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DNV-RP-F401
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Recommended Practice DNV-RP-F401, February 2012
Changes – Page 3
CHANGES
General
This is a new document.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 5
2. Scope........................................................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 Application................................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Applicable standards.................................................................................................................................5
2.3 Terminology..............................................................................................................................................5
3. Requirements.......................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 General construction requirements ...........................................................................................................6
3.2 Conductor..................................................................................................................................................7
3.3 Electrical insulation of core – breakdown strength...................................................................................7
3.4 Screen/sheath for prevention water exposure to the insulation system ....................................................7
3.5 Water blocking..........................................................................................................................................8
3.6 Degassing..................................................................................................................................................8
3.7 Longitudinal gas barrier............................................................................................................................8
3.8 Armour......................................................................................................................................................9
3.9 Anchoring of armour.................................................................................................................................9
3.10 Radial compression – load carrying capacity ...........................................................................................9
3.11 Flexibility/Compliance .............................................................................................................................9
3.12 Bending radius ........................................................................................................................................10
3.13 Coiling.....................................................................................................................................................10
4. References............................................................................................................................................. 10
Appendix A. Qualification with Respect to Fatigue................................................................................... 11
A.1 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 11
A.2 Definitions.............................................................................................................................................. 11
A.3 Input data ............................................................................................................................................... 12
A.4 Pre-test straining .................................................................................................................................... 12
A.5 Qualification principles.......................................................................................................................... 12
A.6 Qualification based on components ....................................................................................................... 13
A.7 Qualification of complete cable cross section ....................................................................................... 14
A.8 Electrical verification tests..................................................................................................................... 15
Appendix B. Test Methods – Fatigue Loading of Complete Cables......................................................... 17
B.1 General................................................................................................................................................... 17
B.2 4-point-bending...................................................................................................................................... 17
B.3 Bending against template....................................................................................................................... 17
Appendix C. Fatigue Testing Detection Techniques .................................................................................. 19
C.1 Metallic materials................................................................................................................................... 19
C.2 Plastic materials ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Appendix D. Estimation of Fatigue Design Curves – Least Squares Method ......................................... 22
Appendix E. Estimation of Fatigue Design Curves -
Incomplete Observations of Number of Cycles to Failure ......................................................................... 23
1. Introduction
This Recommended Practice is to be used as a supplement to ISO 13 628-5 /1/ with regards to electrical power
cables. This ISO standard does not give requirements to such cables on a detailed level. This RP covers
additional requirements for power cables being submerged in seawater at large water depths and/or being
exposed to dynamic excitation, e.g. when suspended from floating production units.
The RP is intended to be used together with /1/. In case of conflict between the ISO standard and this document
the ISO standard shall prevail.
It is a pre-requisite that power cables are designed and fabricated according to existing IEC standards.
2. Scope
2.1 Application
The RP covers electrical power cables, as single cables or integrated in an umbilical in an application covered
by ISO 13 628-5 /1/.
The RP covers cables which comply with IEC 60 502-1 /2/ and IEC 60 502-2 /3/.
The RP applies to cables used for AC power transmission. DC cables are not covered.
Guidance note:
Examples of single cables may e.g. be power supply to direct electrical heating systems for pipelines, main power
supply from shore to floating production units, power supply from floating units to subsea installation etc.
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Guidance note:
The following definition of an umbilical is given in /1/: “group of functional components, such as electric cables,
optical fibre cables, hoses, and tubes, laid up or bundled together or in combination with each other, that generally
provides hydraulics, fluid injection, power and/or communication services”.
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Screen: Conducting layer or assembly of conducting layers having the function of control of the
electric field within the insulation.
Sheath: Uniform and continuous tubular covering of metallic or non-metallic material, generally
extruded. (North America: jacket)
Strand: One of the wires in a stranded conductor.
In addition the term Water blocking is used for powder, tape, grease, compound, yarn or glue applied under a
sheath or into the interstices of a conductor to prevent water migrating along the cable.
A Barrier sheath, IEC 60 050-461 /6/, having the function of protecting the insulation and its screen from
outside contamination may be specified by the purchaser.
3. Requirements
3.1 General construction requirements
3.1.1 Insulation system
The insulation system shall consist of a fully bonded true triple extruded XLPE system (extrusion of conductor
screen, insulation and insulation screen simultaneously). The insulation screen is not required for cables
according to /2/. The use of other insulation system(s) is the subject of agreement between manufacturer and
purchaser.
