What is Ozone Layer?

To understand ozone layer, it would be helpful to know the different layers of the
atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is composed of many layers, each playing a significant
role. The first layer stretching approximately 10 kilometers upwards from the earth’s surface
is known as the troposphere. A lot of human activities such as gas balloons, mountain
climbing, and small aircraft flights take place within this region.

The stratosphere is the next layer above the troposphere stretching approximately 15 to 60
kilometers. The ozone layer sits in the lower region of the stratosphere from about 20-30
kilometers above the surface of the earth. The thickness of the ozone layer is about 3 to 5
mm, but it pretty much fluctuates depending on the season and geography.

Ozone layer is a deep layer in earth’s atmosphere that contain ozone which is a naturally
occurring molecule containing three oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form a gaseous
layer in the Earth’s upper atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of stratosphere
containing relatively higher concentration of ozone is called Ozonosphere. The Ozonosphere
is found 15-35 km (9 to 22 miles) above the surface of the earth.

The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is usually under 10 parts per million while the
average concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is about 0.3 parts per million. The
thickness of the ozone layer differs as per season and geography. The highest concentrations
of ozone occur at altitudes from 26 to 28 km (16 to 17 miles) in the tropics and from 12 to 20
km (7 to 12 miles) towards the poles.

The ozone layer forms a thick layer in stratosphere, encircling the earth, that has large
amount of ozone in it. The ozone layer protects life on earth from strong ultraviolet radiation
that comes from the sun. Ultraviolet rays are harmful rays that can drive up the risk of deadly
disorders like skin cancer, cataracts and damage the immune system. Ultraviolet rays are also
capable of destroying single cell organism, terrestrial plant life, and aquatic ecosystems.

The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri
Buisson. The ozone layer has the capability to absorb almost 97-99% of the harmful
ultraviolet radiations that sun emit and which can produce long term devastating effects on
humans beings as well as plants and animals.

Composition of the Ozone Layer

It comes as a surprise that the same UV rays form the bulk of ozone layer. Ozone is an
extraordinary kind of oxygen composed of 3 oxygen atoms instead of the normal 2 oxygen
atoms. Ozone layer normally develops when a few kinds of electrical discharge or radiation
splits the 2 atoms in an oxygen(O2) molecule, which then independently reunite with other
types of molecules to form ozone. The ozone layer has been shielding life on planet earth for
billions of years, but it’s now being worn out by human activities.

People began to value the importance of the ozone layer when scientists released a research
finding suggesting that certain human-made chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons
managed to reach the stratosphere and depleted the ozone via a profound series of chemical
reactions. The results of this research study prompted the signing of a global treaty known as
the Montreal Protocol in 1973. This treaty helped in the reduction of the production of these
harmful human-made chemicals.

These targeted efforts have seen the ozone layer recovering over the past years. The thickness
of the ozone layer varies immensely on any day and location. Due to relentless vertical
atmospheric air circulation in both the stratosphere and troposphere, the amount of ozone
layer shielding humans from strong UV rays can be lesser or greater. In addition, those
residing in higher elevations are at risk of UV radiation than those at lower elevations.

The Stratospheric ozone plays a big role in protecting humans from the harshness of the sun.
However, there is also a kind of ozone developed just above the ground as a result of sun rays
coming into contact with pollution in the atmosphere, which is hazardous to human health. In
some individuals, it can lead to complications in breathing and often takes place during
summer when pollution is rampant in cities where the air is static.

Why Ozone Layer is Necessary?

An essential property of ozone molecule is its ability to block solar radiations of wavelengths
less than 290 nanometers from reaching Earth’s surface. In this process, it also absorbs
ultraviolet radiations that are dangerous for most living beings. UV radiation could injure or
kill life on Earth. Though the absorption of UV radiations warms the stratosphere but it is
important for life to flourish on planet Earth. Research scientists have anticipated disruption
of susceptible terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems due to depletion of ozone layer.

