Role of Media in Public Policy formulation: A critical analysis

Submitted to:
Mr. Avinash Samal
Faculty, Political Science
Submitted by:
Astitva Srivastava
Semester VI
Section: C, Roll no. 36
Date of Submission
05/03/2020

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY,

NAYA RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH
 Declaration
I, Astitva Srivastava, hereby declare that, the project work entitled, ‘Role of Media in
Public Policy formulation: A critical analysis’ submitted to H.N.L.U. Naya Raipur, is
record of an original work done by me under the guidance of, Mr. Avinash Samal,
H.N.L.U., Naya Raipur.

Name: Astitva Srivastava

B.A. LLB (HONS.)
Semester: VI
Section: C
Roll No: 36
Date: 05/03/2020
 Acknowledgements

I, Astitva Srivastava, would like to humbly present this project to Mr. Avinash Samal.
I would first of all like to express my most sincere gratitude to Mr. Avinash Samal for
his encouragement and guidance regarding several aspects of this project. I am thankful
for being given the opportunity of doing a project on ‘Role of Media in Public Policy
formulation: A critical analysis’.
I am thankful to the library staff as well as the IT lab staff for all the convenience they
have provided me with, which have played a major role in the completion of this paper.
 CONTENTS

Declaration ………….................................................................................................(i)
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………..(ii)

Section 1 : Introduction ………………..……………………………………………1

Objectives …………………………………………………………………..4
Research Methodology …………………………………………………….4
Chapterisation ………………….…………………………………………..4
Section 2: Public Policy Formulation ………………………………………………5
Table 2.1 …………………………………………………………………….7
Section 3: Media ……………………………………………………………………..9
Section 4: Policy Formulation and Media ………………………………………...12
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………..15
Reference ……………………………………………………………………………17
Section- 1: INTRODUCTION

Public policy is a relatively new sub-field in political science. Its development as an

area of study emerged out of the recognition that traditional focus of political science
on the study and analyses of government institutions and structures of power were
incomplete descriptions of political activities. As the relationships between society and
its various public institutions became more complex and more interdependent, the need
to study these complexities increased.

Traditionally, while political science was preoccupied with the state institutions and
structures focusing on their powers and functions, they were less than complete
descriptions of the political process. However, the behavioural movement in the sixties
extended the scope of political science from institutional and structural focus to the
study of political processes and behaviour in a political system. It emphasized on
studying the socio-economic, political and psychological basis of individual, group and
national behaviour and the processes of legislative, executive and judicial functions.

When we speak of public policy, we are simply referring to the series of actions taken
by the government as it carries out its functions and to the intentions behind those
actions. Public policy involves a lot of things that are diverse, disparate and
unrestricted. It deals with a wide variety of substantive areas ranging from the vital to
the trivial.

While it is relatively easy to understand the term ‘public policy’, the difficulty arises in
finding a precise definition that is agreed to by everyone. Academically, we can hardly
find any definition, which is agreed upon by all. However, before we examine the
multiple definitions of public policy offered by scholars, it would be worthwhile to
understand what we exactly mean by policy.

Public policy has been defined differently by different scholars. There exists as many
definitions of public policy as the number of scholars have attempted to study it. As a
consequence of the diversity of researchers involved in public policy, the resulting
definitions span a wide spectrum, both in terms of focus and of level of complexity.

Normally, public policy is conceived as government actions to address some problem.

It is concerned with how issues and problems come to be defined and constructed and
how they are placed on the political and policy agenda. In fact, public policy is a more
specific term applied to a formal decision on a plan of action that has been taken by or
has involved a state organization.
Among the many competing definitions of public policy, one of the best-known and
shortest definitions of public policy is the one offered by Thomas R Dye who defines
it as “Whatever governments choose to do or not to do.”1 Elaborating his definition,
Dye points out that governments do many things. They regulate conflict within society;
they organize society to carry on business transactions with other societies; they
distribute a great variety of symbolic rewards and material services to members of the
society; and they extract money from society, most often in the form of taxes.
William Jenkins conceptualization of public policy is bit more precise than the one
offered by Dye but illustrates many of the same themes. He defines public policy as
“A set of interrelated decisions taken by a political actor or group of actors concerning
the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specified situation,
where those decisions should, in principle, be within the power of those actors to
achieve.”2
James E. Anderson interprets public policy as “A relatively stable, purposive course
of action followed by government in dealing with some problem or matter of concern”3.