3.1.2 Conductor
A joint of the entire conductor cross section of the conductor shall not be located in a dynamic part of a cable,
i.e. parts of the cable not resting on the seabed or otherwise prevented from motion.
3.1.3 Armour
Cables shall be balanced with respect to torsion. Un-balanced designs may be used subject to agreement
between manufacturer and purchaser. Test methods and acceptance criteria may have to be modified for un-
balanced designs.
3.1.4 Thermal conditions
Cable routing and installation method (e.g. burial, rock dumping, guide tubes etc.) may reduce the heat
transport from the cable. Ancillary equipment like bend stiffeners may act as thermal insulators on the outside
of the cable reducing the heat transport from the cable. Hence, the cable system shall be designed to meet the
worst case thermal loads. The temperature shall not exceed the thermal limitations for any materials in the
power cable.
3.1.5 Longitudinal static strength of cable
The conductor and sheath(s) or screen(s) shall not be taken into account when assessing the longitudinal
capacity of the cable cross section. The strain in the conductor and sheath(s)/screen(s) shall be limited by the
strain in the load carrying elements in the cable cross section.
For applications where it can be shown that it is acceptable that the conductor contributes to the longitudinal
capacity of the cable, e.g. at smaller water depths, the load carrying capacity of the conductor may be taken into
account. In such a case it shall be demonstrated that failure due to creep or any other failure mechanism will
not occur.
A joint of the entire cable cross section shall not be located in dynamic part(s) of a cable, i.e. parts of the cable
not resting on the seabed or otherwise supported.
3.1.6 Fatigue strength of cable.
Cables exposed to dynamic excitation (e.g. cables suspended between floating installations and the sea bottom,
cables exposed to vortex induced vibrations) shall be qualified with respect to fatigue as specified in this
document. For static applications (e.g. cables resting on the sea bed) such qualification is not mandatory.
However, dynamic effects during installation shall be considered.
3.1.7 Hydrostatic strength
The components in the cable cross section shall, when the complete cross section is subjected to an external
hydrostatic pressure not smaller than the larger of 3.5 MPa or the pressure corresponding to the maximum water
depth multiplied by a factor of 1.25, not exhibit any damage that may impair its capacity with respect to
mechanical loads.
Casings (including seals) for cable joints or terminations shall, when subjected to an external hydrostatic
pressure not smaller than the larger of 3.5 MPa or the pressure corresponding to the maximum water depth
multiplied by a factor of 1.5, not exhibit any damage or leakage.
The effect of external hydrostatic pressure on the electrical properties of the cable is handled elsewhere.
3.2 Conductor
3.2.1 Static strength of conductor
The conductor shall be supported in the longitudinal direction of the cable such that failure due to creep is
prevented. This shall be confirmed by calculations based on adequate test data or data available in literature.
The evaluation of creep shall consider the effect of service temperature on the rate of creep. Variations in the
service temperature shall be considered or a conservative approach chosen.
Guidance note:
For cables suspended in large water depths the self-weight of the conductor may induce unacceptable creep in the
conductor if the conductor is not supported.
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3.4.3 Buckling
If not properly supported, bending of a barrier sheath may induce local buckling, particularly for combinations
of thin materials made from material with a large Young modulus (e.g. metallic tubes or foils). Local buckling
shall be prevented.
3.4.4 Corrosion of sheath/screen
The material in the barrier sheath shall be chosen such that it has the sufficient resistance to corrosion
considering the service environment: exposure to sea water, temperature. There shall be no penetration of the
sheath due to corrosion (holes, pits, cracks etc.) during the service life of the cable.
3.4.5 Fatigue strength of barrier sheaths – global loads
Barrier sheaths in cables exposed to dynamic loading shall be qualified with respect to fatigue. A procedure for
the qualification of power cables with respect to fatigue is given in Appendix A.
Penetration of the sheath, e.g. a crack, hole etc., shall constitute failure. The safety factor on fatigue life,
determined by calculation or testing, shall not be smaller than 10 unless otherwise agreed between
manufacturer and purchaser.
3.4.6 Fatigue strength of barrier sheath – thermal effects/radial expansion
Repeated thermal expansion/contraction of components inside of the sheath may induce fatigue stress in the
circumferential direction. The number of load cycles may be small, but the circumferential strain induced in
the sheath may be relatively large. The number and magnitude of the load cycles shall be specified by the
purchaser as well as the relevant service temperatures.