Ultraviolet radiation could destroy the organic matter. Plants and plankton cannot thrive, both
acts as food for land and sea animals, respectively. For humans, excessive exposure to
ultraviolet radiation leads to higher risks of cancer (especially skin cancer) and cataracts. It is
calculated that every 1 percent decrease in ozone layer results in a 2-5 percent increase in the
occurrence of skin cancer. Other ill-effects of the reduction of protective ozone layer include
– increase in the incidence of cataracts, sunburns and suppression of the immune system.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

Credible scientific studies have substantiated that the cause of ozone layer depletion is human
activity, specifically, human-made chemicals that contain chlorine or bromine. These
chemicals are widely known as ODS, an acronym for Ozone-Depleting Substances. The
scientists have observed reduction in stratospheric ozone since early 1970’s. It is found to be
more prominent in Polar Regions.

Ozone-Depleting Substances have been proven to be eco-friendly, very stable and non-toxic
in the atmosphere below. This is why they have gained popularity over the years. However,
their stability comes at a price; they are able to float and remain static high up in the
stratosphere. When up there, ODS are comfortably broken down by the strong UV light and
the resultant chemical is chlorine and bromine. Chlorine and bromine are known to deplete
the ozone layer at supersonic speeds. They do this by simply stripping off an atom from the
ozone molecule. One chlorine molecule has the capability to break down thousands of ozone
molecules.

Ozone-depleting substances have stayed and will continue to stay in the atmosphere for many
years. This, essentially, implies that a lot of the ozone-depleting substances human have
allowed to go into the atmosphere for the previous 90 years are still on their journey to the
atmosphere, which is why they will contribute to ozone depletion.

The chief ozone-depleting substances include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon

tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and methyl chloroform. Halons, sometimes
known as brominated fluorocarbons, also contribute mightily to ozone depletion. However,
their application is greatly restricted since they are utilized in specific fire extinguishers. The
downside to halons is they are so potent that they are able to deplete the ozone layer 10 times
more than ozone-depleting substances.

Scientists in this age are working around the clock to develop Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to
take the place of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) for use
in vehicle air conditioning. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons are powerful greenhouse gases, but
they are not able to deplete ozone. Chlorofluorocarbons, on the other hand, significantly
contribute to climate change, which means Hydrofluorocarbons continue to be the better
alternative until safer alternatives are available.

There are two regions in which the ozone layer has depleted.

 In the mid-latitude, for example, over Australia, ozone layer is thinned. This has led to
an increase in the UV radiation reaching the earth. It is estimated that about 5-9%
thickness of the ozone layer has decreased, increasing the risk of humans to over-
exposure to UV radiation owing to outdoor lifestyle.

 In atmospheric regions over Antarctica, ozone layer is significantly thinned,

especially in spring season. This has led to the formation of what is called ‘ozone
hole’. Ozone holes refer to the regions of severely reduced ozone layers. Usually
ozone holes form over the Poles during the onset of spring seasons. One of the largest
such hole appears annually over Antarctica between September and November.

Natural causes of depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer has been found to be affected by
certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But this has been found
to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of the ozone layer and the effects are also thought to
be only temporary. It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El Chichon
in 1983 and and Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) has also contributed towards ozone depletion.

Man-made causes of depletion of ozone layer: The main cause for the depletion of ozone is
determined as excessive release of chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl
chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons),
hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to have direct impact on the
depletion of the ozone layer. These are categorized as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that they are not washed back in
the form of rain on the earth and in-fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long time. With
so much stability, they are transported into the stratosphere. The emission of ODS account for
roughly 90% of total depletion of ozone layer in stratosphere. These gases are carried to the
stratosphere layer of atmosphere where ultraviolet radiations from the sun break them to
release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl bromide and halons).

The chlorine and bromine free radicals react with ozone molecule and destroy their molecular
structure, thus depleting the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break more than 1, 00,000
molecules of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more destructive than chlorine
molecules.

Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

It’s billed as the most extensively utilized ozone-depleting substance because it attributes to
more than 80% of overall ozone depletion. It was utilized as a coolant in home appliances
like freezers, refrigerators and air conditioners in both buildings and cars that were
manufactured prior to 1995. This substance is usually contained in dry cleaning agents,
hospital sterilants, and industrial solvents. The substance is also utilized in foam products like
mattresses and cushions and home insulation.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

Hydrofluorocarbons have over the years served in place of Chlorofluorocarbons. They are not
as harmful as CFCs to ozone layer.

Halons

It’s especially used in selected fire extinguishers in scenarios where the equipment or
material could be devastated by water or extinguisher chemicals.

Carbon Tetrachloride

Also used in selected fire extinguishers and solvents.

Methyl Chloroform

Commonly utilized in industries for cold cleaning, vapor degreasing, chemical processing,
adhesives and some aerosols.

Ozone Depletion: Is It a Threat?

Stratospheric ozone (O3) blocks 95-99% of UV radiation from reaching earth's surface.
Allows life to exist on the land. Since the 1960s, ozone levels have fallen by 10-50%,
depending on latitude. More UV striking earth's surface, causing long-term health problems
for humans, and threatening the existence of some plants and animals.
Causes of Ozone Depletion

Problem stems from the use of a wide variety of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) used as
propellants, coolants, solvents, sterilants, fumigants, and in foam bubbles. Widely used
because they are stable, insoluble in water, non-corrosive, nontoxic, and inflammable. They
seemed like the perfect molecules.

However, once emitted into the atmosphere, CFC molecules rise to the stratosphere and
remain there for decades. They react with UV radiation, losing a chlorine atom. Chlorine then
reacts with ozone, converting it to an O2 molecule and O ion. Each CFC molecule does this
to tens of thousands of ozone molecules so that ozone is destroyed faster than it can be
created.

Other chlorine and bromine bearing molecules used in industry can do the same thing.
Natural sources of chlorine and bromine (volcanic gases and sea spray) are typically soluble
in water and are quickly washed out of the atmosphere.

Ozone depletion is greatest over the poles (50+%), particularly Antarctica. This is due to the
buildup of Cl2O2 on ice crystals (also act as a catalyst for ozone depleting reactions) during
the frigid winters. When sunlight returns in the spring, the Cl2O2 is rapidly destroyed
releasing a burst of chlorine and causing a rapid reduction in ozone. Eventually, by the end of
the polar summer, ozone levels rebound.

Each spring large amounts of ozone-depleted air is released from the poles and spreads over
the higher southern (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, Chile) and northern
(Europe, North America, Asia) latitudes. UV levels rise by as much as 15% in these regions.

Effects of Ozone Depletion

For humans, the most important health impacts from lower ozone and higher UV levels are
more cataracts, premature aging of the skin, more severe sunburns, and more skin cancers.

Present loss of ozone estimated to produce over 300,000 additional skin cancers worldwide
each year. Three types: squamous cell, basal cell, and malignant melanoma. The first two
are very curable if caught early, whereas the latter is often fatal. Present ozone loss also
estimated to produce 1.5 million additional cataracts.

Estimated that in the U.S., 12 million additional skin cancers will occur with about 200,000
deaths occurring over the next 50 years. Other human health impacts include suppression of
the immune system and the increase in tropospheric ozone, which will increase respiratory
diseases.

Increased UV also will lower crop yields ($2.5 billion/year in U.S.), decrease forest and
phytoplankton productivity (increasing global warming and destroying ecosystems), and
increase the degradation and destruction of many materials, including plastics (become
brittle) and paints (fade).
 Humans might have to limit their time outdoors and wear protective clothing and sunscreens.
Already beginning to see this. Unfortunately, animals can't do these things. They need to
evolve increased natural resistance to elevated UV levels. There may not be enough time for
this to happen, increasing extinction rates.

Serious Effects of Ozone Depletion

1. Damage to human health

If the ozone layer is depleted, it means humans will be overly exposed to strong UV light.
Overexposure to strong UV light causes skin cancer, cataracts, sunburns, weakening of
immune system and quick aging.