As an approach to understanding political change, public policy has almost as many

definitions as there are policy issues. In fact, while the institutionalists, who concern
themselves with the formal, observable building blocks of government, view public
policy as a benign component of identified rules and procedures, the behaviouralists,
i.e. the scholars inspired with what people actually do, interpret public policy as the
result of interaction of powerful forces, some of which may be far removed from the
halls of government.
For the purpose of our understanding, public policy can be defined here as the
combination of basic decisions, commitments, and actions made by those who hold or
affect government positions of authority. In most cases, these policies result from

1
Dye, Thomas R. (1998), Understanding Public Policy (Ninth Edition), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, new Jersey
2
Jenkins, William I. (1978), Policy Analysis: A Political and Organizational Perspective, Martin
Robertson, London.
3
Anderson, James E. (2000), Public Policy-Making: An Introduction, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

interactions among those who demand change, those who make decisions, and those
who are affected by the policy in question. The determinations made by those in
positions of legitimate authority – most commonly, one or more public offices in
government – are subject to possible redirection in response to pressures from those
outside government as well as from others within government.
The linkage between policy makers and policy receivers is vital to understanding the
meaning and power of public policy. In a very direct sense, society benefits or suffers
because of government activity. Sometimes, both experiences may occur
simultaneously. At a minimum, the more controversial a proposed policy or policy area,
the more likely it is that one part of society may benefit at the expense of another
segment. Furthermore, the variety of potential public policy questions is so great that
some government decisions emerging from the political process have greater impact on
society than others.
 Objectives of Study

1. To know what is meant by Public Policy formulation

2. Know what is meant my media & it’s different types
3. Role of media in Public policy formulation

Research Methodology

This project work is descriptive & analytical in approach. It is largely based on

secondary & electronic sources of data. Internet & other references as guided by
faculty of political science are primarily helpful for the completion of this project.
My research methodology requires gathering relevant data from the specified books
and other online sources. The scope of study includes the purview within which
the project work lies. This topic has been clearly enunciated with the help of
articles from magazines, newspapers and other such e-article databases that have
been explored.

Chapterisation

This project consists of 4 chapters.

First chapter is the introduction to the project, and lays down the background for the
whole project.
The second chapter deals with explaining the meaning of Policy Formulation
Third chapter explains the meaning and types of media and fourth chapter deals with
relationship between media and policy formulation
Section- 2 PUBLIC POLICY FORMULATION

The process of public policy-making refers to the manner in which problems get
conceptualized and brought to the attention of the government for solution.
Government then formulates alternatives and selects policy options, and those solutions
get implemented, evaluated, and revised. In simple terms, it refers to various activities
by which public policy is actually formed, implemented and evaluated. In fact, the
process of public policy making involves an extremely complex set of interacting
elements over time 4 . It normally includes hundreds of actors from governmental
institutions, interest groups, researchers and journalists, who are involved in one or
more aspects of the policy process. Each of these actors (either individual or corporate)
has potentially different values/interests, goals, perceptions of the situation, and policy
preferences. Understanding the public policymaking processes therefore requires
knowledge of the goals and perceptions of hundreds of actors throughout the country
involving possibly very technical scientific and legal issues over periods of a decade or
more.
Since there is no single process by which policies are framed, variations in the content
of public policies require variations in the manner of policy-making. Welfare policy,
natural resources regulation, economic liberalization policy, and health policy are all
distinguished by different processes. Public policies in these areas are associated with
specific governmental institutions, patterns of behaviour, and political situations. Since
the environment of each policy area is unique, this does not mean that it precludes
generalizations about public policy. Rather, it means that there is no one grand theory
of public policymaking.
Given the staggering complexity of policy process, the idea of simplifying public policy
making by breaking the policy making process down into a number of discrete stages
was first broached in the early work of Harold Lasswell. Lasswell divided the policy
process into seven stages, which, in his view, described not only how public policies
were actually made but also how they should be made. They are:

4 Sabatier, Paul A. (1999). “The Need for Better Theories,” in Paul A Sabatier, ed. Theories of the

Policy Process. Boulder: Westview Press

 • Intelligence
• Promotion
• Prescription
• Invocation
• Application
• Termination
• Appraisal5

These listings reflect the origin of what has arguably been the most widely accepted
concept of the policy process – the procedure by which a given policy is proposed,
examined, carried out and perhaps terminated.