A satisfactory fatigue life of the sheath shall be demonstrated by recognised methods taking into account
deformation in the non-linear regime of the materials. The design with respect to fatigue shall be based on
fatigue design curves or by direct testing on cable samples. Fatigue design curves shall be determined by testing
at the strain levels that are relevant and be expressed as fatigue life in number of load cycles vs. strain range.
Damage accumulation shall be carried out in accordance with recognised methods.
The fatigue life may alternatively be determined by testing of samples of cable by exposing the cable to heating
cycles while applying the relevant external pressure.
Penetration of the sheath, e.g. a crack, hole etc., shall constitute failure. The safety factor on fatigue life,
determined by calculation or testing, shall not be smaller than 10 unless otherwise agreed between
manufacturer and purchaser.
3.5 Water blocking
3.5.1 Water blocking
Block against water transport along the conductor and the interstice between screen and external sheath shall
be fitted.
The type of water block is subject to agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.
3.5.2 Longitudinal water blocking along conductor
The cable shall be tested in accordance with and comply with the requirements given in /5/ Sec.4.8.3 –
Conductor penetration test. The test shall be carried out with sea water, preferably with artificial sea water
according to recognized standards or according to agreement between purchaser and manufacture. The test
pressure shall not be lower than the maximum hydrostatic pressure in operation.
3.5.3 Longitudinal water blocking between screen and external sheath
The cable shall be tested in accordance with and comply with the requirements given in /5/ Sec.4.8.3 – Outer
sheath penetration test. Alternative requirements may be agreed upon between manufacturer and purchaser.
The simultaneous effect of an external hydrostatic pressure on the external sheath on the water transport along
the cable may be considered and included in the test procedure.
3.6 Degassing
Cables shall be de-gassed as part of the manufacturing process. The de-gassing procedure is subject to
agreement between the purchaser and manufacturer.
Guidance note:
There is at present no generally accepted procedure for degassing.
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3.8 Armour
3.8.1 Static strength
The allowable utilization factors for load carrying elements for longitudinal loads are specified in Table 3-1.
The utilisation factor shall be taken as the ratio of the applied load to the lesser of the specified minimum yield
strength and 90% of the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the steel material in the armour.
For armour of other material than steel the utilisation factors are subject to agreement between the purchaser
and the manufacturer.
Table 3-1 Armour utilisation factors
Utilisation factor
Normal operation 0.67
Installation 0.78
Abnormal operation 1.00
3.8.2 Fatigue strength
Armour in cables exposed to dynamic loading shall be qualified with respect to fatigue. A procedure for the
qualification of power cables with respect to fatigue is given in Appendix A.
The safety factor on fatigue life, determined by calculation or testing, shall not be smaller than 10.
3.9 Anchoring of armour
3.9.1 Static strength
The utilisation factor of anchoring of armour in end terminations shall comply with Table 3-1. The utilisation
ratio shall be calculated as the applied load divided by the capacity of the termination.
3.9.2 Fatigue strength
Armour anchors subjected to significant fatigue loading shall be qualified with respect to fatigue strength by
testing. The safety factor on fatigue life, determined by calculation or testing, shall not be smaller than 10.
3.10 Radial compression – load carrying capacity
3.10.1 Radial compression – load cases
All radial loads on the cable cross section shall be considered. The design load cases shall include, but not be
limited to:
— hydrostatic pressure
— installation loads, e.g. clamping forces from caterpillar, temporary hang-off
— contact forces in chutes
— loads from clamps for anchors, buoyancy modules etc.
— support reactions, e.g. over mid-water arches.
3.10.2 Radial compression – allowable load/stress/strain
The manufacturer shall specify the allowable compression loads, short term and long term, and/or allowable
compression strains as relevant, for each of the types of loads identified in accordance with 3.10.1.
The manufacturer shall specify radial compression creep data enabling the proper design of clamps with respect
to possible relaxation of clamp forces due to creep. Creep data shall reflect the service temperatures the cable
will experience.
Compression may lead to damage of the semi-conducting screen when compressed on the conductor. This
failure mode shall be considered when determining the allowable compression force.