2. Devastation to environment

Many crops species are vulnerable to strong UV light and overexposure may well lead to
minimal growth, photosynthesis and flowering. Some of the crop species vulnerable to UV
light include barley, wheat, corn, oats, rice, broccoli, tomatoes, cauliflower just to name a
few. Forests equally bear the brunt of ozone depletion.

3. Threat to marine life

Certain marine life, especially planktons, is greatly impacted by exposure to strong ultraviolet
rays. In the aquatic food chain, planktons appear high up. If planktons decrease in number
due to ozone layer destruction, the marine food chain would be disrupted in many ways.
Also, overexposure of sun rays could reduce the fortunes of fishers. On top of that, certain
species of marine life have been greatly affected by overexposure to ultraviolet radiation at
their early stage.

4. Effect on animals

In domesticated animals, too much Ultraviolet radiation could also lead to skin and eye
cancer.

5. Impacts certain materials

Materials like plastics, wood, fabrics, rubber are massively degraded by too much ultraviolet
radiation

Health Effects

Recent information continues to expand our knowledge of both the adverse and the beneficial
effects of UV as well as raise concerns about the use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
substitutes. Still of greatest concern are the impacts of UV on immune responses and their
possible consequences for infectious diseases, the induction of skin cancers, particularly basal
and squamous cell carcinomas and melanoma, and eye diseases, especially cataract.

Evidence continues to support the conclusion that UV-B radiation can suppress immune
responses, both in laboratory animals and in humans of all skin types. New studies show that
immune reactions elicited in UV-B irradiated human skin are diminished compared to
responses occurring in unexposed skin. Studies on mechanisms of immune suppression by
UV-B radiation reveal increasing complexity of the interactions between the immune system
and UV. New evidence indicates that there are multiple pathways by which UV can perturb
the immune system and multiple parts of the immune system that can be affected. For
example, new information from studies in experimental animals indicates that production of
certain types of antibodies can also be impaired by UV-B irradiation, in addition to the well-
documented impairment of lymphocyte-mediated responses. Studies in experimental animals
of infectious diseases of importance to humans show that UV-B irradiation not only can
decrease immune responses against infectious organisms, but can increase the severity and
duration of a broad spectrum of infectious diseases. It is still not possible to predict the
impact of increasing UV-B exposure on infectious diseases in human populations. The
accumulating new knowledge, however, increases the concern that UV exposure may
increase the severity of certain infectious diseases and decrease the effectiveness of
vaccinations.

The causal relationship between UV and skin cancer has already been established in animal
experiments and epidemiological studies. Using this information, a recent risk assessment has
estimated that, in the absence of the Montreal Protocol, elevations in UV due to ozone
depletion would lead to skin cancer incidences as high as four times the current levels by the
end of the next century. Under the agreements of the original Montreal Protocol, the
incidence was estimated to double. With the Copenhagen Amendments, the relative increase
in incidence would reach a maximum of almost 10 % in the year 2060, and then gradually
return to baseline (i.e., levels without ozone depletion). Such estimates have a considerable
uncertainty, as they are based on a number of simplifying assumptions, including that there
will be full compliance with the agreements. These estimates nevertheless suggest that failure
in the implementation of the Montreal Protocol will significantly increase the risks of skin
cancer in susceptible populations.

Continued work analyzing the genetic alterations in skin cancers confirms earlier findings
that mutations in the p53 gene represent early events in the development of these cancers and
that these mutations appear to be specifically caused by UV-B. This has now been found for
both basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas. Such information can contribute to refining
future risk assessments either by helping to identify sensitive subpopulations, or by
contributing to the development of more precise risk assessment models. Similar information
on melanoma is not yet available but is an area of intensive research.

Although much fundamental research has been carried out on UV-induced damage to the lens
of the eye, most of it does not contribute to our understanding of the connection between
ambient UV radiation exposure and cataract in humans. One recent experiment, however,
confirms that for rats whose eyes were exposed to UV the lens opacities (precursors to
cataract) induced by that treatment tend to start at the periphery of the lens, just as is the case
for the human cataracts that are associated with sun exposure.

