Lehrstuhl

Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Technical Combustion

WS 2010/11
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Ingo Dauster

Lehrgebäude 4A
Room A 0.25

phone: 69-4306

e-mail: dauster@tu-cottbus.de
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Chapter 1 :

Introduction to combustion

1. Introduction - power from combustion

2. Definition of combustion
3. Basic flame types
4. Basic concepts
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

1. Introduction - power from combustion

 About 90% of the world’s energy comes from the combustion of fossil fuels.
 Energy is needed :

• for transport (land, sea, air) • for electricity generation

• for heating in buildings • for industrial processes (e.g. iron, steel,

aluminium, paper, petroleum,…)
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

 Combustion occurs in :

• Boilers, engines, refineries, incinerators, industrial ovens and is also used to

generate energy from biomass (e.g. from wood, straw, organic waste).

Example of boiler Example of furnaces

 The fuels we use could be in solid, liquid, or gaseous form :

• Coal, biomass, and municipal waste are mostly solids

• Oil and its derivatives (gasoline, kerosene, diesel) are liquids
• Natural gas (mostly methane), propane and hydrogen are gases.

 The amount of pollutants emitted from most combustion sources is strictly regulated by
legislation in most of the developed world and forms the topic of political discussion and affects
economic decisions.
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

2. Definition of combustion

Combustion is a “chemical reaction between fuel and oxidizer involving significant release of
energy as heat”.

• Fuel is any substance that releases energy when oxidized (e.g. methane - CH4, octane -
C8H18).

• Oxidizer is any oxygen-containing substance (e.g. air) that reacts with fuel.

• The reaction occurs usually in a small fraction of the available volume in the reaction zone
or flame. This is the rapid mode of combustion. Reaction may produce intermediates that
chemiluminesce or particles that glow and hence the colour of flames.

Candle flame
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

The various physical phenomena

involved in candle flame

 Prior to the candle being ignited, the wick is saturated with the fuel in its solid form. The heat
of the match or other flame being used to light the candle first melts and then vaporizes a small
amount of the fuel. Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form a
flame. This flame then provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning.

 Flames involve fluid motion, diffusion of heat and mass, heat release, and chemistry.

 Hence, the study of combustion is based on thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, heat and mass
transfer, and fluid mechanics.
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

3. Basic flame types

Fuel/Oxidizer Mixing Fluid Motion Examples

Turbulent Spark-ignited gasoline engine

Low NOx stationary gas turbine
Premixed
Laminar Flat flame
Bunsen flame

Turbulent Aircraft turbine

Diesel engine
H2/O2 rocket motor
Nonpremixed
(diffusion) Laminar Wood fire
Candle

 A premixed flame is a flame in which the oxidizer has been mixed with the fuel before it
reaches the flame front. This creates a thin flame front as all of the reactants are readily
available.
 Diffusion flame is a flame in which the oxidizer, in our case the oxygen in the air mixes with
the fuel by diffusion during the combustion process itself.
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Examples : Laminar Diffusion Flame

Stagnation
surface
y

Fuel Oxidizer
x

Flame
front
Counterflow diffusion flame

x
Flame
y
Oxidizer

Fuel
Coflow diffusion flame
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Examples : Laminar premixed Flame

Flat flame

Bunsen flame
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Turbulent flames

 In most combustion equipment, e.g., engines, boilers and furnaces, the fluid flow is usually
turbulent.

 In turbulent flow, mixing is greatly enhanced. As a consequence, the combustion chamber is,
for example, much smaller than possible with laminar flows.
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

visible fuel OH temperature NOx

part concentration concentration concentration
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

4. Basic concepts
In combustion, we work with concentrations, mole fractions, or mass fractions according to personal taste or
convenience.

4.1. Mole fractions and mass fractions

The ratio of the number of mols, ni, of a particular species i to the total number of mols ntot in the mixture is the
mole fraction or volume fraction :
ni
xi = (1)
ntot
The mass fraction wi is defined as the mass of i divided by the total mass. Using the obvious :
N N

∑x = ∑w
i =1
i
i =1
i =1 (2)

where N is the total number of species in our mixture, the following can be easily derived for wi and the mean
molecular weight M :
Mi
wi = xi (3)
M
−1
N
 N wi 
M = ∑ xi M i =  ∑  (4)
i =1  i =1 i 
M
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

The concentration of species i is defined as the number of mols of the species per unit volume. The usual
notation used for concentrations is ci or the chemical symbol of the species in square brackets, e.g. [CH4] for
methane. From this definition and Equation (1) :

ni xi ntot (5)
ci = =
V V

and using the equation of state pV=ntotRT (R is the universal gas constant), we get:

xi ntot p
ci = = xi (6)
ntot RT / p RT

This relates the concentration to the mole fraction. Note that the total pressure P and the temperature T of the
mixture have now appeared (i.e. for given mass or mole fractions, the concentrations are functions of pressure
and temperature). Applying Equation (3) to Equation (6), we relate the concentration to the mass fraction :

wi M p wρ
ci = = i (7)
M i RT M i

The mixture density ρ appearing in Equation (7) can be related to the mixture constituent densities ρi by :
N N
pM pxi M i
ci = =∑ = ∑ xi ρ i (8)
R0T i =1 R T i =1
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Example

Given mixture with 5 mole H2 and 3 mole O2, find : xH 2 , xO , M , wH 2 and wO

2 2

nH 2 5
1. xH 2 = = = 0.625
ntot 5+3
nO2 3
xO2 = = = 0.375 ; xO2 = 1 − xH 2
ntot 5+3