Guidance note:
The maximum allowable compression force/strain may have a large impact on the choice of installation method,
installation equipment, design of ancillary equipment like clamps etc. A clear specification of the allowables is
therefore important at an early stage. The design of the cross section may be the subject to an iterative process between
manufacturer and purchaser.
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3.11 Flexibility/Compliance
Possible requirements to the flexibility of the cable shall be clearly stated by the purchaser.
The manufacturer shall specify the flexibility or the bending stiffness of the cable, maximum and minimum,
for different temperatures as agreed with the manufacturer. The flexibility depends on the curvature of the
cable. The flexibility should as a minimum be stated for the minimum bending radius specified by the
manufacturer for installation and service.
4. References
/1/ ISO 13628-5. Petroleum and natural gas industries - Design and operation of subsea production systems -
Part 5: Subsea umbilicals. 2009.
/2/ IEC 60 502-1. Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages from 1 kV
(Um = 1,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) - Part 1: Cables for rated voltages of 1 kV (Um = 1,2 kV) and 3 kV
(Um = 3,6 kV). 2009.
/3/ IEC 60 502-2. Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages from 1 kV
(Um = 1,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) - Part 2: Cables for rated voltages from 6 kV (Um = 7,2 kV) up to
30 kV (Um = 36 kV). 2005.
/4/ IEC 60 228. Conductors of insulated cables. 2004.
/5/ Electra 189. Recommendations for Testing of Long AC Sub-marine Cables with Extruded Insulation for
System Voltage Above 30(36) to 150(170) kV.
/6/ IEC 60 050-461. International Electrotechnical Vocabulary - Part 461: Electric cables. 2008.
/7/ CENELEC HD 605 S2. Electric cables - Additional test methods. 2008.
/8/ Electra 171. Recommendations for Mechanical Tests on Sub-marine cables.
/9/ DNV RP-C203. Fatigue Design of Offshore Steel Structures.
APPENDIX A
QUALIFICATION WITH RESPECT TO FATIGUE
A.1 Limitations
This section covers qualification with respect fatigue loading in the high cycle regime.
Due to the limited strain levels normally expected in service, well known insulation and oversheath materials
with large strain to failures need not be subjected to a qualification procedure. The following materials are
considered to have adequate fatigue strength with respect to mechanical damage:
— low density thermoplastic polyethylene (PE)
— high density thermoplastic polyethylene (HDPE)
— cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)
— ethylene propylene rubber (EPR),
unless significantly modified with fillers, additives or similar.
For other insulation materials a qualification with respect to fatigue shall be carried out. The qualification
program will be subject to agreement in each particular case.
A.2 Definitions
C Curvature. C = 1/ρ
Cmax The maximum curvature during one deformation cycle = 1/ ρmin
Cmin The minimum curvature during one deformation cycle = 1/ ρmax
ρ Bending radius. The bending radius shall be assigned a negative and a positive value when bending
occurs to either side of a straight line, see Figure A-1
Umbilical/cable
ρ<0 ρ>0
Figure A-1
Definitions of bending radius sign
ρstatic The bending radius in the static equilibrium position of the cable
ρmax The maximum bending radius during one deformation cycle
ρmin The minimum bending radius during one deformation cycle
ε Strain
εmax Maximum strain during one deformation cycle
εmin Minimum strain during one deformation cycle
Rρ Curvature ratio. Rρ = 1 / ρ max
1 / ρ min
Rε Strain ratio. Rμ = εmin/ εmax
N Number of deformation cycles
k
ni
D Accumulated fatigue damage D=
i Ni
k Number of strain/stress blocks
ni Number of cycles in strain block i
Fatigue design curve(s) shall be estimated based on the data using the least squares method (ref. Appendix D).
The design curve shall be given at the mean minus 2 standard deviations in log(N), i.e. representing a 97.5%
probability of survival.
For data for which complete information about the number of cycles to failure is not available (e.g. when testing
complete cross sections) the method given in Appendix E may be applied. The design curve shall represent a
97.5% probability of survival. It is also referred to /9/ that gives a procedure for how to analyse data of this type.
If the number of tested stress levels is sufficiently large the mean and design curves may be divided in more
than one regression line, thus increasing accuracy.
A.7 Qualification of complete cable cross section
A.7.1 Qualification testing
The qualification program shall address as a minimum the items given in A6.
Testing shall be conducted to establish fatigue design curves (SN-curves) for the different components listed
in A6 for which satisfactory fatigue life can not be demonstrated by alternative means.