A recent report in the medical literature indicates that workers accidentally exposed to the
CFC substitutes HCFC-123 and HCFC-124, from a leak in an air conditioning system,
developed acute liver disease. The authors concluded that strict containment measures are
needed for these compounds and also recommended the rapid development of safer
alternatives.
Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems

In the past year, considerable progress has been reported at several levels of study ranging
from molecular to ecosystem-level research. Ambient solar UV-B radiation was shown to
induce plant DNA lesions in a few studies that also indicate competent repair of this damage.
In other work, enhanced induction of antioxidants by UV-B radiation supports earlier
research suggesting that oxidative damage may be caused by UV-B radiation. In several plant
species, induction and accumulation of specific major flavonoid compounds occur. These
compounds not only act as internal UV shields, but also have properties that may contribute
to ameliorating oxidative damage. Still, in recent outdoor experiments, morphological
changes, including shorter stems and greater branching, were the most common
manifestations of UV-B exposure. Several studies have shown some potentially adverse
effects of UV-B on various facets of plant reproductive biology including flowering, pollen
development, seed production, and seed size. Varieties of rice differ considerably in response
to UV-B in screening trials, but field studies have not generally shown pronounced effects of
solar UV-B enhancement. UV-B radiation has been shown to affect the timing of plant
development in UV-B attenuation studies.

Elevated UV-B can influence the effects of microorganisms and insects on higher plants.
Some studies indicate that disease incidence may decrease under ambient solar UV-B, e.g., in
tea plants. However, other studies have indicated increased severity of plant disease under
UV-B radiation. Sizeable influences of solar UV-B on plant response to insect attack have
been reported in at least one field study; other studies are in progress. Plant disease,
microorganisms and insects may be directly influenced by solar UV-B, but many of the UV-
B radiation effects on plant disease and plant-insect interactions are apparently the indirect
result of changes in plant secondary chemistry.

Pronounced water stress increased susceptibility to elevated UV-B in some Mediterranean

species; yet the plants exposed to elevated UV-B were better able to tolerate summer water
stress due to less water loss from foliage. This reduced loss of water was attributed to thicker
wax layers on leaf surfaces that developed under elevated UV-B. Further work on the
interaction between elevated CO2 and UV-B has also been conducted. Both factors had some
influence on plant growth, including a general stimulation under elevated CO2 and mild
decreases under elevated UV-B. However, pronounced interactions between the two factors
have been less apparent in the recent work. In a similar vein, a study of plant nitrogen
nutrition and elevated UV-B showed that nitrogen-deficient plants were more UV-B
sensitive.

Investigations at the ecosystem level are particularly important, since it is clear that
extrapolation from studies with isolated plants to the ecosystem level is not reliable. Field
ecosystem-level studies continue, including those at high latitudes (closer to the poles) where
ozone reduction is most pronounced. Effects on plants are not always immediately apparent
in the first season, but can appear in subsequent years. Thus, it is quite important that field
ecosystem research of several years duration be conducted. Apart from direct effects on
vegetation, effects on litter decomposition, insect consumption of vegetation and plant-plant
competition are important secondary consequences of solar UV-B exposures that are being
reported. Recent studies of peat-forming mosses, which are very important in global carbon
storage, are not indicating reduced biomass accumulation under increased UV-B radiation.
Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems provide a significant share of the world's animal protein for human
consumption. Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. In addition, the
oceans play a key role with respect to global warming, because marine phytoplankton is a
major sink for atmospheric CO2. Recent studies continue to expand our knowledge of how
increased exposure to solar UV-B radiation affects the structure and function of aquatic
ecosystems and the consequent impact on global biogeochemical cycles.

Microbial mats, frequently the first colonizers of barren habitats, cover large areas in both
marine and freshwater ecosystems. The members of the communities optimize their position
in the mat by light-controlled vertical migration. Solar UV-B radiation has a negative effect
on the migration, and consequently affects colonization, photosynthetic yield and biomass
production. Cyanobacteria play a much larger role in biomass production than previously
thought. They are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and making it available for other
members of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. UV-B radiation impairs nitrogen uptake and
fixation, and thus has consequences for the availability of nitrogen compounds for natural and
crop communities. These effects of solar UV-B radiation are augmented by the effects on
cyanobacteria of toxic substances such as heavy metal pollutants.