2
2. M = ∑ xi M i = xH 2 M H 2 + xO2 M O2
i =1

M = 0.625(2.016) + 0.375(31.999)
M = 13.260

M H2 2.016
3. wH 2 = xH 2 = 0.625 = 0.095
M 13.260
M O2 31.999 ; wO2 = 1 − wH 2
wO2 = xO2 = 0.375 = 0.905
M 13.260
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

4.2. Equivalence ratio

The equivalence ratio of a fuel-air mixture is defined as :

(m fuel / mair )
φ= (9)
(m fuel / mair ) st

expressed in terms of the mass (m) or volume (V) of fuel and air present in the mixture. The subscript st refers
to stoichiometric conditions. The equivalence ratio is related to the Air to Fuel Ratio (AFR) by :

AFRst
φ= (10)
AFR

Pure fuel corresponds to AFR = 0 and φ = ∞, while pure air to AFR = ∞ and φ = 0. In some cases, it is customary to
work in terms of the AFR (or 1/ φ) (e.g. in gas turbines) and in others to work with φ (e.g. in SI engines and in
flame propagation studies).
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

 Calculation of AFRst

The stoichiometric quantity of oxidizer is just that amount that is necessary to completely burn a quantity of fuel.
The stoichiometric AFR is calculated by balancing C, H, and O atoms in the combustion reaction. Complete
combustion of a general hydrocarbon with atmospheric air is written as :
0.79 y a 0.79 (11)
C x H y + a (O2 + N 2 ) → xCO2 + H 2O + N2
0.21 2 0.21
Each mol of atmospheric air has 0.79 mol of N2 and 0.21 mol of O2. By counting O atoms, it is easy to see that :
y (12)
a= x+
4

The stoichiometric AFRst (by mass) is then given by :

a ( M O2 + 0.79 / 0.21M N 2 ) (13)
AFRst =
M fuel
The volumetric AFRst is given by
a (1 + 0.79 / 0.21) (14)
AFRst =
1
For example, for CH4, x = 1 and y = 4, hence a = 2, and the volumetric AFRst,vol is 9.524, while the mass AFRst is
17.167. If there is no explicit distinction as to whether the AFR refers to mass or volume (molar) ratio, we usually
take it as a mass ratio.
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

 Products of complete combustion

The reaction of lean ( φ < 1), stoichiometric ( φ = 1) or rich ( φ > 1) mixtures with atmospheric air can be written in
the general form:

a 0.79 a 0.79
Cx H y + (O2 + N 2 ) → a1CO2 + a2CO + a3 H 2O + a4 H 2 + a5O2 + N (15)
φ 0.21 φ 0.21 2

• For φ = 1 and complete combustion, equation (15) reduces to equation (11)

• If φ < 1 and complete combustion occurs, a2 = a4 = 0 (all fuel is oxidized to CO2 and H2O) and then
atomic balances of C, H, and O give that a1 = x, a3 = y/2, and a5 = a(1- φ)/ φ. The quantity (1- φ)/ φ is
referred to in the literature as the “excess air”.

• If φ > 1, it is not possible to calculate the final product composition simply by atom conservation
because CO and H2 are also present (we get more unknowns than equations).
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

Example

Given an equivalence ratio of 0.6, find the corresponding AFR ratios (mass) for methane (CH4), propane (C3H8) and
decane (C10H22)

Assumption : Air is comprised of 79 % N2 and 21 % O2 by volume.

x+ y/4 and AFR) mass = 4.76a
M air
a=
φ M fuel

 For methane (CH4) : x = 1, y = 4, M = 16.043 kg/kmole

1+ 4 / 4 28.85
a= = 3.33 AFR) mass = 4.76(3.33)( )
0.6 16.043
AFR) mass = 28.50kg air / kg fuel

 For propane (C3H8) : x = 3, y = 8, M = 44.096 kg/kmole

3+8/ 4 28.85
a= = 8.33 AFR) mass = 4.76(25.83)( )
0.6 142.284

AFR) mass = 24.93kg air / kg fuel

Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

• Warnatz, Jürgen: Verbrennung - Physikalisch-chemische Grundlagen, Modellierung und Simulation,

Experimente, Schadstoffentstehung. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2001.

• Warnatz, Jürgen; Maas, Ulrich; Dibble, Robert: Combustion - Physical and chemical fundamentals,
modeling and simulation, experiments, pollutant formation. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2006.
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

1 Introduction, Fundamental Definitions and Phenomena

2 Experimental investigation of Flames
3 Mathematical Description of Premixed Laminar Flat Flames
4 Thermodynamics of Combustion Processes
5 Transport Phenomena
6 Chemical Kinetics
7 Reaction Mechanisms
8 Laminar Premixed Flames
9 Laminar Nonpremixed Flames
10 Ignition Processes
11 Low-Temperature Oxidation, Engine Knock
12 The Navier-Stokes-Equations for three-Dimensional Reacting Flow
13 Turbulent Reacting Flows
14 Turbulent Nonpremixed Flames
15 Turbulent Premixed Flames
16 Combustion of Liquid and Solid Fuels
17 Formation of Nitric Oxides
18 Formation of Hydrocarbons and Soot
19 Effects of Combustion Processes on the Atmosphere
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster

first lecture: 13.10.2010

last lecture: 02.02.2010

total: 14 lectures
Lehrstuhl
Thermodynamik/Thermische Verfahrenstechnik
Dr. Ingo Dauster