Overview of Simplified Mathematical Models of
Batteries
Sergei Melentjev, Deniss Lebedev
Tallinn University of Technology (Estonia)
sergei.melentjev@gmail.com
Abstract— This paper describes the composition of the
mathematical model of battery behaviour with subsequent
implementation of this model in virtual simulation environment.
Three battery types are modelled and each one is described
through the appropriate model. Models are based on the real-
world counterparts, so after the simulation of different models
with a number of common parameters and same load, it is
possible to evaluate the effectiveness of each battery type for
supplying specific load in theory.
I. INTRODUCTION
One of the most significant barriers in the development,
commercialization and popularization of electric vehicles is
the battery capacity. Even though modern technological
advances offer numerous ways to preserve electrical energy
in different devices, the mass and environmental restrictions
of electric vehicles allow primarily accumulator batteries as
the source of current for the electric drive in a car.
Batteries are also of numerous varieties, but all of them
share common flaws, such as low energy capacity versus size
and poor perfomance in cold conditions. Also, there is a
problem of battery capacity derating, as effective capacity
value is getting lower and lower in time with such factors as
temperature and battery improper handling speeding up the
rate of the derating process. Proper storage and work
conditions can help with slowing down the battery ageing
process, as well as careful charge and discharge control.
However, these measures can become quite expensive, so
there is a need to properly examine their effect on the battery
cycle life.
This makes the task of choosing the right battery type of
utmost importance, as even the slightest differences in
parameters may cause drastic changes in the behaviour of
electric vehicle. There are also economic considerations, such
as price and lead-times for mass production, life expectancy
and maintenance requirements. However, the choice for the
latter part can be considerably simplified by choosing from
the most popular battery types currently on the market, as
they tend to match the required economic criteria more, than
those developed for specific purposes. For this research, three
of the common battery types were chosen for model
development and software simulation with approximated load
of an electric vehicle, so that it may be possible to propose
most suitable technological solution for real-life experiments.
II. BATTERY MODELS
A. Overview
Most existing models for the simulation of battery
behaviour can be divided into three sub-groups:
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• Experimental
• Electrochemical
• Electrical
First two models are not suitable to correctly simulate
battery dynamics [1]. However, specially developed electric-
circuit based models can be used for accurate prediction of
charge and discharge of batteries, taking state of charge into
account.
The model used in this article allows simulation of battery
dynamics using only the data from battery manufacturers’
datasheet, and also there are only minor differences in models
representing different battery types.
Because all the different parameters for comparison of
different kinds of battery types are many, at the moment of
writing this paper only mathematics of charging and
discharging are considered.
This model allows easy modification and further
development, for example reaction to temperature, charging
algorithms according to price and battery ageing phenomenon
can be added at a later stage of work.
B. Model Description
The general equation for the used battery model is the
following equation:
Q Q
V = E0 − K it − K i − R ⋅ i + C, (1)
Q − it Q − it
where
V – actual battery voltage (V)
E0 – battery constant voltage (V)
K – polarization resistance (Ω)
Q – battery capacity (Ah)
it – actual battery charge (Ah)
A – exponential zone amplitude (V)
B – exponential zone time constant inverse (Ah-1)
R – battery internal resistance (Ω)
i – actual battery current (A)
C – exponential voltage (V)
All of the parameters, mentioned above, should be openly
available from the manufacturer’s datasheet. However,
polarization resistance K, exponential zone amplitude A and
exponential zone time constant inverse K should be
calculated from the discharge curve of the battery.
The necessary parameters for calculations are shown on
Fig. 1.
 where

C = A ⋅ e ( − B ⋅it ) . (10)

Charge

Q Q
V = E0 − K it − K i − R ⋅ i + C , (11)
Q − it it − 0 ,1 ⋅ Q

where C is defined by (9).

C = A ⋅ e ( − B ⋅it ) . (12)

• Ni-Mh
Discharge mode is defined by (5) and (6).
Fig. 1. Example discharge curve. Charging is given in equations (8) and (13).