Macroalgae and seagrasses are significant biomass producers in aquatic ecosystems and are
of major economic importance. Numerous recent studies have indicated that many organisms
(but not all) are under pronounced UV-B stress, even at current levels, and are likely to be
further influenced by increased UV-B levels. As in higher plants, macroalgae and
phytoplankton produce screening substances that protect the organisms against solar UV-B
radiation. These substances are also passed on to the primary and secondary consumers
through the food web. Some of these screening substances have been characterized and
identified in algae and cyanobacteria, while others have been observed but not yet chemically
identified. The efficiency of protection from thymine dimer production is being studied in
microorganisms during active and passive movement within the mixing layer of the water
column.

Both laboratory and field experiments suggest a direct impact of solar UV-B radiation on
primary and secondary consumers ranging from zooplankton to fish. Correlations have been
suggested between UV-B sensitivity and declines in both amphibians and corals. It has been
speculated that UV-B may be one of several environmental factors influencing these declines.

Particulate and dissolved organic matter are breakdown products from primary and secondary
biomass producers. The breakdown of these substances is augmented by solar UV-B
radiation which increases the rate of uptake by bacteria. On the other hand, UV-B radiation
has a negative impact on bacteria thus retarding the rate of degradation of organic material.
These conflicting effects are currently under study.

Monitoring programs for the assessment of enhanced UV-B are increasing in sophistication
and areal coverage. This includes the first underwater monitoring program aimed at providing
continuous assessment of UV-B penetration and in-water optical properties across a
latitudinal gradient in Europe. In-water constituents and the penetration of UV-B are
intimately linked. Dissolved organic material (DOM) as well as particulate organic material
(POM) significantly influence the penetration of UV-B in natural waters with absorption
strongly increasing at shorter wavelengths. In turn, this absorption may lead to
photobleaching of these constituents, altering the optical properties and leading to increased
UV-B penetration relative to longer wavelengths. Complex feedback mechanisms exist
between UV-B penetration, in-water optical properties that depend upon the concentration of
DOM and POM, and subsequent UV impact on community structure of aquatic ecosystems.
Acid deposition in boreal lakes, as well as re-oxidation of sediment sulfur resulting from
drought-induced acidification, can decrease the concentrations of DOM within the lakes
sufficiently to increase markedly the exposure of organisms to UV-B radiation. Continued
research is necessary to elucidate these linkages.

Potential consequences of enhanced levels of exposure to UV-B radiation include loss of

biomass such as food sources for humans, changes in species composition, decrease in
availability of nitrogen compounds, and reduced uptake capacity for atmospheric carbon
dioxide, augmenting global warming. Although there is significant evidence that increased
UV-B exposure is harmful to aquatic organisms, damage to ecosystems is still uncertain.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

Recent observational and theoretical evidence confirms the critical role of UV-B radiation in
influencing biogeochemical cycles through alterations in photobiological and photochemical
processes in the environment. These effects are manifested by changes in UV penetration into
aquatic environments, nutrient cycles, carbon capture and storage in the aquatic and terrestrial
environment, and the biosphere-atmosphere exchange of greenhouse and chemically-active
gases such as CO2 and carbon monoxide (CO).

During the past year, significant new evidence from outdoor studies has indicated that UV
penetration into freshwater and marine environments is primarily controlled by UV-absorbing
dissolved organic substances, referred to as chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM).
UV absorption by the CDOM results in its photodegradation and loss of absorbance or
bleaching that can result in an increase in the penetration of UV-B in lakes and oceans. A
study of the algal-derived pigments preserved in Canadian lake sediments has revealed a
possible link between climate change and UV exposure. Sedimentary profiles of the
occurrence of UV-induced pigments indicate that the greatest UV penetration correlated with
periods of drought, when levels of UV-absorbing CDOM in the lakes were minimal.