Failure of the cable cross section is defined as failure of at least one of the components.
Guidance note:
For a cross section with a solid metallic sheath it may be the case that the sheath will be the component with the
shortest fatigue life by a significant margin. If this can be demonstrated by other means than testing of the cross
section, fatigue testing of the remaining components may not be necessary. Similar evaluations may be relevant for
other components.
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1/ m
n
i =1
i ⋅ (ΔC i ) m (A1)
ΔC eff =
N
The fatigue loading is thus given by the two parameters:
— the effective curvature range ΔCeff
The fatigue load that the cable will be exposed to in service can thus be represented by the expression:
The fatigue load used in the test shall be given by the following equation:
The range of curvature and the number of cycles in the test can in principle be chosen arbitrarily as long as the
equation above is fulfilled. However, Ntest shall not be taken smaller than 50 000.
In the preceding tests more than one slope m of the fatigue curve may have been obtained, e.g. it may vary from
component to component. The test condition shall be determined based on the most conservative choice of m.
Post-fatigue electrical tests
The following tests, Table A-2 shall be carried out subsequent to fatigue loading.
Table A-2 POST-FATIGUE ELECTRICAL TESTS
Type of test Test specification Acceptance criteria
Electrical
Conductor resistance IEC 60 502-2 Sec. 16.2 IEC 60 502-2 Sec. 16.2
IEC 60 502-1 Sec. 15.2 IEC 60 502-1 Sec. 15.2
Partial discharge IEC 60 502-2 Sec. 16.3 IEC 60 502-2 Sec. 16.3
Voltage IEC 60 502-2 Sec. 16.4 IEC 60 502-2 Sec. 16.4
IEC 60 502-1 Sec. 15.3 IEC 60 502-1 Sec. 15.3
Mechanical/visual
Verification of cross section The dimensions of all components in the All measurements to be within specified
cross section shall be verified 1) tolerances.
Visual inspection of conductor In fatigue loaded area No visual defects
Visual inspection of sheath In fatigue loaded area No visual defects
Dye penetration examination of In fatigue loaded area No defects
sheath
Visual inspection of armour In fatigue loaded area No visual defects
wires
1) The following shall be measured:
— diameter or weight per unit length of conductor
— inner diameter and thickness of conductor screen
— inner and outer diameter of insulation
— inner diameter and thickness of insulation screen
— wire dimensions of screen
— inner diameter and thickness of sheath
— wire dimension of armour
— inner diameter and thickness of external sheath.
APPENDIX B
TEST METHODS – FATIGUE LOADING OF COMPLETE CABLES
B.1 General
Two methods for fatigue testing are considered applicable for testing of complete cable cross sections:
— 4-point-bend testing
— bending against template.
These two methods are described in the following sections.
Alternative methods for applying a fatigue deformation and/or for detecting failure may be accepted subject to
a qualification of the reliability of the method(s) to impart a realistic fatigue deformation and/or to detect
failures(s).
B.2 4-point-bending
The principle for the method is shown in the Figure B-1. The method can be used on both short and long
specimens, but for practical reasons the gauge section will have to be relatively short.
The test set-up can be used for controlled displacement and controlled load and for different R-values.
The curvature of the cable can in principle be determined based on beam theory provided the length of the
specimen is long enough to eliminate end effects. Curvature as a function of displacement of the moving yoke
shall be calibrated. This can be accomplished by instrumenting one or more specimens with e.g. strain gauges
in order to obtain strain level at various positions as a function of yoke displacement. Effects of creep shall be
specially considered.
For long and or slender configurations 4-point-bending may not give sufficient control of the bending radius,
particularly when a tensile preload in the cable is used. Bending against templates may be necessary in such
cases.
Figure B-1
4-point bending
Figure B-2
Bending against former
Figure B-3
Bending against former
APPENDIX C
FATIGUE TESTING DETECTION TECHNIQUES
∆ε Examination: no defect
Examination: defect
N
Figure C-1
Presentation of fatigue test results
wires are helically wound and relatively numerous such that a fairly large number of wires have to fail in close
proximity before a detectable change in stiffness occurs.
Similarly, it is questionable whether failure in the core can be detected by this method.
For early detection of fatigue cracks calibration of the detection method is probably required, i.e. the stiffness
as a function of crack size. The sensitivity to small cracks may be low.
