Introduction to the

Renormalization Group
Hands-on course to the basics of the RG
(based on: “Introduction to the Functional Renormalization Group”
by P. Kopietz, L. Bartosch, and F. Schütz)

Andreas Kreisel
Institut für Theoretische Physik
Goethe Universität Frankfurt
Germany

J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 39, 8205 (2006)

J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 21, 305602 (2009)
Phys. Rev. B 80, 104514 (2009)
1
SFB TRR 49
 Outline

1.History of the RG

2.Phase Transitions and scaling

3.Mean-Field Theory

4.Wilsonian RG

5.Functional (exact) RG

6.Applications 2
 Introduction

What is the renormalization group?

“All renormalization group studies have in common the idea of re-
expressing the parameters which define a problem in terms of some
other, perhaps simpler set, while keeping unchanged those physical
aspects of a problem which are of interest.”
(John Cardy, 1996)

“Meta-Theory” about theories

Make the problem as simple as possible, but
not simpler.

Describe general properties qualitatively, but
not necessarily quantitatively. 3
 Quantum Field Theory

Problem: Perturbation theory in quantum

electrodynamics gives rise to infinite terms

Solution: all infinities can be absorbed in

redefinition (=renormalization) of the
parameters which have to be fixed by the
experiment

Renormalizable theories: finite number n of
parameters sufficient, n experiments needed
to fix them, predict all other experiments 4
 Renormalization of QED

3 divergent diagramms
3 parameters

2

Electron self energy §(P ) = e (4m ¡ P= )
8¼ 2 ²
Zm mr electron mass
m= renormalization
Z2
2
e

Photon self energy ¦¹º (P ) = 2 (K ¹ K º ¡ g ¹º K 2)
6¼ ²
e2r field
Z3 = 1 ¡ 2 renormalization
6¼ ²

Vertex correction ¤(P; P + Q; Q)¹ = e2 ° ¹
8¼ 2²
2
e
e2r = e2
charge
5
1 ¡ 6¼ 2 ln¹=¹0 renormalization
 History

Kenneth Wilson (1971/1972)

calculation of critical exponents which are
universal for a class of models
C(t) = jtj¡® specific heat T ¡ Tc
t=
m(t) » (¡t)¯ magnetization Tc

new formulation of the RG idea
(Wilsonian RG)

Nobel Prize in Physics 1982:
”...for his theory of critical phenomena
in connection with phase transitions...”

6
 Phase transitions and scaling
hypothesis

Phase transitions: examples

Paramagnet-Ferromagnet Transition
m ordering parameter: magnetization

@f
m = ¡ lim / (Tc ¡ T )¯
h!0 @h

critical exponent: general for systems

characterized by symmetry and
0 dimensionality
c T

7
 Phase transitions and scaling
hypothesis

Liquid-Gas Transition
order parameter: density

n n ¡ nc / (T ¡ Tc )¯

p1 same symmetry class as Ising

model (classical spins in a
magnetic field)

same critical exponent
0 X X
c T H = ¡J si sj ¡ h si
p2 ij i
si = §1
p3
8
 Universality classes

Ising model, gas-liquid transition

X
H = ¡J si sj Z2 : si ! ¡si
ij

XY3 , Bose gas, (magnets in magnetic fields)
X£ ¤
H = ¡J Six Sjx + Siy Sjy+ (1 + ¸)Siz Sjz
ij 0 1
cos ' sin ' 0
~!S
O(2) : S ~ = @ ¡ sin '
0
cos ' 0 AS~
0 0 1

Heisenberg
X
H = ¡J S ~j
~i ¢ S O(3) : ~!S
S ~0
ij 9
 Critical exponents

specific heat C(t) / jtj¡®

T ¡ Tc

spontaneous m(t) / (¡t) ¯ t=
Tc
magnetization
¡°

magnetic susceptibility Â(t) / jtj

critical isotherm m(h) / jhj1=± sgn(h) t=0

e¡jrj=»

correlation length G(~r) / p D¡3 D¡1 » / jtj¡º
» jrj

anomalous dimension
G(~k) » j~kj¡2+´ T = Tc 10
 Scaling Hypothesis

only two of six exponents are independent

consider free energy density
f (t; h) = fsing (t; h) + freg (t; h)