Lasswell’s formulation formed the basis for many other models. Typical of these was
a simpler version of the ‘policy cycle’ developed by Gary Brewer (1974). According to
Brewer, the policy process was composed of only six stages:

• Invention/Initiation
• Estimation
• Selection
• Implementation
• Evaluation, and
• Termination6
Brewer’s version of the policy process improved on Lasswell’s pioneering work. It
expanded the policy process beyond the confines of government in discussing the
recognition of problems and clarified the terminology for describing the various stages
of the process. Moreover, it introduced the notion of the policy process as an ongoing
cycle. It recognized that most policies do not have a definite life cycle-moving from
birth to death-but rather seem to recur, in slightly different guises, as one policy

5 Lasswell, Harold D. (1956). The Decision Process. College Park: University of Maryland Press.

6
Brewer, Gary D. (1974). “The Policy Sciences Emerge to Nature and Structure a Discipline,”Policy
Sciences, 5 (3): 239-244.
succeeds another with minor or major modification. Brewer’s insights inspired several
other versions of the ‘policy cycle’ model developed in the 1970s and 1980s.
According to the stages model developed by a number of scholars, policy-making is
assumed to proceed in stages from policy initiation and agenda setting to policy
formulation to policy implementation and evaluation. The table below lists out the
commonly agreed on stages of policy process.

Agenda Setting/ Policy Policy Implementation Policy

Policy Initiation Formulation Adoption Evaluation
Attention of policy Development Building or Application of Involves
makers is drawn to of developing the policy by examining the
a problem that pertinent and support for the government's consequences of
might require acceptable getting a bureaucratic policy actions
government proposed specific machinery often including
attention and then courses of proposal with citizen, state whether or not
policy initiation action for accepted such and local the policy has
takes place by dealing with that the policy government been effective
setting the agenda the problems is legitimized cooperation
from among the or authorized
problems that
receive the
government’s
serious attention

Table 2.1: Stages of Policy Process

Though it is important to distinguish the five different stages of the policy process,
these divisions are more analytical than chronological, meaning that in real policy
making they often overlap. In fact, policymaking is a complicated and interactive
process and the content of policies is not merely determined in the decision-making
phase. Rather, as Nelson observes, policy content is negotiated over and over again in
problem definition, legislation, regulation, and court decisions and again in the
decisions made by street level bureaucrats7. In fact, arguing in favour of insulating
administration from partisan political interference, Goodnow (1900) observed that
when one moves beyond general execution to specialized administration (i.e. present
day regulators having specialized knowledge, technical expertise and quasi-judicial

7 Nelson, Barbara J. (1996). “Public Policy and Administration: An Overview”, in Robert E. Goodin and
Hans-Dieter Klingemann, eds. A New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

authority) “much must be left to official discretion, since what is demanded of the
officers is not the doing of a concrete thing but the exercise of judgment.”8
Once a decision has been taken to address a specific problem, the next stage is policy
formulation. Policy formulation is often seen as crucial stage in the policy process
because it develops a particular issue into a firm policy proposal through a process of
debate and discussion. It involves the development of pertinent and acceptable
proposed courses of action for dealing with public problems. Policy formulation does
not necessarily result in the adoption of a law, order, or rule of some sort. In short, the
fact that a problem is on the policy agenda does not mean that the government will act
effectively to resolve it. Various actors are involved in policy formulation, including
the Cabinet, various departments and agencies of the executive branch, legislators,
political parties, interest groups etc9. (Similarly, at the state and local level of policy
making, legislators, executives, agency staff, and interest groups are involved. The
usual interest group, administration and Parliamentary Committee interaction occurs
during this stage as compromises are reached about how to address an issue.

The Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister is the major source of policy proposals in
Indian political system. If we expand our focus to include the various departments and
agencies, then clearly most policy originates in the executive branch. Career
bureaucrats occupying higher positions in administration formulate policy ranging from
standard of nutrition to major changes in the foreign policy. Executive commissions,
committees, and advisory groups are also sources of executive policy formulation.

Legislators and interest groups are probably the next most frequent sources of policy
formulation. Interest groups often formulate policy proposals and then get it formally
proposed by favourably inclined officials.