Longitudinal cracks, e.g. in longitudinal weld seams, may not be possible to detect by this method due to their
relatively small effect on the stiffness.
C.1.3 Electrical resistance
Non-destructive detection method
Fatigue crack growth in metallic materials will eventually increase their electrical resistance. However, the
sensitivity of this technique may not be sufficiently high for many cable cross sections.
Currents applied to the sheath may pass through the semi-conducting layers under the sheath giving no or very
little appreciable increase in resistance as the length of the damage in the sheath is short, further reducing the
sensitivity of the method. Whether the sensitivity of this method is sufficient or not has to be determined from
case to case.
The resistance of wire screens may not increase appreciably until a large portion of the wires are broken in one
cross section.
The resistance of armour wire could be used as a detection method, provided the individual armour wires are
isolated from one another.
C.1.4 Eddy current
Non-destructive detection method
May be developed for use for detection of fatigue cracks in metal sheaths and screens and armour wires.
Depending on the level of development of the tools early detection of fatigue cracks may be possible. A
significant amount of development and calibration work may be necessary.
Eddy current can not be used, or is difficult to use, for components inside metallic screens or sheaths.
The method may require a significant investment for automating the inspection during testing.
C.1.5 X-ray
Non-destructive detection method
X-ray is a well developed technique for detection of defects in metallic materials. However, the ability of the
technique to discover defects in complete cables, in terms of sensitivity and discrimination between the
different components, has to be demonstrated in each individual case.
The method is not possible to automate.
C.1.6 Leakage
Non-destructive detection method
May tentatively be used for detection of through-wall defects on solid metal sheaths by applying compressed
air on the inside of the sheath. The method requires free passage of air inside and outside of the sheath. This
may not be possible to achieve for all cross section designs.
C.2 Plastic materials
Based on the discussion above the detection techniques that are considered possible to use are listed in the table
below. Development of detection techniques will form an important part of the qualification process. Where
suitable detection techniques are not available alternative means of determining the fatigue strength in a
conservative manner may be used.
APPENDIX D
ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES –
LEAST SQUARES METHOD
n n n
n log Δε i ⋅ log N i − log Δε i log N i
m= 1 1 1 (D2)
2
n
n
n (log Δε i ) 2 − log Δε i
1 1
n n
n
where n is the number of data points/test results (log Ni; log Δεi) and:
Ni : number of cycles to failure in test i
Δεi : strain range in test i
The standard deviation s of log N is given by the following equation:
1/ 2
n 2
[log N i − (log a − m log Δε i )] (D4)
s= 1
n −1
A fatigue design curve design curve can then be defined by the following equation, based on a 97.5%
probability of survival:
log N = log ā - m log Δε
where:
log ā = log a - 2⋅s.
APPENDIX E
ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES -
INCOMPLETE OBSERVATIONS OF NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE
The procedure below applies to situation where the exact numbers of cycles to failure for the test specimens
are not known.
SN-type fatigue design curves can be expressed on the following form:
log N = log a - m log Δε (E1)
N : predicted number of cycles to failure for strain range Δε
Δε : strain range
m : inverse slope of SN-curve
a : intercept of log N axis by SN-curve
For simplicity the equation above is written as:
y = A + Bx (E2)
where:
x = log Δε
y = log N
A = log a
B = -m
In case of SN-curves it is often assumed that A is Normal distributed with a constant standard deviation equal
to σA. y is then also Normal distributed with a constant standard deviation σA and a median value given by E2.
The distribution density function for y is thus given by:
1 ( y − A − Bx) 2 (E3)
f y ( x) = exp−
2πσ A2 2σ A2
with the cumulative probability function given by:
(E4)
Fy ( x) = f y ( x)dx
Assume that the test observations consist of knf of SN-data (Xnfi;Ynfi) where no failure was observed on
inspection (i.e. the fatigue life is longer than the number of cycles applied in the test) and kf of SN-data (Xf;Yf)
where failure was observed on inspection (i.e. the fatigue life is shorter than the number of cycles applied in
the test).
The likelihood function for a sample including knf observations of non-failed specimens and kf observations
of failed specimens is then given by:
[
L = ∏ Fy (Ynfi ) ⋅ ∏ 1 − Fy (Y fi ) ] (E5)
k nf kf
Since there is no way to determine E5 analytically, the estimators for A, B and σA may be found by maximising
E5 numerically.