singular part satisfies homogeneity relation
h
fsing = jtjD=yt ©§ ( ) ©§ (x) = fsing (§1; x)
jtjyh =yt

critical exponents from derivatives
¯
2
1 @ f ¯¯ ¡®
C= / jtj
Tc @t¯2 ¯h=0
@f ¯¯ ¯
m=¡ / (¡t)
@h ¯h=0 11
 Scaling Hypothesis

relations between exponents

2 ¡ ® = 2¯ + ° = ¯(± + 1)

scaling hypothesis for correlation function
delivers two additional relations
2 ¡ ® = Dº ° = (2 ¡ ´)º

relation between ® = 2 ¡ Dº
thermodynamic º
¯ = (D ¡ 2 + ´)
exponents 2
° = º(2 ¡ ´)
and correlation
D+2¡´
function exponents ± =
D¡2+´ 12
Exercise 1: van der Waals Gas

equation of state
à µ ¶2 !
N
p+a (V ¡ N b) = N T
V

sketch of isotherms
6
T=9/8 T
c
4 T=Tc
p/pc

T=9/7 T
c
2

0
0 1 2 3 13
V/V
c
 Exercise 1: Critical properties

Thermodynamics: calculate free energy from

pressure Z V
F (T; V ) = ¡ p(V 0 )dV 0 + const.(T )
V0
h3
F (T; V )ideal = N kB T ln + N kB T
(2¼mkB T )3=2 V

obtain quantities from derivatives of the free

energy
µ 2
¶
@ F
Cv = ¡T / jtj¡® specific heat
@T 2 V

14
 Exercise 1: Critical exponents
(continued)
N kB T Vc2

use equation of state p(V ) =
V ¡ Vc =3
¡ 3pc 2
V
susceptibility
compressibility
µ ¶ µ ¶¡1
1 @V 1 @p
·T = ¡ =¡ / t¡°
V @p T V @V T;V =Vc

rewrite at the critical temperature

n = nc + ¢n
p(¢n) = pc + const.¢n± ) (n ¡ nc ) / (p ¡ pc )1=±

15
 Mean Field Theory
X X

Example: Ising model H = ¡J si sj ¡ h si
ij i
X

partition function Z(T; h) = e¡¯H
fsi g
P ¡¯H

magnetization fsi g s i e
m = hsi i =
Z

simplify term in Hamiltonian
si sj = (m + ±si )(m + ±sj ) = ¡m2 + m(si + sj ) + ±sj + ±sj

free spins in field
zJ 2 X
HMF =N m ¡ (h + zJm)si
2 i 16
 Mean Field Theory

calculate partition function and free energy

¡¯N ZJm2 =2 N
ZMF (t; h) = e [2 cosh[¯(h + zJ m)]]
magnetization m(t; h)

self consistency equation for magnetization

ZMF (t; h) = e¡¯N L
@L
=0
@m
m0 = tanh[¯(h + zjm0 )]

free energy
f (T; h) = L(T; h; m0 )
17
 Mean Field Theory: critical
exponents (only correct at D>4)

minimum condition @L Tc
= (T ¡ Tc )m0 + m30 ¡ h = 0
@m 3
r
magnetization Tc ¡ T


m0 = / (¡t)1=2 ¯ = 1=2
2Tc
¯

susceptibility @m0 ¯¯ 1 °=1
Â= /
@h ¯ h=0T ¡ Tc

critical isotherm m (h) / h1=3 ±=3
0
@ 2 f (T; h)

specific heat C = ¡T
@ 2 (T ln 2)
@T 2
C ¼ Tc T > Tc
@T 2
C ¼ Tc
@ 2 (T ln 2) 3(T ¡ Tc )2
¡ T > Tc
®=0 18
@T 2 4Tc
 Wilsonian RG