Other studies in lakes have confirmed that CDOM is photodegraded to CO2 as well as other
organic and inorganic photoproducts and oxygen is consumed. Among the identifiable
photoproducts are a large number of non-volatile, low-molecular-weight organic acids and
other carbonyl compounds that are readily assimilated by microorganisms. Laboratory
experiments using bacterial bioassay approaches have shown that the photochemical
breakdown of CDOM can stimulate biomass production or activity in batch cultures by
several fold. A recent report indicated that UV radiation photodegrades CDOM in rivers and
coastal environments to volatile organic compounds (VOC). Action spectra for VOC
photoproduction depend strongly on the VOC molecular structure, indicating that
photodegradation of several components of the CDOM may be involved. The production of
isoprene, an important precursor of tropospheric ozone, although resulting from the action of
solar radiation on marine phytoplankton, is unaffected by UV-B. An extensive new set of
action spectra for CO photoproduction in upper open ocean water from the Pacific Ocean was
similar in the UV region to previously reported action spectra for coastal and freshwater
environments. These data confirm that CO photoproduction is sensitive to changes in solar
UV-B radiation in both freshwater and marine environments. CO is an important trace gas
that strongly influences biogeochemical cycles through its effects on chemical reactions in
the atmosphere. New results confirm that the photoproduction of carbonyl sulfide, the most-
concentrated sulfur gas in the troposphere, correlates positively with UV irradiance and UV
absorbance by CDOM in the upper ocean.

Studies of UV effects on terrestrial biogeochemical cycles include recent outdoor

experiments on interactions between elevated UV-B radiation and other co-occurring
environmental change variables. Research has continued on UV-induced changes in plant
litter composition and their resulting effects on the microbial decomposability of litter. Newly
published studies have shown that enhanced UV-B radiation increases tannin, lignin and
other secondary compounds, thereby reducing the microbial digestibility of the litter from
mid-latitude dune grassland species and high latitude shrubs. New evidence has appeared that
UV-B photodegrades the lignaceous component of surface litter and dissolved organic matter
in the sea. Studies of the effects of enhanced UV-B and elevated CO2 have indicated no
combined effects on CO2 respired from sub-arctic shrub litter. Recent climate changes are
enhancing fire frequency and extent in the boreal forest. Increased boreal fires may be having
important regional effects on the UV-induced release of CO from the forest to the
atmosphere. Although the floors of mature boreal forests generally take up CO via microbial
oxidation processes, the charred surface residues following fire produce high levels of CO on
exposure to solar UV radiation. The production is sufficiently large that the burned forest
becomes a net source of CO to the atmosphere.

Trifluoroacetate (TFA), a persistent substance derived from the oxidation of certain CFC
replacements (HCFC-123, HCFC-124, HCFC-134a), was found to be retained in vegetation
and soil of a temperate North American forest, especially in the case of wetlands with organic
soils. The potential buildup of TFA in the atmosphere and in localized water reservoirs such
as vernal ponds requires multi-year monitoring.

Effects on Air Quality

Reductions in stratospheric ozone lead to increased penetration of UV-B radiation to the

lower atmosphere, and therefore to a general increase in the photochemical reactivity of the
troposphere. These changes are believed to affect concentrations of key tropospheric gases
such as ozone (the major constituent of urban photochemical smog), peroxides (important
contributors to the acidification of rain) and the hydroxyl radical (OH), which is the major
oxidant responsible for the atmospheric residence time of species such as carbon monoxide,
methane, VOC, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and other constituents including many substitutes
for ozone-depleting substances. However, the magnitude and even the sign of the
tropospheric composition responses to increased UV-B levels depend on the chemical
environment, especially the local amounts of nitrogen oxides, VOC, and water vapour.