8 Goodnow, Frank J. (1900). Politics and Administration. New York: Macmillan
9 Anderson, James E. (1984). Public Policy Making. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Section 3 Media

Media according to Business Dictionary implies Communication channels through

which news, entertainment, education, data, or promotional messages are disseminated.
Media includes every broadcasting and narrowcasting medium such as newspapers,
magazines, TV, radio, billboards, direct mail, telephone, fax, and internet10. In general,
media according to Jack Lule (2013) can be defined as a means of communication that
is intended to reach a larger audience in order to relay information, news or
entertainment. It includes every broadcasting and narrowcasting medium such as
newspapers, magazines, TV, radio, billboards, direct mail, telephone, fax, and
internet11.
Media are very integral part of our lives as they generate popular interest and debate
about any social problem. Other calls them as mass media. Although many different
meanings and interpretations may exist for the term mass media for our analysis on
public policy we can say that the mass media is a group that constructs messages with
embedded values, and that disseminates those messages to a specific portion of the
public in order to achieve a specific goal. A group can be newspapers, movie studios,
television networks, radio stations, social networks, and media conglomerate. These are
all collectively called as media of mass media.
Types of Media:
Different types of media can be divided into three categories: print media, broadcast
media (Electronic media) and new –age or digital/social media.
1. Print Media
Print media are lightweight, portable, disposable publications printed on paper and
circulated as physical copies in forms we call books, newspapers, brochures,
magazines, newsletters and other types of publications as a means of transmitting
information, entertainment and news items amongst the public. They hold
informative and entertaining content that is of general or special interest and are
published once or daily, weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly.
Although print media is the oldest type of media and its readership has declined in

10 http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/media.html#ixzz3NrEFEsZH

11
Lule, J. (2013). Understanding media and culture. Irvington, NY: Flat World Knowledge
 the last few decades, some people still prefer to read a newspaper every day or a
newsmagazine on a regular basis thus making its influence to the general public
significant. Regular readers of print media tend to be more likely to be politically
active.
2. Broadcacst/ Electronic Media
Broadcast and electronic media refers to the electronic instrumentation of radio and
television, including local radio and television stations, radio and television
network, and cable televisions stations and networks, sound and video recordings,
and the mobile Internet. Because of their ability to reach vast numbers of people,
broadcast media play a very important role in offering informative and entertaining
content of both general and special interest to the public.
Broadcast media or electronic media is probably the most prevalent form of media
observable today. Television and radio since their invention in the late 1920s and
1890s respectively, have led to a revolutionary change in the way people perceive
entertainment, information and news. The advent of films in theatres as well as
televisions has led to the formation of the film industry. Further, with the advent of
satellite channels and cable TV, breaking news stories from any part of the world
and coverage of world events is broadcast within seconds, so an individual with
access to satellite TV has instant availability of information12.
3. Digital- Social Media
The Internet is slowly transforming the news media because more people are relying
on online sources of news instead of traditional print and broadcast media. People
around the world especially the youth are now becoming familiar traditional media
outlets, such as BBC and CNN, but also turn to unique online news sources such as
weblogs (blogs). Websites can provide text, audio, and video information; all of the
ways traditional media are transmitted. The web also allows for a more interactive
approach by allowing people to personally tailor the news they receive via
personalized web portals, newsgroups, podcasts, and RSS feeds. Blogs for example,
have become very influential since the start of the 21st century. Leading bloggers
write their opinions on a variety of issues, and thousands of people respond on
message boards. Although many blogs are highly partisan and inaccurate, a few

12 https://www.academia.edu/10223888/The_role_of_the_Media_in_Public_Policy?auto=download

 have been instrumental in breaking big stories. In the past few years, social media
brought about by the Internet has experienced an exponential rise in popularity.
Although it is still not widely recognized as a mass media form in many developing
countries, Internet usage has increased by tremendously in the past ten years
following an increase in penetration among the world population. Therefore, what
started as a system of inter-connected computer networks in the US in the 1980s
has now become a global phenomenon with billions of users. Although the Internet
can be used as a mode of personal communication as well, it is an important mass
media tool today as it carries an extensive range of information resources and
services. Social networking sites, blogs and personal/private/public websites
provide a means to communicate with or relay information to the rest of the world
in an easy and efficient manner. Social media platforms like Twitter, YouTube,
Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram and the like are fast emerging as the primary
source of reaching out to the public. Due to its global outreach and unlimited access,
it is a popular choice these days as a mass media instrument13.