Basic idea: take into account interactions

iteratively in small steps

Formulation in terms of functional integrals:
4
example Ising
Z model ( ' theory)
1 free action: particle is
S¤0 ['] = [r0 + c0~k2 ]'(¡~k)'(~k) characterized by the the
Z 2 Z~
k values of two parameters
n0
S1 = ¢¢¢ ±(~k1 + : : : + ~k4 )'(~k1 )'(~k2 )'(~k3 )'(~k4 )
4! ~
k1 ~
k4

cutoff j~kj < ¤0 interaction between (scalar) particles:
characterized by the coupling constant
only particles allowed up to a momentum
for example due to a lattice in a condensed matter system
Z

partition function Z= D[']eS¤0 +S1 19
 Step 1: Mode elimination

integrate out degrees of freedom associated

withZ fluctuationsZ at high
Z
energies
Z= D[']e¡S¤0 ¡S1 = D['< ] D['> ]e¡S¤0 ¡S1
Z
0
¡S¤ +S10
e = D['> ]e¡S¤0 ¡S1

end up: theory with modified couplings due

to interactions
Z
1
0
S¤ ['] = [r< + c<~k 2 ]'(¡~k)'(~k)
2 ~k
< Z Z
n
S10 = ¢¢¢ ±(~k1 + : : : + ~k4 )'(~k1 )'(~k2 )'(~k3 )'(~k4 )
4! ~k1 ~
k4

20
 Step 2: Rescaling

Fields: defined on reduced space

blow up again the

momentum space

rescale wave vectors to get action with the
same form as before (free and interaction
part)
~k0 = ¤0 =¤~k
'0 = ³b¡1 '<
1+D=2
p
³b = b c0 =c< b = ¤0 =¤
21
 Step 3: Iterative Procedure

get relations for mode elimination and

rescaling (semi-group)
" Z #
¤0
0 2 n0 dD k 1
r (r0 ; n0 ) = b Zb r0 +
2 ¤ (2¼)D r0 + c0~k 2
" Z #
3n20 ¤0 dD k 1
n0 (r0 ; n0 ) = b4¡D Zb2 n0 ¡
2 ¤ (2¼)D (r0 + c0~k 2 )2

iteration in infinitesimal steps (differential
equations: flow equations)
¤ = ¤0 e¡±l ¼ ¤0 (1 + ±l)
1 n(l)
@l r(l) = 2r(l) +
2 1 + r(l)
3 n(l)2
@l n(l) = (4 ¡ D)n(l) + 22
2 (1 + r(l))2
 Flow diagrams

solve coupled differential equations for

different initial conditions (parameters of real
system)

critical surface: critical systems determined
by the values of the coupling constants
two fixed
points:
Gaussian,
one fixed Wilson-Fisher
point:
Gaussian critical surface
fixed point
(mean field)

23
 RG fixed points and critical
exponents

RG fixed points: describe scale invariant
system

critical fixed points
– relevant / irrelevant
directions
– correlation length: infinite
– critical manifold
(surface describes
system at critical point)

critical exponents
– eigenvalues of linearised flow
equations near to fixed point 24
 Functional renormalization
group

basic idea: Express Wilsonian mode
elimination in terms of formally exact
functional differential equations

generatingRfunctional of Green functions
D[©]e¡S[©] ©®1 ¢ ¢ ¢ ©®n derive RG
G(n)
®1 :::®n = R equations for
D[©]e¡S[©] generating
R functional
D[©]e¡S[©]+(J;©)©®1 ¢ ¢ ¢ ©®n Green functions
G[J] = R then given as
D[©]e¡S[©] derivatives

(n) ± n G[J] example: two 1

G®1 ¢¢¢®n = point function G(2) (~
k) /
±J®1 ¢ ¢ ¢ ±J®n of Ising model j~kj2¡´
25
 Exact renormalization group

introduce cutoff: modify Gaussian

propagator:
allow only propagation of modes up to a
certain
Z momentum Z
1 1
S0 = (r0 + c0~k 2 )'(¡~k)'(~k) = G¡1 ~ ~ ~
0 (k)'(¡k)'(k)
2 2
1 1 ¡ £ c (j~kj ¡ ¤)
G0 (~k) = !
~
r0 + c0 k 2 r0 + c0~k2

take derivative of generating
functional with respect to cutoff

FRG flow equation 26
 Exact FRG flow equation

Wetterich equation cutoff function

" #
1 @¤ R¤
@¤ ¡¤ [©] = Tr @ 2 ¡¤ [©]
2 + R¤
@©2

flow equations for vertex functions (coupling
constants)