Q Q
The equations are as follows: V = E0 − K it − K i − R ⋅ i + C . (13)
Q − it it − 0 ,1 ⋅ Q

A = V full − V exp . (2)

C. Load Parameters
3 (3) For the simulated load of the battery, electric car drive was
B= . chosen, as it is a well-demanded application and also a good
Q exp
testing ground for the batteries due to its dynamic nature, so it
satisfies both demands for practical usage of the test result
To calculate E0, the following equation must be used [2]:
and suitable simulation environment.
The dynamic behavior of the electric car drive in motion is
E 0 = V full + K + R ⋅ i − A. (4)
the same as of the inner combustion engine [3]. Typically,
there are periods of acceleration and deceleration as well as
Due to the different nature of the chemical materials, used prolonged periods of driving with constant speed or waiting.
in different types of batteries, equations for the simulation of Typical load cycle of the electric vehicle in natural
these batteries also differ: conditions is presented in Table I.
• Lead Acid
Discharge TABLE I
BATTERY LOAD CYCLES
Q Q (5)
V = E0 − K it − K i − R ⋅ i + C, Multiple of discharge current C Time (s)
Q − it Q − it 3 60
2 60
-1.5 10
where 1 60
3.8 25
C = B ⋅ i ⋅ ( − C + A ). (6) 1.0 50
4.0 50
3.2 120
Charge -2 20
0 25

Q Q
V = E0 − K it − K i − R ⋅ i + C , (7) It is assumed that the mentioned cycle occurs again and
Q − it it − 0 ,1 ⋅ Q again until battery charge level drops below some defined
state of charge. Then, we imagine that the vehicle is brought
where to the charging station and charged with appropriate charge
current until it is sufficiently charged. Then the cycle is
C = B ⋅ i ⋅ ( − C ). (8) repeated once again until the simulation time expires.
Allowable levels of charge and discharge, as well as
• Li-Ion appropriate current values are given in manufacturer’s
Discharge datasheet. For this research, it is stated that batteries operate
at nominal temperature, and that electrochemical processes
Q Q inside the batteries cause no heating. Also, no aging effects
V = E0 − K it − K i − R ⋅ i + C, (9)
are taken into account for the current version of the model.
Q − it Q − it

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 All of the simulated batteries share the same input signals,
but are configured and limited by their nominal and
maximum or minimum required parameters. Comparison is
also based on the common outputs for all three batteries.
III. BATTERY MODELS
A. Overview
The model is built using the MATLAB R2012a Simulink
software by The MathWorks, Inc. The model itself represents
the equations described in previous section but is built from
the Simulink function blocks. The equation is subdivided into
several sub-sections for the ease of presentation and
modification.
it = ∫ idt . (14)
The result of (14) is in Ampere-seconds, so we need to
additionally divide this value by 3600 to get standard
Ampere-hours.
Actual state of charge is calculated in relation to nominal
charge and varies between 1 (fully charged) and 0 (fully
discharged).
D. Polarization Voltage Block
Fig. 4 shows the polarization voltage according to (1).
Exact formula for polarization voltage, which the according
Simulink block is based upon, is given in the (15).

B. Current Block Q
V pol = K ⋅ it . (15)
Current block
Q − it
-60

Charge current, A Polarization voltage block

[SOC]
[K]
Charge limits
>0 [I]

Charge/Discharge [Q]
Load cycle

50 [Vpol]
[Q]
Discharge current, A Polarization voltage

Fig. 2. Block for current calculation. [it]

Fig. 2 shows Simulink diagram for the calculation of Fig. 4. Polarization Voltage Block.
charge or discharge current. Charging is made with constant
current, while discharge current follows the load profile.
Switching between charging and discharging is made using E. Polarization Resistor Block
the state of charge signal. When the battery reaches certain
level of discharge, then battery begins to charge up to a Fig. 5 shows the polarization resistance calculation for
certain level; afterwards the next load cycle begins. Values of different types of batteries and according to charge and
the state of charge signal, at which the switching occurs, are discharge regimes.
Polarization resistance block
defined by the battery type and manufacturer.
[K]
C. State of Charge Block
[Q]
Fig. 3 shows the calculation of the state of charge through [Rpol]

calculating the actual charge first. Polarization resistance

[it]
SOC block
[I] >0

[I] 1 [it]
-1/3600
s Charge/Discharge2
[Q]
As As to Ah
0.1

[it] [it]

|u|
[SOC]
Li-Ion or Lead/Ni-Mh

[Q]
Fig. 5. Polarization Resistance Block.

Fig. 3. State of charge block.

The Simulink model represents the following equations.

Charge of the battery is calculated with the following Q (16)

R pol = K .
formula. Q − it

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 Q (17) • Li-Ion HETER 12V/30AH
R pol = K .
it − 0 ,1 ⋅ Q
Q • TABLE III
R pol =K . (18)
it − 0 ,1 ⋅ Q • LI-ION BATTERY PARAMETERS
Parameter Value
Q 30 Ah
Equation (16) is for discharging of all types of batteries, A 0.5 V
(17) is for charging of Li-Ion or Lead-Acid batteries and (18) B 3 Ah-1
is for discharging of Ni-Mh type of batteries. E0 12 V
R 0.030 Ω
F. Exponential Block K 0.0010 Ω

