N-terminal targeting sequences
that direct them into the mitochondrial compartment.

Calvin cycle:

In eukaryotes, 3CO2combine with 3 RuBP acceptors, making 6 molecules of

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). 1 G3P molecule exits the cycle and goes towards making
glucose.5 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 3 RuBP acceptor molecules.9 ATP are
converted to 9 ADP (6 during the fixation step,  3 during the regeneration step). 6 NADPH are
converted to NADP+ (during the reduction step).A G3P molecule contains three fixed carbon
atoms, so it takes two G3Ps to build a six-carbon glucose molecule. It would take six turns of the
cycle, or 6 CO2, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH, to produce one molecule of glucose.
 In Calvin of a cyanobacterium (Synechocystis), total 36 metabolites are used in 13
catalytic steps of CBB cycle (Calvin Bensen-Bassham), the phosphoketolase subnetwork, and
reactions downstream towards acetyl-CoA. The pathway is as follows:

Conclusion:
Cells are constantly carrying out thousands of chemical reactions needed to keep the cell,
and your body as a whole, alive and healthy. These chemical reactions are often linked together
in chains, or pathways. In the metabolic web of the cell, some of the chemical reactions release
energy and can happen spontaneously (without energy input). However, others need added
energy in order to take place. Just as you must continually eat food to replace what your body
uses, so cells need a continual inflow of energy to power their energy-requiring chemical
reactions.