13 Birkland, Thomas. (2019). Unofficial Actors and Their Roles in Public Policy.
10.4324/9781351023948-5.
Section 4 Policy Formulation and Media

The policy studies scholars have divided the players in the policy process into two main
categories such as official and unofficial actors. Official actors are those involved in
public policy by virtue of their statutory or constitutional responsibilities and have the
power to make and enforce policies. This does not preclude the possibility of these
people being influenced by others, like political party bosses or other interest/pressure
groups. The actors belonging to legislature, executive (including bureaucracy),
judiciary and regulatory agencies are clearly the official actors14.

Besides the official actors, there are many other groups and organizations which do
participate in the policy-making process. These actors are called unofficial because
their participation in the policy process is not a function of their duties under the
Constitution or the law. This is not to say that these actors have no rights or standing to
participate in the process. Rather, it means that their mode of participation in policy
formulation is not specified in law. On the other hand, it has evolved and grown as the
nation has evolved and grown. So the unofficial actors refer to those who play a role in
the policy process without any explicit legal authority to participate, aside from the
usual rights of participation in a democracy. These groups include the interest/pressure
groups of various types, political parties, individual citizens, research organizations and
think tanks, and the mass media. They considerably influence policy formulation
without possessing legal authority to make binding policy decisions15.
In public policy process, especially the agenda setting stage every policy actors will
always wish to emerge as a victor. Some of the key and common actors in public policy
are political leaders, bureaucrats, Media, civil societies, parliamentarians and the
judiciary. Policy decisions are always influenced by policy actors who know how to
effectively influence policy agenda.
All categories of Media play an integral role in shaping the social context in which
policies are developed. Through the media, citizens learn how government policies will
affect them, and governments gain feedback on their policies and programs. Media

14 https://digestiblenotes.com/politics/unofficial_actors/general_notes.php

15
https://www.scribd.com/doc/274736906/5-Unofficial-Actors-in-the-Policy-Process
systems act as the primary channels between those who might want to influence policy
and the policymakers controlling the scope of political discourse and regulating the
flow of information16.
While some regard the role of the mass media in the policy process as pivotal others
describe it as marginal (Kingdon 1984). There is no denying that the mass media are
crucial links between the state and society, a position that allows for significant
influence on the preferences of government and society in regard to the identification
of public problems and their solutions. Yet, at the same time, like political parties, their
direct role in the various stages of the policy process is often sporadic and most often
quite marginal.
The role of the media in the policy process originates in the fact that in reporting
problems they function both as passive reporters and as active analysts, as well as
advocates of particular policy solutions.
John Fischer proved the following 10 possible media functions in the policy process17:
(i) Anticipating problems in advance of public officials,
(ii) Alerting the public to problems on the basis of official warnings,
(iii) Informing the public of the stakes the competing groups had in solving problems,
(iv) Keeping various groups and the public abreast of competing proposals,
(v) Contributing to the content of policy,
(vi) Deciding the tempo of decision making,
(vii) Helping lawmakers decide how to vote,
(viii) Alerting the public to how policies are administered,
(ix) Evaluating policy effectiveness, and
(x) Stimulating policy reviews.
Policy formulation stage and role of media
This is the stage in which the policy makers decided what to do about the things on the
agenda. The media’s role in this stage is very important, and could be the most
noticeable. During this stage the policy makers try to appeal to the people through the
medium of the media. Politicians tell the media their ideas for a certain policy and then
the media reports it to the people. This relationship is crucial in the process because it
is how politicians tell if their policies are being well accepted by the people or if they