Recent modelling studies confirm and extend earlier work showing that remote regions
should experience lower tropospheric O3 levels due to enhanced UV-B radiation, and higher
OH concentrations leading to shortened lifetimes for many atmospheric constituents as well
as to higher levels of peroxides. However, the newest study also suggests that such effects
will be rather minor in the upper troposphere due to the low levels of water vapour present at
those altitudes. Another recently published study illustrates the effect of stratospheric
perturbations on tropospheric chemistry by showing increases in tropical tropospheric
methane and carbon monoxide for several months following the Mt. Pinatubo eruption, which
injected large amounts of UV-absorbing sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere and thus
temporarily reduced tropospheric OH radical production.

Materials Damage

An increase in solar UV-B may result in shortening of useful lifetimes of plastics and
increase the cost of using plastics, particularly in building applications.

Studies reported during the past year have added significantly to the understanding of spectral
sensitivity of several widely used plastics. These included polyethylenes, acrylic polymers,
nylon and textile materials. The findings are consistent with those for other polymers already
investigated and quantify the spectral dependence of photodegradation. These data are useful
for future cost estimates on the impacts of increased UV radiation in relation to materials
damage. A report on the effect of nine types of common brominated flame retardant additives
on the spectral sensitivity of polyolefins and polystyrene indicated a shift in the action
spectrum to shorter wavelengths and increase in the UV-B induced degradation of the
polymers. Plastics generally include flame-retardants and other additives to ensure
processibility and performance, and their effect on the photodegradability of the polymer is of
practical interest.

Data on the UV-susceptibility of two biopolymers, chitosan and collagen have also been
recently reported, clarifying the chemistry of UV-induced oxidative processes and the
spectral sensitivity of the degradation process. However, these findings should be considered
preliminary because the sample preparation process may have changed the chemistry of
biomaterials used in these studies.

Early data from controlled-temperature outdoor exposure experiments on polyethylene films

illustrated the role of temperature in enhancing and supplementing the sunlight-induced
degradation. At least in the case of polyethylene, the increased damage by an incremental
increase in UV-B in sunlight is likely to be largely influenced by ambient temperature of the
exposure location. Effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, and the subsequent increased
UV-B radiation, on the useful lifetimes of plastics will be more severe in locations that
experience high ambient temperatures. Understanding the role of temperature, together with
UV-B irradiation, is scientifically and economically important.
Ways to Reduce Ozone Loss

Best way is to stop producing all ozone-depleting chemicals. Still will take decades to return
to normal levels (prior to 1950).

A number of substitute compounds already exist to replace CFCs, including HCFC, HFC,
HC, ammonia, H2O, terpenes, and helium. Some deplete ozone at a greatly reduced rate and
some also are greenhouse gases. There is no single answer.

Recent agreements have led to the international phasing out of CFCs. Worldwide production
is down over 80% since 1988. This should result in a stabilization of ozone levels 10-30%
lower than present by 2080 in the northern hemisphere.

Unfortunately, China and India have not signed these agreements, other countries are not
meeting their obligations, and there is a black market for CFCs in the U.S. where they are
now illegal. May prolong ozone depletion into the 22nd century.

Solutions to Ozone Depletion

1. Desist from using pesticides

Pesticides are great chemicals to rid your farm of pests and weeds, but they contribute
enormously to ozone layer depletion. The surefire solution to get rid of pests and weeds is to
apply natural methods. Just weed your farm manually and use alternative eco-
friendly chemicals to alleviate pests.

2. Discourage driving of private vehicles

The easiest technique to minimize ozone depletion is to limit the number of vehicles on the
road. These vehicles emit a lot of greenhouse gases that eventually form smog, a catalyst in
the depletion of ozone layer.

3. Utilize environmentally friendly cleaning products

Most household cleaning products are loaded with harsh chemicals that find way to the
atmosphere, eventually contributing to degradation of the ozone layer. Use natural
and environmentally friendly cleaning products to arrest this situation.

4. Prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide

The Montreal Protocol formed in 1989 helped a lot in the limitation of Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs). However, the protocol never covered nitrous oxide, which is a known harmful
chemical that can destroy the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide is still in use today. Governments
must take action now and outlaw nitrous oxide use to reduce the rate of ozone depletion.