27
 Applications

BCS-BEC crossover (electron gas with

attractive interactions)
– mean field theory (BCS-theory)
X g0 X y
H= ²~k c~yk¾ c~k¾ ¡ c~k+~p cy¡~k c¡~k0 c~k0 +~p
V
~
k¾ ~
k;~
k0 ;~
p

flow equations of order parameter

FRG needs additionally Ward identities
(relations between vertex functions

28
 Applications

interacting fermions
X 1 X
H= ²~k c~y c~k¾ + V~k;~k0 ;~p c~y cy ~ c¡~k0 c~k0 +~p
k¾ 2V p ¡k
k+~
Z~k¾ ~
k;~
k0 ;~
p Z
Z=
¹
¹ ¡S[Ã;Ã]¡S
D[Ã; Ã]e
¹
1 [Ã;Ã] ¹ =1
S1 [Ã; Ã] V ùÃÃÃ
¹
2 k;k0 ;q

Hubbard-Stratonovich
Z transformation
¹
¡S1 [Ã;Ã] ¤ ¹
¡S0 [Á;Á¤ ]¡S 0 [Ã;Ã;Á;Á ¤
]
e = D[Á; Á ]e
Z compare:
1
S0 [Á; Á¤ ] = V ¡1 Á¤k Ák 4
¡ x2!
R1 2
¡ x2 ¡ix2 y
2 k e = dx e
¡1
Z Z
¹ Á; Á¤ ] = i
S 0 [Ã; Ã; Ãk+q Ãk Áq
k q
29
 Hubbard Stratonovich
transformation

interacting fermions
bosons and fermions
with Yukawa type interaction
Z Z Z
¹ =1
S1 [Ã; Ã] V ùÃÃÃ
¹ ¹ Á; Á¤ ] = i
S 0 [Ã; Ã; Ãk+q Ãk Áq
2 k;k0 ;q k q

Z
1
S0 [Á; Á¤ ] = V ¡1 Á¤k Ák
2 k

FRG of coupled bosons and fermions 30

 Summary

phase transitions
critical exponents

@f
m = ¡ lim / (Tc ¡ T )¯
h!0 @h

universality classes (same symmetry

same properties at critical point)

mean field theory

Wilsonian Renormalisation Group

functional Renormalization group

31
 Exercise 2: Real-space RG of
the 1D Ising model

model N
X
H = ¡J si si+1
i=1

transfer matrix method to calculate partition

function µ ¶
N eg e¡g g = ¯J
Z = Tr[T ] T =
e¡g eg

calculate trace in diagonal basis
µ ¶
1 1 1
T = U y T~U U= p
2 1 ¡1
32
 Exercise 2: Real-space RG

keep only every b’s spin and derive effective

model with new coupling

N
N b
Z = Tr[T ] = Tr[T ] b
µ g0 ¡g0
¶
e e
Tb = T0 = ¡g 0
g0
e e

derive recursion relation (RG transformation)
g 0 (g) = Artanh(tanhb (g)) 33
 Exercise 2: Real-space RG

variable transformation b b
(1 + y) ¡ (1 ¡ y)
y = e¡2g y 0 = e¡2g y 0 (y) =
(1 + y)b + (1 ¡ y)b

infinitesimal transformation (differential
equation)
±l dy 1 ¡ y2 1+y
b = e ¼ 1 + ±l = ln( )
dl 2 1¡y

fixed points and flow
dy
=0
dl
34
 Literature

S.K. Ma:
Modern Theory of Critical Phenomena
(Benjamin/Cummings, Reading, 1976)

N. Goldenfeld:
Lectures on Phase Transitions and the Renormalization Group
(Addison-Weseley, Reading, 1992)

J. Cardy:
Scaling and Renormalization in Statistical Physics
(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996)

J. Zinn-Justin:
Quantum Field Theory and Critical Phenomena
(Oxford Science Publication, Oxford, 2002)

P. Kopietz, L. Bartosch, F. Schütz:
Introduction to the Functional Renormalization Group
(Springer, Heidelberg, 2010)
35