16
Anderson, J.E (2011). Public Policy Making, Wadworth-USA
17
Fischer, J, (1991) News Media Functions in Policy Making.
are ineffective or if they make them look bad. The way things play in the media is of
utmost importance to the media savvy politician. During this stage of the process the
media is also busy researching the intricacies of policies put forth by policy makers.
Then members of the media report these findings in a way that the public can
understand what is going on. This is an area where investigative journalism is also
crucial18.
The adoption stage of the policy making process happens in the legislature and
determines what will happen to a proposed policy. Naturally, what happens to a policy
is greatly determined by what kind of media coverage it has generated. If a proposed
policy generates positive and steady publicity there is a good chance that policy will be
enacted.
However, if a proposed issue generates negative publicity or if the coverage of that
issue decreases, that policy may not become enacted. Policy makers looking to round
up support or to build opposition, for a proposed policy during this stage of the process
may also choose to use the media. So politicians can use the media to press their policies
through or use it to hamper the efforts of their opponents. The media can have another
impact during this stage. For example, if a proposed policy contains a provision that
will only help a few people while hurting many others, the media can report that and
generate support for a change to the proposal. During this stage the media’s influence
can help gain support for policies, help to kill policies, or help protect people by
exposing negative provisions within a propose policy19.

18
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057%2F9781137482082_5
19
Reddy, G. (2006). MEDIA AND PUBLIC POLICY. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 67(2),
295-302

 CONCLUSION

Mass media plays a critical role in creating public policies. It has a significant
contribution in providing government and policy makers with useful information and
people’s sentiments through public opinion broadcast. Meanwhile, mass media help the
policy makers to successfully carryout and implement the planned public policies by
creating public pressure and monitoring. This paper analyses the role of media as a
bridge between the government and the people, as an intermediary source to keep the
democratic system on track. Media points out and broadcasts various public issues and
encourages people to raise their voice. Such public concern then is brought to the notice
of policy makers, political and social agents. This brings change in policy or results in
formulation of new public policy. Moreover, media plays a role of watchdog and keeps
surveillance on implementation of such policy. This way media helps prevent
corruption and pushes the government towards successful achievement and
implementation of people friendly policies. There is an immense capacity in media to
bring development in society if it persistently follows the professionalism and ethical
codes. There is opportunity of utilizing the efficient apparatus of mass media to
mobilize people regarding public issues like Health and Education and promote public
participation in finding solution to these problems through opinion building, leading
towards effective public policies.
Founded on the principles of freedom of speech and private ownership, the media has
been widely regarded as the ‘Forth Estate’ of government holding the Executive,
Legislative and Judiciary accountable within the democratic process. But what
happens if the media predominantly serves to manufacture consent rather than
deliberation?
News reporting is not an objective mirror of reality, undistorted by bias or inaccuracy.
Reporters and editors are newsmakers, in the sense that they define what is worthy of
reporting and the aspects of a situation that should be highlighted. Thus, policy issues
that can be translated into an interesting story tend to be viewed by the public as more
important than those that do not lend themselves so easily to narrative structures and
first-person accounts and sound bites. This partially explains why, for example, crime
stories receive so much prominence in television news and, as a corollary the public
puts pressure on governments to appear to act tough on crime.
We must not, however, exaggerate the mass media’s role in the policy process. Other
policy actors have resources enabling them to counteract media influence, and policy-
makers are for the most part intelligent and resourceful individuals who understand
their own interests and have their own ideas about appropriate or feasible policy
options. As a rule, they are not easily swayed by media portrayals of issues and
preferred policy solutions or by the mere fact of media attention. Indeed, they often use
the media to their own advantage. It is not uncommon for public officials and successful
interest groups to provide selective information to the media to bolster their case.
Indeed, very often the media are led by state opinion rather than vice versa
 REFERENCES

v Dye, Thomas R. (1998), Understanding Public Policy (Ninth Edition),
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v Jenkins, William I. (1978), Policy Analysis: A Political and Organizational
Perspective, Martin Robertson, London.
v Anderson, James E. (2000), Public Policy-Making: An Introduction, Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
v Sabatier, Paul A. (1999). “The Need for Better Theories,” in Paul A Sabatier,
ed. Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder: Westview Press
v Lasswell, Harold D. (1956). The Decision Process. College Park: University
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v Brewer, Gary D. (1974). “The Policy Sciences Emerge to Nature and Structure
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v Goodnow, Frank J. (1900). Politics and Administration. New York:
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v http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/media.html#ixzz3NrEFEsZH
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Knowledge
v https://www.academia.edu/10223888/The_role_of_the_Media_in_Public_Poli
cy?auto=download
v Birkland, Thomas. (2019). Unofficial Actors and Their Roles in Public Policy.
10.4324/9781351023948-5.
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v https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057%2F9781137482082_5
v Reddy, G. (2006). MEDIA AND PUBLIC POLICY. The Indian Journal of
Political Science, 67(2), 295-302