Fig. 6 demonstrates the Simulink modeling of the

• Ni-Mh EVB TECHNOLOGY 10/GP30EVH
exponential part of battery voltage. This part is described
through equations (6), (8) and (10).
• TABLE IV
Li-Ion
• NI-MH BATTERY PARAMETERS
[A]
Parameter Value
Q 30 Ah
A 1.5 V
[B]
B 0.4 Ah-1
E0 12.77 V
[it] eu R 0.0011 Ω
K 0.006 Ω

-1
[C]
For the battery parameters it is assumed, that the internal
resistance is constant, the nominal capacity is constant, there
Li-Ion/Lead or Ni-Mh
Lead-Acid and Ni-Mh
is no self-discharge, there is no memory effect, maximum
SOC is 100%, temperature has no effect on parameters, there
[B]
is an unlimited cycle life with no derating and there are no
environmental considerations.
[I] |u|
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
[A]
A. Overview
>0
Simulation starts with zero charge, and then continues to
0 Charge/Discharge1 rise until 75% of SOC is achieved. Then, battery is put to
work until it reaches 30% of discharge, and it starts charging
[C]
up to 75% again. Charging is done with nominal 1 hour
charge current corresponding to each battery, and discharge
current C is 20A. The simulation results are presented in
-1
graphs of 2 cycle and number of full cycles for 24 hours.
Fig. 6. Exponential Block. B. Lead-Acid
Fig. 7 shows two charge/discharge cycles.

IV. BATTERY DATA

The target of this research is to compare and analyze the
behavior of three types of batteries that can be used for
energy source in electric vehicle. Among each battery type,
the most typical variants were chosen among. The
corresponding batteries are as follows:
• Lead Acid Panasonic VRLA LC-XC1228

• TABLE II
• LEAD-ACID BATTERY PARAMETERS
Parameter Value
Q 28 Ah Fig. 7. Lead-Acid Cycle.
A 1.1 V
B 6.52 Ah-1
Simulation of 24 hours resulted in 30 full cycles.
E0 11.67 V It also should be noted that for VRLA batteries a discharge
R 0.008 Ω down to 30% of nominal capacity results in cycle life of about
K 0.0012 Ω 600 to 800 charge/discharge cycles.

234
C. Li-Ion
Fig. 8 shows two charge/discharge cycles.
Fig. 8. Li-Ion Cycle.
Simulation of 24 hours resulted in 29 full cycles.
For Li-Ion it is also common to have 600 to 800 full
charge/discharge cycles down to 30% of original capacity.
D. Ni-Mh
Fig. 9 shows two charge/discharge cycles.
Fig. 9. Ni-Mh Cycle.
Simulation of 24 hours resulted in 29 full cycles. For Ni-
Mh batteries it is expected to discharge to 30% of nominal
charge capacity in about 600 to 800 cycles, same as Lead-
Acid and Li-Ion batteries. Considering more or less the same
theoretical life expectancy of different batteries, it should be
noted that environmental conditions and charging/discharging
behavior affect life expectancy of different batteries in a
different way.
235
VI. CONCLUSION
A. Simulation Result Evaluation
According to the test results, there is only a minor
difference in the performance of different battery types.
However, since real-life experiments with the same samples
are not done at the moment, no evaluation of model value can
be done. Also, since there are numerous simplifications in
calculations, simulation results cannot serve as a basis for
economically right choice for the power supply of the electric
vehicle. There are numerous things that need further attention
before model effectiveness can be verified.
However, since the target of this work was to create
working model and perform three simulations of different
batteries using it, the mission can be considered successfully
accomplished.
B. Issues, Which Require Solving
Firstly, comparison with real-life test data is required to
verify how much model deviates from reality in its current
state.
Secondly, battery selection criteria should be redefined,
since even batteries of the same type and nominal capacity
can vary greatly in parameters, so comparing batteries of
different quality has no point.
Also, battery parameters should be calculated based on the
real measurement, not on the manufacturer data. Some
manufacturers provide inaccurate data, and some
unconventional parameters are just roughly estimated.
And lastly, in order to be able to make full use of the
model, cycle life deterioration should be introduced, as well
as temperature effects.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors thank the Estonian Archimedes Foundation
(Project “Doctoral School of Energy and Geotechnology II“)
for financial support.
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[2] D. Istardi “Modeling and energy consumption determination of an
electric Go-kart” Chalmers University of Technology, 2009.
[3] E. Martinez-Rosas, R. Vasquez-Medrano. and A. Flores-Tlacuahuac,
“Modeling and simulation of lithium-ion batteries” Computers and
Chemical Engineering, vol. 35, pp. 1937-1948, May 2011.
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